Remote Management Annotated Bibliography | MERCY CORPS 1

REMOTE MANAGEMENT ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY JUNE, 2015

This annotated bibliography provides an overview of literature related to remote management in humanitarian settings. The resources presented here are illustrative of the bulk of the literature on the topic and include both academic discourses as well as publically available organizational documents. Abild, Erik. (2009). Creating Humanitarian Space: A Case Study of Somalia. UNHCR Research Paper No. 184. http://www.unhcr.org/4b2a035e9.html

Abild’s biggest contribution to the discussion on remote management is what he terms “responsibility transfer,” (p. 12). That is, organizations may blame or rationalize operational problems by attributing it to remote management. Abild’s main thesis it that, rather than solely reacting to security dynamics, humanitarian actors play a role in creating the humanitarian space in which they operate (p. 25).

Carle, Alexandre and Hakim Chkam. (2006). Humanitarian Action in the New Security Environment: Policy and operational implications in Iraq. HPG Background Paper. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/397.pdf

This paper’s examination of humanitarian actors in Iraq is a useful way of examining the advantages and disadvantages of remote management. Its discussion of the lack of distinction between aid workers and the occupation of Iraq proves an interesting counter to the “aid-worker as impartial” narrative (p. iii). It outlines the differences between remote management, remote control, and remote support, and argues that, in the case of Iraq, a remote support strategy for nationalizing staff is the best option. In looking at organizations operating in Iraq overall, Carle and Chkam argue that the development of remote management strategies was ad-hoc and that staff responsible for implementing remote strategies tended to have no prior experience doing so. However, this critique neglects to explore why a coherent strategy across organizations would be beneficial. In the discussion, the authors take the stance that the most ‘rigid’ organizations adopted remote control, while the most ‘flexible’ adopted remote support, thereby giving national staff more decision-making power (p. 31).

Collinson, Sarah and Mark Duffield. (2013). Paradoxes of Presence: Risk management and aid culture in challenging environments. HPG. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8428.pdf

This report, commissioned by ESRC/DFID, is largely a critical response to Egeland et al.’s Stay and Deliver. It argues that the “aid industry” has neglected to address the implications and consequences of an increased reliance on remote management strategies. The authors agree with Hammond and Vaughan-Lee’s (2012) argument about the increased interaction between military and security actors and civilian entities. They assert that “arm’s length aid management” inevitably transfers risk to national and local staff. Additionally, Collinson and Duffield critique Egeland et al., for failing to recognize the assumptions that national and local staff are safer, when in fact, “particular ethnic, religious, or other identity or affiliations or resulting from their position as agency representatives and gatekeepers,” (p. 22) may put them at greater risk.

Donini, Antonio and Daniel Maxwell. (2014). From face-to-face to face-to-screen: remote management, effectiveness and accountability of humanitarian action in insecure environments. International Review of the Red Cross. http://www.alnap.org/resource/12741

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A very critical article that aims to analyze the issues associated with growing use of remote management. The definition of remote management that the authors use is similar to OCHA’s in that it is a response to deteriorating security, whereby international staff members are withdrawn from program sites in a departure from ‘normal’ programming (p. 386). This article’s clear and strong stance against remote management likens remote management to ‘bunkerization’ of aid workers and argues that there is a correlation between increased availability of distance technologies and the increased use of remote management. Interestingly, it mentions the possibility of the next technological step being to use drones to deliver aid. According to Donini, this fundamentally changes the relationship of aid from “the time-tested anthropological-type approaches for understanding local situations” to “cyber-humanitarianism,” (p. 411). Despite being quite disparaging about remote management, at the conclusion, this article says that “remote technologies are obviously here to stay. If they are to have a progressive future, however, they need demilitarizing and opening to greater democratic control,” (p. 412).

ECHO. (n.d.). Instruction note for ECHO staff on Remote Management. http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/partners/humanitarian_aid/Remote_Management_instructions.pdf

ECHO’s strict stance against funding programs which use remote management is based on three considerations: 1) ECHO is a field-based donor, 2) Remote management entails significant risks, and 3) Building acceptance remains the best access strategy. It argues that the best way to gain access and avoid security risks is to “build acceptance” (p. 3), but fails to discuss the limitations (ie. time constraints, with which population/group if there is a conflict, etc.) of this approach.

Egeland, Jan, Adele Harmer, and Abby Stoddard. (2011). To Stay and Deliver: Good practice for humanitarians in complex security environments. OCHA. https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/Stay_and_Deliver.pdf

This study presents remote management as an alternative to ‘bunkerization’ and argues that while it makes effective and accountable programming challenging, there are “promising practical innovations,” (p. 2). Egeland et al. cite organizations most successful at maintaining access as being those which have combined localized programming having a high degree of local acceptance with low visibility at the national level (p. 3). The authors point out that there are few examples of best practices in providing adequate security and support, while at the same time, increasing capacity for national staff. It concludes with broad recommendations/ good practice for gaining and maintaining access, and a discussion of various acceptance-based approaches including, negotiated access; localized or devolved management strategies; low-profile approaches; protective measures; deterrent measures; and other operational measures.

Fast, Larissa, Elizabeth Rowley, Michael O’Neill, and Faith Freeman. (2011). The Promise of Acceptance: Insights into acceptance as a security management approach from research in Kenya, South Sudan, and Uganda. Save the Children. https://acceptanceresearch.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/finalreport_copyedited-for-print.pdf

This is the final project document for an 18-month project funded by OFDA which explored acceptance as a way to address security concerns. It argues that organizations “need to consider various ways to more systematically integrate an acceptance approach as part of good programming and effective security management,” (p. 3). It does not refer to remote management, but is included here as it is one of the more-commonly cited sources on acceptance.

Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. (2011). Humanitarian Access in Situations of Armed Conflict. http://www.cdint.org/documents/FDFA_Humanitarian%20Access_Field%20Manual.pdf

This manual outlines a legal and logistical framework for gaining humanitarian access in response to specific access issues, including bureaucratic constraints, targeting of personnel, and conflict environments. The starting points for designing remote access programming are quite basic and drawn predominately from Stoddard et al.’s Once Removed.

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Global Protection Cluster. (2012). Seminar on Humanitarian Access, Protection and Assistance Under Constraints. http://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/_assets/files/news_and_publications/GPC_Thematic_Seminar_Humanitarian_Access_Final_2012_EN.pdf

This paper, from the summary conclusions of the 2012 GPC Seminar, says that panelists generally agreed that “the success of remote management has been difficult to measure,” (p. 5). The Access Monitoring & Reporting Framework (AMRF) has context-specific indicators for protection concerns and this summary argues that negotiations with governments and NSAs should be more focused on urgent needs (p. 6).

Hammond, Laura and Hannah Vaughan-Lee. (2012). Humanitarian Space in Somalia: A Scarce Commodity. HPG Working Paper. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7646.pdf

This paper argues that the restrictive and insecure environment of Somalia is a direct result of the “political economy of aid” (p. 2), whereby legal and illegal transactions have so eroded stakeholder’s trust in humanitarian actors. As a result, since 2007, organizations have increasingly used remote management strategies. It discusses the assumptions embedded in a switch to remote management, including: that national staff are safer than international staff, that national staff are more willing to expose themselves to risk, and that the cost (financial and reputational) to the organization are lower if an attack against national staff occurs (p. 11). It concludes with the argument that humanitarian assistance is inherently political and must therefore asses the limitations of access and protection in these contexts.

Hansen, Greg. (2008). Adapting to Insecurity in Iraq. Briefing Paper 1. https://www.eisf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/0145-Hansen-2008-Adapting-to-insecurity-in-Iraq.pdf

Hansen, in discussing issues of access, argues that remote programming is “at odds with the operational approach of proximity to victims,” (p. 2), which he argues is essential for “animating creativity, a sense of urgency, and a willingness to take risks.” Without this relationship, there is not only increased geographic distance, but also increased psychological distance between aid workers and beneficiaries. In the context of Iraq, Hansen argues that organizations with a smaller footprint are more able to operate without armed protection (p. 4).

Herbert, Sian. (2013). Remote Management of Projects in Fragile States. GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report. http://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/HDQ908.pdf

This report provides a broad overview of the literature on remote management and discusses two examples of the use of remote management: The UNDP in Somalia and Tearfund in Afghanistan. It provides a helpful discussion of trends, including increased use of remote management and the idea that it is a ‘last resort’ as well as different forms of remote management, including remote control, remote management, remote support/oversight, and remote partnership (p. 3).

Howe, Kimberly, Elizabeth Sites, and Danya Chudacoff. (2015). Breaking the Hourglass: Partnerships in Remote Management Settings—The Cases of Syria and Iraqi Kurdistan. Feinstein International Center. http://fic.tufts.edu/assets/Breakingthe-Hourglass_Syria_Iraqi-Kurdistan.pdf

This study sought to answer the following questions: How do international organizations identify local partners? How do international organizations assess and build the capacity of these partners? How are monitoring, accountability, and learning (MEAL) conducted in these settings? How do local partners prepare for eventual donor withdrawal? It acknowledges that while remote management has been temporary or last-resort in other contexts (i.e. Sudan, Iraq, or Afghanistan), in Syria, remote management has been a dominant part of aid operations. It raises the question as to whether there is evidence that donors are less willing to fund remotely managed projects.

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Humanitarian Practice Network at ODI. (2010). Humanitarian Security Management. http://www.odihpn.org/documents/humanitarianexchange047.pdf

This issue focuses on safety and security for humanitarian staff and discusses a number of different approaches to aid delivery in insecure environments. In its brief discussion of remote management, it argues that it is generally a reactive response to deteriorating security. In a chapter on NGO programs in Darfur, it discusses the ways in which remote programming has transferred risk to local staff. However, the nuances of this are presented in a discussion of how national staff may, in fact, be safer due to their increased understanding of the context or may be more at risk due to their “ethnicity or perceived political allegiance,” (p. 27).

Humanitarian Outcomes. (2013). The New Normal: Coping with the kidnapping threat. Aid Worker Security Report. https://www.humanitarianoutcomes.org/sites/default/files/HO_AidWorkerSectyReport_2013_0.pdf

This fourth edition of the Aid Worker Security Report provides statistics on violence against humanitarian workers in Part I and examines kidnapping in detail in Part II. The data shows an increase in the number of attacks, but a decrease in the rates of violence if one is to consider per capita data. In the discussion on kidnapping, this report points out that it is rare for an organization to leave completely, but that it may restrict movement or switch to remote programming. It cautions against remote programming due to the potential to transfer risk to “less well-resourced entities,” (p. 10). For more recent data on attacks on aid workers, see Humanitarian Outcomes. (2014). Unsafe Passage: Road attacks and their impact of humanitarian operations. Aid Worker Security Report. https://www.humanitarianoutcomes.org/sites/default/files/Aid%20Worker%20Security%20Report%202014.pdf

Humanitarian Practice Network at ODI. (2010). Operational Security Management in Violent Environments. www.odihpn.org/download/gpr_8_revised2pdf

This book is an updated manual for humanitarian security, in response to increased kidnappings and attacks on aid workers. It argues that although remote management practices have been taking place for some time, the prevalence is increasing due to increased risks to aid workers as well as technology developments which allow for more remote monitoring (p. 95). Of note, it argues that the lack of organizational guidelines and procedures on remote management is problematic given its widespread use (p. 96).

IASC. (2010). Evaluation of the Humanitarian Response in South Central Somalia, 2005-2010. http://www.oecd.org/derec/SomaliaDARA.pdf

This independent evaluation of humanitarian aid in South-Central Somalia between the years 2005-2010 is one of the most comprehensive evaluations ever conducted. It highlights the use of remote management as one particularly innovative response to the conflict and resulting security considerations. It discusses issues of risk transfer, access to information from the field, and the advantages of remote management strategies over ‘bunkerization.’ It posits that humanitarian organizations may need to consider remote management over the long term, rather than assuming it is exclusively a temporary response (p. 52).

Integrity Research & Consultancy and Axiom Monitoring and Evaluation. (2015). Cross-Cutting Evaluation of DFID’s Approach to Remote Management in Somalia and North-East Kenya. Evaluation Report. http://www.integrityresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/150211-RPM-TPM-Evaluation-Final-Report.pdf

This report is a very thorough (and rare in that it was produced by outside consultants) examination of DFID’s programming in Somalia and North-East Kenya. Their discussion of methodology attests to the lack of shared understanding and the sensitive nature of remote management amongst implementing partners. Of note is the recommendation, based on their findings, that DFID should lead coordination and systematic engagement around remote management in the region, and specifically should “build consensus around minimum M&E

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and accountability standards for remote programme management,” (p. vii). The biggest contribution of this document is how it outlines risks to the program cycle as a result of limited access, from program design to choice of implementing partners, to implementation, to monitoring (p. 7). Additionally, it discusses at length, the remote management practices in each country as well as different methods for monitoring, which are specific and well-presented (p. 12-20).

Norman, Bryony. (2011). Effective Monitoring and Beneficiary Accountability Practices for Projects Implemented Remotely in Insecure Environments. Humanitarian Innovations Fund. http://www.alnap.org/resource/7955

This research draws on interviews and surveys with the staff of 28 organizations about the impacts of remote management on project monitoring and beneficiary accountability. Key findings include: o 9 organizations (32%) oppose remote management in any circumstances o Of 14 INGOs surveyed using remote management, just 2 have formal policy on doing so o 14 (50%) INGOs expressed deterioration in program quality as an issue o 13 out of 28 INGOs expressed concern about effective and rigorous monitoring o 11 out of 28 INGOs were concerned about reduced visits to program sites o 11 out of 28 INGOs identified capacity of personnel as a substantial issue o 10 out of 28 INGOs expressed concern about communication between office and field o 6 out of 28 INGOs recognized increased risk of fraud and corruption

Persiani, Marta. (2012). Accountability to Affected Populations in Limited or No-Access Areas. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/emergencies/docs/AAP%20in%20Conflict%20and%20Limited%20Access%20Zones.pdf

This paper focuses on the participation of beneficiaries and the challenges that remote management presents to beneficiary accountability. It discusses two models of remote management: “soft,” which means locally-employed staff on the ground that are managed remotely and “remote” which means utilizing partner organizations. It discusses a number of issues pertaining to accountability in remotely managed contexts, including: communication and information flow; participative approaches; and feedback and complaint mechanisms.

Renouf, Jean. (2011). Understanding How the Identity of International Aid Agencies and Their Approaches to Security are Mutually Shaped. DPhil thesis at The London School of Economics. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/171/1/Renouf_Understanding_How_the_Identity_of_International_Aid_Agencies_and_Their_Approaches_to_Security_Are_Mutually_Shaped.pdf

This qualitative study of aid organizations in Haiti and Afghanistan seeks to understand how aid organizations conceptualize and practice security and what the implications of each approach are for target populations. It uses a critical constructivist approach to argue that aid agencies’ identities and interests are co-constructed. That is to say, organizations play a role in building and reproducing a certain security environment depending on their approach (for example, hiring military protection). Renouf’s main contribution is that security approaches need to be reflexive about how organizations’ identity affects security decision.

Rogers, Colin. (2006). Accessing the Inaccessible: The Use of Remote Programming Strategies in Highly Insecure Countries to Ensure the Provision of Humanitarian Assistance Iraq: A Case Study. Dissertation submitted to the University of York. https://www.eisf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/0055-Rogers-2006-The-Use-of-Remote-Programming-Strategies-in-Highly-Insecure-Countries-to-Ensure-the-Provision-of-Humanitarian-Assistance-Iraq.pdf

This detailed case study presents three NGOs and their use of remote management, remote control, and remote support. It argues that the transfer of risk potential means that remote programming should not be

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the default when NGOs cannot deploy international staff (p. 50). As a graduate dissertation, much of the paper focuses on research methodologies, however, Rogers’ discussion of criteria for different remote programming strategies (p. 77-80) may be useful for organizations operating in insecure countries.

Schreter, Lisa and Adele Harmer. (2013). Delivering Aid in Highly Insecure Environments: A Critical Review of the Literature, 2007-2012I. Humanitarian Outcomes. http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/Hum_Response/60995-Delivering_aid_in_highly_insecure_environments_final_report.pdf

This comprehensive literature review helps to situate remote management practices in the wider discussion of humanitarian assistance in insecure environments. It argues that the discussion on remote management tends to be dominated by practitioners (and primarily qualitative), with relatively little published in academic journals. Thus, there lacks a shared understanding of the most effective strategies for ensuring quality and accountability across organizations. Additionally, due to the reliance on emerging technologies to implement remote management programs, there is a lag in analysis and guidance on the use of these technologies. Schreter and Harmer indirectly critique ECHO’s reliance on acceptance and negotiation as a panacea for access issues (p. 21). Its biggest contribution to the discussion on remote management is its outline of sector-specific strategies, including for health-care, WASH, shelter, education, and protection (p. 26-27).

Souness, Colleen. (2011). Monitoring and Beneficiary Accountability in Remote Managed Locations. Tearfund Afghanistan. www.alnap.org/resource/7593

This paper is an external evaluation of Tearfund’s monitoring programs in Kandahar. Based on the findings, Souness argues that monitoring in remotely managed projects should be ‘mixed-method,’ (p. v). Most useful is a Venn-diagram (p. 4), which provides a visual way of thinking about the ways in which M&E strategies overlap or diverge in remote management contexts. It provides a tool-kit type model (p.11) for different in-field monitoring practices, such as peer monitoring, beneficiary feedback, etc., which may be useful for developing organizational M&E strategies. It also charts the strengths and weaknesses of monitoring practices for in-field monitoring, operational monitoring, and building M&E capacity, with clear designation for remote management-specific activities (p. 14). This type of presentation may be a bit binary for the nuance of remote-management, but includes some less-commonly mentioned advantages and disadvantages.

Steets, Julia, Urban Reichhold, and Elias Sagmeister. (2012). Evaluation and review of humanitarian access strategies in DG ECHO funded interventions. http://ec.europa.eu/echo/files/evaluation/2012/GPPi_Access-Report.pdf

This evaluation is based on a literature review and 388 interviews with donors, organizations, and local authorities to examine the relevant access constraints and how humanitarian organizations are overcoming them. It outlines three strategies: persuading those in control (advocacy), mitigating security risks, or operating through remote management. Notably, the evaluation found that UN agencies are increasingly outsourcing large operations to private contractors. Given that these contractors are also contracting with international organizations for political or military purposes, this raises some concern for the authors. It outlines how DG ECHO funds remote operations only when they have done the following: addressed risk transfer, attempted to build acceptance, specified technical capacity of field staff, made contingency plans for deteriorating access, adapted monitoring procedures, located senior staff as close as possible, and limited use of contractors or sub-contractors for implementation. Based on their findings, the authors make a series of recommendations for each strategy to overcoming access constraints (p. 10). For example, on remote management, they recommend: supporting staff and encouraging consistent decisions; adopting a common definition of remote management; developing operational guidelines; improving DG ECHO’s ability to monitor directly; promoting staff diversification; paying more attention to externalities; reducing budget pressure in emergencies; and going into hibernation when compromises become excessive (p. 13). The authors define

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access as both the ability to reach populations and the ability of populations to access services. Their outline of access constraints from policies of Western governments is thorough and provides examples of Somalia, Syria, and Afghanistan (p. 25).

Stoddard, Abby and Adele Harmer. (2005). Room to Manoeuvre: Challenges of Linking Humanitarian Action and Post-Conflict Recovery in the New Global Security Environment. UNDP Human Development Report Office Occasional Paper. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2005_stoddard_abby_and_adele_harmer_23.pdf

Somewhat dated at this point, this paper is primarily focused on the lack of agreement amongst humanitarian actors about the transition from humanitarian aid to more recovery-focused efforts. Of relevance to remote management is the argument that the UN is distinctly state-centered in its humanitarian responses, whereas NGOs are more flexible to local partnerships.

Stoddard, Abby, Adele Harmer, and Katherine Haver. (2006). Providing Aid in Insecure Environments: Trends in policy and operations. HPG Report 23. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/269.pdf

This article presents the context of insecurity/risk in which humanitarian organizations are acting, but remains quite critical of remote management as a way to address these concerns. The primary critique centers on risk transfer and argues that with strategic planning and guiding principles, organizations could minimize risk transfer. The argument is built on six case studies of humanitarian actors using remote management practices. It found statistically significant (but is from a very small sample size) evidence that national staff face disproportionate risk as compared with international staff. One theory worth exploring is the trend within the international aid system to pass risk down from UN agencies to international NGOs to national staff and local partners (p. 20).

Stoddard, Abby, Adele Harmer, and Jean S. Renouf. (2010). Once Removed: Lessons and challenges in remote management of humanitarian operations for insecure areas. Humanitarian Outcomes. https://aidworkersecurity.org/sites/default/files/RemoteManagementApr2010.pdf

One of the more comprehensive resources on remote management, this article argues that organizations can avoid some of the negative effects of remote management (ie. risk transfer, and effects on program quality, effectiveness, and accountability) by a ‘whole of agency’ approach to strategic planning. One salient argument is presented here by UNICEF, which is that remote management takes away one of the most important value-add: direct monitoring of program implementation (p. 17).

Svoboda, Eva and Sara Pantuliano. (2015). International and local/diaspora actors in the Syria response: A diverging set of systems? HPG Working Paper. http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/9523.pdf See also, the Reuters story on the report: http://www.trust.org/item/20150313000140-ggjwm/?source=jt

This is a very interesting paper, with a lot of specific detail about partnerships in the Syria response. It argues that, given the severe restrictions on international actors, that the local and diaspora groups (which, according to OCHA, number between 600-700) have filled the gap of international presence. This paper is part of a two-year project on approaches and innovations in the Syrian response, in which the researchers interviewed actors about the diaspora response. Much of this started organically “around the kitchen table” (p. 10) in the U.S. or the UK. However, due to anti-terrorism laws, many of these groups’ fundraising efforts have been hampered by the idea that they are funneling money to insurgents or the opposition. At the same time, many Syrian NGOs have improved access because they are from the same communities as armed actors and as a result are more able to negotiate access (p. 12). The authors’ discussion of protection maintains that Syrian actors generally have a good understanding of protection under IHL and IHRL, and many include

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documenting violations as a focus of their work. Of particular relevance is the discussion on partnerships and the complicated nature of ‘capacity building.’ The authors argue that a meaningful “level of engagement and commitment to more genuine partnership seems to be the exception, rather than the rule,” (p. 17).

UNICEF. (2012). Remote Programming in Humanitarian Action. http://www.unicefinemergencies.com/downloads/eresource/docs/Remote%20Programming/2012-06-12%20Remote%20Programming%20guidance%20(Final%20version).pdf

This guidance emerged out of UNICEF’s past experiences in remote programming, which were “a process of learning by doing,” (p. 3) and aims to fill that gap by more closely examining UNICEF’s experiences to present key principles, issues, and threats. It references the UN mandate and highlights the concern that implementing partners retain the same protection while delivering humanitarian assistance. Under remote management, UNICEF is less able to ensure that the humanitarian principles (humanity, impartiality, and neutrality) are observed. It outlines decision-making criteria and guidance for preparing for, and implementing, remote management.

Van Brabant, Koenraad. (2012). Incident Statistics in Aid Worker Safety and Security Management. EISF. https://www.eisf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/EISF_Incident-Statistics-in-Aid-Worker-Safety-and-Security-Management_March-2012.pdf

This article aims to provide guidance on methodologies for producing and analyzing statistics of incidents affecting aid workers. Related to remote management, the article argues that “the incidence rate for internationals is stable or declining while it is growing for national staff. One possible important contributing factor to this may be the tendency to operate by remote management, essentially keeping international staff at a (safer) distance and working through national staff or national/local partners,” (p. 16).

Wilton Park. (2013). Advancing humanitarian action: engaging with rising global actors to develop new strategic partnerships. https://www.wiltonpark.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/WP1269-Report.pdf

This paper argues that changes in arrangements of global actors affect humanitarian action, including mechanisms of coordination, cooperation, and funding. Additionally, the growing number and diversity of armed non-state actors (ANSAs) makes humanitarian access increasingly difficult. It argues that "politicization and instrumentalisation of humanitarian action," (p. 4) such as the "War on Terror" makes it harder for humanitarian actors to be perceived as independent and as a result, more organizations are operating remotely by working with local partners.

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