fetal deceleration, gestational hypertension

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VELEZ COLLEGE – COLLEGE OF NURSING A CASE STUDY OF PATIENT K. S. DIAGNOSED WITH EMPYEMA SECONDARY TO PNEUMONIA Presented by: Dave Jay S. Manriquez, RN. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION This is a case study on patient KNS, 3 months old, female, Roman Catholic, Filipino, residing at Candabo, Argao and born on January 26, 2007 via Normal Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery (NSVD) at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital, who was admitted for the 1 st time in Cebu Velez General Hospital (CVGH) for complaints of fever, cough, and convulsion. The patient was admitted under the services of Dr. Lydia Chang and Dr. Maribel Du under the Department of Pediatrics and Surgery with the case number of 87395 and hospital number of 039874. The case was chosen by the researchers on May 9, 2007 at around 12 noon. PNEUMONIA Pneumonia is a general term that refers to an infection of the lungs, which can be caused by a variety of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Although different types of pneumonia tend to affect children in different age groups, pneumonia is most commonly caused by viruses. Some viruses that cause pneumonia are adenoviruses, rhinovirus, influenza virus (flu), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and parainfluenza virus (the virus that causes croup). Often pneumonia begins after an upper respiratory tract infection (an infection of the nose and throat). When this happens, symptoms of pneumonia begin after 2 or 3 days of a cold or sore throat.

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FETAL DECELERATION, GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION

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Page 1: FETAL DECELERATION, GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION

VELEZ COLLEGE – COLLEGE OF NURSING

A CASE STUDY OF PATIENT K. S. DIAGNOSED WITH EMPYEMA

SECONDARY TO PNEUMONIA

Presented by: Dave Jay S. Manriquez, RN.CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This is a case study on patient KNS, 3 months old, female, Roman Catholic, Filipino, residing at Candabo, Argao and born on January 26, 2007 via Normal Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery (NSVD) at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital, who was admitted for the 1 st time in Cebu Velez General Hospital (CVGH) for complaints of fever, cough, and convulsion. The patient was admitted under the services of Dr. Lydia Chang and Dr. Maribel Du under the Department of Pediatrics and Surgery with the case number of 87395 and hospital number of 039874.

The case was chosen by the researchers on May 9, 2007 at around 12 noon.

PNEUMONIA

Pneumonia is a general term that refers to an infection of the lungs, which can be caused by a variety of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Although different types of pneumonia tend to affect children in different age groups, pneumonia is most commonly caused by viruses. Some viruses that cause pneumonia are adenoviruses, rhinovirus, influenza virus (flu), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and parainfluenza virus (the virus that causes croup).

Often pneumonia begins after an upper respiratory tract infection (an infection of the nose and throat). When this happens, symptoms of pneumonia begin after 2 or 3 days of a cold or sore throat.

Types of Pneumonia

1. Community-acquired pneumonia(CAP)a. Pneumococcal –causative agent: S. pneumonia; incidence are common on elderly, with COPD, CHF, alcoholism b. Influenzae pneumonia or Haemophilus influenza- CA: H. pneumoniae; I: splenectomy, alcoholics, in chronic care facilitiesc. Viral pneumonia (occur in every 2-3 years) – CA: Influenza viruses A and B, adenovirus, parainfluenza, cytomegalovirus. I: adults

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d. Aspiration pneumonia- CA: aspiration of food or gastric contents I: children and elderly.2. Hospital acquired pneumonia

a. Pseudomonas pneumonia - CA: pseudomonas aeruginosab. Staphylococcal pneumonia- CA: Staphylococcus aureusc. Klebsiella pneumonia- CA: Klebsiella pneumonia; I: immunosupressed, IV drug users, complication of epidemic nfluenza

3. In immunocompromised Hosta. Pneumocystic carnii pneumonia (PCP)- CA: Pneumocystis carnii; I: patients with AIDS, immunosupressed patients, recipients of organ transplantsb. Fungal pneumonia- CA: Aspegillus fumigates; I: immunosupressed patients, recipients of organ transplants immunosupresse patients, neutopenic patients

Incubation

The incubation period for pneumonia varies, depending on the type of virus or bacteria causing the infection. Some common incubation periods are: respiratory syncytial virus, 4 to 6 days; influenza, 18 to 72 hours.

Duration

With treatment, most types of bacterial pneumonia can be cured within 1 to 2 weeks. Viral pneumonia may last longer. Mycoplasmal pneumonia may take 4 to 6 weeks to resolve completely.

Contagiousness

The viruses and bacteria that cause pneumonia are contagious and are usually found in fluid from the mouth or nose of an infected person. Illness can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes on a person, by sharing drinking glasses and eating utensils, and when a person touches the used tissues or handkerchiefs of an infected person.

Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms of pneumonia vary, depending on the age of the child and the cause of the pneumonia. Some common symptoms include:

fever chills cough unusually rapid breathing breathing with grunting or wheezing sounds labored breathing that makes a child's rib muscles retract (when muscles under the rib cage or between ribs draw inward with each breath) vomiting

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chest pain abdominal pain decreased activity loss of appetite (in older children) or poor feeding (in infants) in extreme cases, bluish or gray color of the lips and fingernails

Sometimes a child's only symptom is rapid breathing. Sometimes when the pneumonia is in the lower part of the lungs near the abdomen, there may be no breathing problems at all, but there may be fever and abdominal pain or vomiting. When pneumonia is caused by bacteria, an infected child usually becomes sick relatively quickly and experiences the sudden onset of high fever and unusually rapid breathing. When pneumonia is caused by viruses, symptoms tend to appear more gradually and are often less severe than in bacterial pneumonia. Wheezing may be more common in viral pneumonia. Some types of pneumonia cause symptoms that give important clues about which germ is causing the illness. For example, in older children and adolescents, pneumonia due to Mycoplasma (also called walking pneumonia) is notorious for causing a sore throat and headache in addition to the usual symptoms of pneumonia.

In infants, pneumonia due to chlamydia may cause conjunctivitis (pinkeye) with only mild illness and no fever. When pneumonia is due to whooping cough (pertussis), the child may have long coughing spells, turn blue from lack of air, or make a classic "whoop" sound when trying to take a breath.

Prevention

There are vaccines to prevent infections by viruses or bacteria that cause some types of pneumonia. Children usually receive routine immunizations against Haemophilus influenzae and pertussis (whooping cough) beginning at 2 months of age. (The pertussis immunization is the "P" part of the routine DTaP injection.) Vaccines are now also given against the pneumococcus organism (PCV), a common cause of bacterial pneumonia.

When to seek prompt treatment?

Call your child's doctor immediately if your child has any of the signs and symptoms of pneumonia, but especially if your child:

- is having trouble breathing or is breathing abnormally fast - has a bluish or gray color to the fingernails or lips - has a fever of 102 degrees Fahrenheit (38.9 degrees Celsius), or above 100.4 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius) in infants under 6 months of age

Treatment

Doctors usually make the diagnosis of pneumonia after a physical examination. The doctor may possibly use a chest X-ray, blood tests, and (sometimes) bacterial cultures of mucus produced by coughing when making a diagnosis. In most cases, pneumonia can be treated with oral antibiotics given to your child at home. The type of antibiotic used depends on the type of pneumonia.

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Children may be hospitalized for treatment if they have pneumonia caused by pertussis or other bacterial pneumonia that causes high fevers and respiratory distress. They may also be hospitalized if supplemental oxygen is needed, if they have lung infections that may have spread into the bloodstream, if they have chronic illnesses that affect the immune system, if they are vomiting so much that they cannot take medicine by mouth, or if they have recurrent episodes of pneumonia.

EMPYEMA

Empyema is a pus within a natural body cavity. It must be differentiated from an abscess, which is a collection of pus in a newly formed capsule rather than a pre-existing cavity. Empyema can occur as a complication of pneumonia, tuberculosis or surgical procedures (postsurgical empyema). The incidence of empyema is not well characterized, although a recent study suggests empyema may be common in patients admitted to the medical ICU. Fartoukh et al. reported an 8.4% of patients admitted to the medical ICU had physical and radiographic evidence of pleural effusion. Diagnostic thoracentesis was performed in 73% of these patients, and empyema was diagnosed in 17% of cases of pleural effusion. The infective organism can get into the pleural cavity either through the bloodstream or other circulatory system, in secretions from lung tissue, or on the surfaces of surgical instruments or objects that cause open chest wounds. Microorganisms associated with empyema included Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus spp. , E. coli , K. pneumoniae , M. tuberculosis , and PeptoStreptococcus.

Its development can be divided into three phases: an acute phase in which the body cavity fills with a thin fluid containing some pus; a second stage in which the fluid thickens and a fibrous, coagulation protein (fibrin) begins to accumulate within the cavity; and a third or chronic stage in which the lung or other organ is encased within a thick covering of fibrous material.

In humans, the pleural space surrounding the lungs is most commonly affected. This particular condition is called pyothorax and is usually caused by a bacterial infection of the lungs (pneumonia). Other common empyemas include appendicitis and pyometra.

Pleural space empyema

SymptomsTypical symptoms are just about the same as tuberculosis which includes: fever (which may be spiking), chest pain, cough, sweating and shortness of breath.

Clubbing of the fingernails is present. There is a dull percussion note and reduced breath sounds on the affected side of the chest. Chest x-ray shows a pleural effusion, often with a lateral bulge and pleural thickening. Ultrasound confirms the size and location of the pocket of pus and the presence of fibrin aggregates.There are 3 stages:Exudative, fibrinopurulent and organizing. In the exudative stage, the pus accumulates. This is followed by the fibrinopurulent stage in which there is loculation of the pleural fluid (the creation of grapelike pus pockets). In the final organizing stage there is the potential for lung entrapment by scarring. If it makes it to the final stage and scarring occurs there is a good chance of pulmonary fibrosis and other conditions that will happen in years to come, such as right sided heart failure (cor pulmonale). This is due to the high pulmonary pressures due to the scarring and the treatment is most likely a single lung transplant. The only drug that might have any effect is prednisone, but the use of prednisone is only temporary.

Diagnosis

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Diagnosis is confirmed by thoracentesis, X-Ray and CT Scan. Frank pus may be aspirated from the pleural space. The pleural fluid has a low pH, and the blood has a high white blood cell count usually above 20,000. Aspirated fluid is cultured to identify the causitive organism. Arterial blood gases are drawn to determine the pH, CO2 and O2 levels. Another test to confirm empyema is a pleural tap(removing 3-4 pieces of 1 to 2cm of the pleura).

TreatmentA chest tube is inserted to drain the pus from the pleural space, using ultrasound scan guidance. Intravenous antibiotics are given. If this is insufficient, surgical decortication of the pleura may be required.And 02 therapy.

Some evidence suggests that intrapleural fibrinolytic drugs may be useful, especially in children. Also supplemental oxygen via nasal cannula is usually a good idea since the O2 sats will be near 93% or below. If below 90% a venti mask or non-re-breather for higher doses of oxygen is recommended. This is usually when it's in the 3rd stage.

Empyema is treated using a combination of medications and surgical techniques. Treatment with medication involves intravenously administering a two-week course of antibiotics. It is important to give antibiotics as soon as possible to prevent first-stage empyema from progressing to its later stages. The antibiotics most commonly used are penicillin and vancomycin. Patients experiencing difficulty breathing are also given oxygen therapy.

Prognosis

The prognosis for recovery is generally good, except in those cases with complications, such as a brain abscess or blood poisoning, or cases caused by certain types of streptococci.

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RATIONALE OF STUDY

Pneumonia is a general term that refers to an infection of the lungs, which can be caused by a variety of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.According to the World Health Organization, the ten leading causes of morbidity in the Philippines are diarrhea, bronchitis/bronchiolitis, pneumonia, influenza, hypertension, tuberculosis, diseases of the heart, malaria, measles and chickenpox. The prevalence of communicable diseases is still very high while that of non-communicable diseases is increasing and will continue to do so. This double burden of disease places a great toll on the health and economy of the people and of the nation as a whole. The top ten leading causes of mortality are diseases of the heart, diseases of the vascular system, pneumonia, malignant neoplasms, accidents, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, diabetes mellitus, other diseases of the respiratory system, nephritis/nephritic syndrome and nephrosis.

The fact that lung disease and other breathing problems are the number one killer of babies younger than one year old is very alarming. Infants and children are born to enjoy and to explore into this world. They are the most fragile citizens of this world and should be taken care of. They should be protected from harm that the environment can give them. They should be shielded and guarded.

But if these delicate infants get sick, this reflects greatly on how neglectful his environment is and the people responsible for his well being. This caught our concern, as good citizen of society and as nursing students. It is our great duty, to protect these innocent beings. Respiratory disease is life-threatening, thus, prompting the need to let others be sensitive of the great significance to know its cause and how it affects little children.

It is essential that the process of the disease be taken into in-depth study. The feature common to all types of pneumonia is an inflammatory pulmonary response to the offending organism or agent. With the defense mechanism of the lungs, lose effectiveness and allow organisms to penetrate the sterile lower respiratory tract, where inflammation develops. Disruption of the mechanical defenses of cough and cilliary motility leads to colonization of the lungs and subsequent infection. Inflamed and fluid filled alveolar sacs cannot exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide effectively. Alveolar exudates tend to consolidate, so it is increasingly difficult t expectorate. Bacterial pneumonia maybe associated with significant ventilation-perfusion mismatched as the infection grows.

This study is guided by the following theories by: Comfort Theory of Katharine Kolcaba, Betty Neuman’s Systems Model, and Casey’s Model of Nursing. The comfort theory of Katharine Kolcaba states that in view of these relationships and the fact that children and families want to be comforted in stressful healthcare situations, comfort is an important outcome to measure for pediatric care and research. With its inherent emphasis on simultaneous physical, psychospiritual, sociocultural, and environmental aspects of comfort, will contribute to a well-articulated, multifaceted approach to pediatric education and practice. On the other hand, the Neuman’s Systems Model emphasized that broad and comprehensive enough to provide structural nursing interventions to not only older patients but to pediatric clients as well. This theory is applicable in this study because of how it describes the patient as an open system. The environment both internal

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and external, play a very crucial task in the development of a child as presented by the 5 interrelated variables. Furthermore, Casey’s model of nursing stresses that with the importance of the partnership between the parents and caregiver, the service rendered to the child will be adequate enough to bring back his optimum level of functioning.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CASE REPORT

A 3 year-old Caucasian boy, with a past history of croup, presented with a three-day history of vomiting and diarrhea. He was admitted to hospital because of right middle lobe and lower lobe consolidation, neutropenia and a markedly elevated C-reactive protein of 216 mg/L consistent with a diagnosis of pneumonia. Treatment was started with intravenous penicillin and cefotaxime. On day 3, blood Streptococcus pneumoniae, fully sensitive to penicillin, was isolated from blood cultures. By then his fever had settled and treatment was continued with high dose penicillin only. On day 5, his fever recurred. A chest X-ray demonstrated a small right-sided loculated effusion, but an ultrasound revealed only a 1 cm rim of fluid that was deemed ‘not drainable’. Cefotaxime was restarted. By day 10, an ultrasound revealed that the pleural fluid collection on the right side was 3 cm deep and contained particulate matter and septa. Intravenous flucloxacillin was substituted for penicillin. Because the child had clinically deteriorated with worsening fever, tachypnea and an increasing oxygen requirement, an urgent right thoracotomy, decortication and chest tube insertion under general anesthesia was performed. A left internal jugular central line was inserted at the same time due to problems with peripheral venous access. The pleural fluid drained was seropurulent with many leukocytes, but no organisms were found on culture. On day 12, the patient again deteriorated and a chest X-ray revealed left sided collapse/consolidation with pleural effusion. An ultrasound revealed a left sided 4 cm loculated pleural fluid collection. A left thoracotomy, decortication and chest tube insertion was performed under general anesthesia. After consultation with the hospital’s infectious diseases service, oral rifampicin was added to the flucloxacillin and cefotaxime antibiotic regimen. Culture of the pleural fluid did not reveal any organisms. Abdominal, cardiac and major vessel ultrasounds did not reveal any other infective sites, thrombosis, or fluid collections. Serum immunoglobulin levels were normal. Subsequently the child’s condition slowly improved. He was discharged home well on day 26.

REVIEW Empyema in children is usually the result of under-lying lung infection with Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pneumoniae. Several studies report an increase in the incidence of

empyema in children; even in developed countries.1 Staphylococcal infections now outnumber streptococcal infections as the leading cause in countries where widespread pneumococcal vaccination occurs.1 Haemophilus influenzae infection is now a rare cause of empyema, again due to an effective vaccination strategy. Mycoplasma pneumoniae commonly causes a parapneumonic effusion, and is a recognized cause of empyema in children.2 Mixed infections, including anaerobes, can also occur, especi-ally in adults with underlying illnesses. 3 In developed countries it is now most common for the purulent fluid drained from the pleural cavity to be sterile, due to prolonged and broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment prior to drainage. In the United States of America, initial treatment with vancomycin or clindamycin has been recommended due to the prevalence of resistant staphylococcal and streptococcal organisms.1 In Australia severe pediatric pneumonia with effusion is usually treated initially with flucloxacillin and a third generation cephalosporin, with or without a macrolide antibiotic, as resistant pneumococcal disease is rare. Vancomycin is used initially only if meningitis is suspected.4

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Staging of parapneumonic effusions An exudative parapneumonic effusion without loculations or septa (Stage 1) has minimal leukocytes in the fluid. The fluid is characterized by an elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), a low pH and low glucose concentration. In the fibrinopurulent stage (Stage 2) these biochemical abnormalities worsen, the leukocyte count remains low, although there still may be extensive fibrinous coating of the pleura and loculations. In Stage 3 disease frank pus develops. Stage 4 disease is characterised by loculated pus. The ideal management strategy for empyema has not been elucidated due to a paucity of properly conducted randomized controlled trails. This situation is compounded by the fact that parapneumonic effusions (Stage 1 and 2 disease) are much more common that true empyema (Stage 3 and 4 disease). Earlier stage disease could be over- or under-represented in the various case series. Staging is also unreliable when based on clinical criteria, e.g. the age of the fluid collection. It is known that Stage 4 disease can occur within 7 days of the initial fluid collection, but the fluid can remain relatively serous for much longer than this. 5 Accurate staging of an empyema can only be done by a combination of computerized tomography and fluid aspiration. In adults, empyema increases the mortality related to community-acquired pneumonia, usually from over-whelming sepsis, by seven times if bilateral and by more than three times if unilateral.5 The overall mortality in several series ranges from 1 - 61%.6 Out-comes are almost certainly influenced by management strategy.

Daily thoracentesisIn a case series from Denmark,3 adults with empyema had markedly reduced hospital stays (2.3 vs 5 weeks), fewer complications (bronchopleural or pleurocutaneous fistulae) and less need for thoracotomy or rib resection (6 vs 79%), if their empyema was managed by daily needle thoracentesis and lavage with or without intrapleural antibiotic administration versus chest tube drainage. Mortality was equal between the two groups at 8.5%. The two groups of patients were managed by different units (medical and surgical) and may have had different illness severities or other compounding factors. Daily thoracentesis, even if effective, may be impractical in children due to the daily requirement for deep sedation or general anesthesia.

Initial chest tube drainage In a series of complex adult patients from Taiwan, 6 with mostly Gram-negative bacterial infections, unsuccessful initial chest tube drainage (defined as incomplete drainage with ongoing signs of sepsis or death) resulted in a significantly higher mortality (47%) and longer hospital stays (28 days vs 16 days) than immediate thoracotomy and decortication or successful chest tube drainage (6% and 11% mortality respectively). Similar findings have been reported previously.7 It appears that incomplete drainage with ongoing signs of sepsis heralds a poor prognosis. It is important to note that inflammatory markers such as CRP and ESR can remain elevated for up to 4 weeks despite adequate antibiotic treatment and drainage, although blood leukocyte count and fever falls by one week post drainage.8 This delayed resolution of inflammatory markers makes assessment of recovery after drainage difficult. The efficacy of pleural fluid drainage thus remains the key to the clinical decision- making process. A large survey of practice in Britain indicates that only 11% of all pediatric empyemas are managed surgically. Long-term outcome is excellent.9 Most cases are adequately treated with simple chest tube drainage. In a recent series from Great Ormond Street, later chest drain insertion (8.1 vs 6.3 days after effusion detected) was associated with a trend towards requirement for surgical drainage. 8

Those children requiring surgery had a longer hospital stay (18.6 vs 13.4 days), but surgery was only undertaken if chest tube drainage failed to result in complete drainage and clinical symptoms persisted. The authors felt that inadequate chest tube size contributed to some failures. Chest tube size need not be routinely large, but should be determined by the degree of viscosity of the fluid.5

The adult literature reveals a key point, which is that successful complete drainage by chest tube alone can occur even when loculations are evident on ultrasound or computerized tomography scan. However, the presence of loculations makes complete chest tube drainage less likely, with only 40% of loculated effusions drained completely versus 76% of simple effusions. 5 A non-dependent chest tube position does not affect drainage in non-loculated effusions. Truly loculated effusions require ultrasound guidance to achieve the correct tube location. Surprisingly a lower pleural fluid leukocyte count is associated with failure of conservative management.5

Fibrinolytic therapy

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In adults the addition of fibrinolytic agents to the pleural cavity can improve chest tube drainage impeded by loculations and fibrin debris, 10 and may reduce the need for thoracotomy or video assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS).11,12 In a series of 501 children with multiloculated empyema intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy (IPFT) was successful in avoiding surgery in 81% of cases. 13 In a series of 22 children with complicated parapneumonic effusions from Taiwan, streptokinase resulted in a reduction in requirement for surgery and shorter duration of fever when compared with 20 historical controls.14 There is one randomized controlled trial from India of routine administration of streptokinase intrapleurally 24 hours after chest tube insertion. No benefit was detected in terms of chest tube drainage rates, duration of illness or development of loculatons.15 Intrapleural streptokinase may rarely lead to local bleeding complications. This was seen in one child administered 250,000 units of streptokinase.13 Streptokinase can cause fever, pleural pain, arthralgia, anaphylaxis and the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).11 Urokinase may be the safest choice, with no recorded complications at a dose of 100,000 Units intrapleurally used in the Oscelik series13 and in another series from Israel.16

Pigtailed catheters and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) Literature regarding the use of intrapleural tissue plasminogen (tPA) activator is limited, with only one report of its use in 12 children 17 until Hawkins et al,18 published a recent report of tPA combined with small bore pigtail catheter drainage of empyema in children. They reported successful management of empyema in 54 of 58 cases with a mean time to catheter removal of 6 days and a mean hospital stay of 9.1 days, using this minimally invasive technique.

Video assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS)Surgical options include a choice between VATS and formal thoracotomy. A study in 1997 of 20 adults compared VATS with chest tube drainage plus IPFT with streptokinase in loculated effusions unresponsive to isolated chest tube drainage only.19 Ninety one percent of patients undergoing VATS avoided further surgery. However, 44% of the chest tube plus IPFT treated group required further thoracotomy. In another study comparing immediate VATS with VATS after failed chest tube drainage and IPFT in late stage disease, 20 shorter hospital stays (4.5 versus 7.5 days) were demonstrated in the early VATS group. At least two adult studies report VATS debridement to be better than thoracotomy in terms of hospital stay and cosmesis. 21,22 VATS is reported to be rapidly successful in the majority of pediatric empyema cases with failed chest tube drainage when performed within 7 days of the initial attempt at chest tube drainage. 23,24 VATS also resulted in shorter hospital stays (9 - 13 days) when compared with previous series of children managed with chest tube drainage and delayed thoracotomy. In the recent series of 230 children from the United States of America,1 children that received very early VATS (within 48 hours of admission), had a shorter hospital stay (11.5 versus 15.2 days, P = 0.008) than those who had VATS performed later. However, VATS is not widely available, especially for children.

Early thoracotomy Thoracotomy is traditionally resorted to only after the more conservative management strategies, discussed above, have failed. This surgery is associated with potential anesthesia difficulties, complications such as pneumothorax, postoperative pain and cosmetic scarring. Some authors have challenged this traditional notion of deferring thoracotomy. Hoff et al,25 in a series of 61 children, reported that resolution of the disease process was more prolonged in patients managed by chest tube alone (16.8 days in hospital) than resolution after thoracotomy (6.7 days, P < 0.001). Carey et al, 26 reported a series of 22 children with empyema referred to a pediatric cardiothoracic unit. Those children who had immediate thoracotomy (18 cases) were afebrile and had their chest tubes removed by 2 days. Their mean hospital stay was 4 days. The authors suggested that early thoracotomy remains the benchmark treatment. A similar case series of 44 children undergoing thoracotomy27 also revealed very short duration of fever (mean 1 day) and an average of 3 days until chest tube removal. Both series authors point out that their mean hospital stays were shorter than series of children managed with VATS. In summary, the available evidence indicates early and complete drainage of an empyema remains the cornerstone of treatment, however it is achieved. Morbidity and mortality increases with increasing delay in achieving this goal. Most patients can be managed with antibiotics and chest tube drainage only, especially early in the disease process. It is harder to treat late stage disease conservatively. Conservative treatment results in prolonged hospital stays. Intrapleural fibrinolytics, ideally urokinase, may help to avoid surgery. Surgery in the form of VATS or thoracotomy,

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when done early, appears to result in the most rapid disease resolution, from the limited pediatric evidence available. Thoracotomy may be superior to VATS in terms of length of stay, contrary to the adult literature. The former has significant cosmetic disadvantages; the latter is not as widely available.

CONCLUSION Empyema in children occurs infrequently in Western societies. The underlying causative organism is usually Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pneum-oniae. Optimal management strategies have not been developed due to a paucity of randomised controlled trials. Staging is difficult to assess clinically and radiologically. Most cases can be successfully managed with simple chest tube drainage, plus appropriate antibiotic therapy. Based on available evidence, thoracotomy with decortication, in children, may provide the most effective treatment when compared with VATS and chest tube drainage with or without intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy. The more conservative approaches to treatment may be appropriate initially to avoid the cosmetic disadvantages of thoracotomy. However, delayed complete drainage increases morbidity and potentially mortality. The case presented might have been managed differently. Under general anesthesia, a pleural tap would have revealed the relatively serous nature of the fluid and chest tube drainage only may well have been successful. However, the loculated nature of the collection and the illness of the child prompted initial thoracotomy. VATS is not available for children in our institution. Our treatment decision is difficult to criticize in light of the available evidence that early thoracotomy leads to the most rapid resolution of the disease process, earlier discharge, and reduced mortality. The major drawback of thoracotomy is the life-long surgical scar. This drawback is not insignificant, but has to be weighed against the potential morbidity and mortality from ongoing infection. In retrospect, it is the authors’ view that a less aggressive approach in our case could also have been justified and may have resulted in a better cosmetic result. This approach would be initial chest tube drainage only, under ultrasound guidance, instillation of urokinase on the second day if required, then proceeding to thoracotomy within 48 - 72 hours of initial chest tube insertion if pleural fluid drainage were incomplete.

REFERENCES1. Schultz KD, Fan LL, Pinsky J et al. The changing face of pleural effusions in children: Epidemiology and Management. Pediatrics 2004;113:1735-1740. 2. Chan W, Keyser-Gauvin E, Davis GM, Nguyen LT, Laberge JM. Empyema thoracis in children: A 26 year review of the Montreal Children’s Hospital experience. J Ped Surg 1997;32:870-872. 3. Storm HKR, Krasnik M, Bang K, Frimodt-Moller N. Treatment of pleural empyema secondary to pneumonia: thoracentesis regimen versus tube drainage. Thorax 1992;47:821-824. 4. Paxton G, Munro J, eds. Paediatric Handbook. Blackwell Publishing, Carlton, 2003. 5. Light RW, Rodriguez RM. Management of parapneumonic effusions. Clinics Chest Med 1998;19:373-382. 6. Huang HC, Chang HY, Chen CW, Lee CH, Hsiue TR. Predicting factors for outcome of tube thoracostomy in complicated parapneumonic effusion or empyema. Chest 1999;115:751-756. 7. Pothula V, Krellenstein DJ. Early aggressive surgical management of parapneumonic empyemas. Chest. 1994;105:832-836. 8. Chan PWK, Crawford O, Wallis C, Dinwiddie R. Treatment of pleural empyema. J Paediatr Child health 2000;36:375-377. 9. McLaughlin FJ, Goldmann DA, Rosenbaum DM, Harris GBC, Schuster SR, Strieder DJ. Empyema in children: Clinical course and long-term follow-up. Pediatrics 1984;73:587-593. 10. Chin NK, Lim TK. Controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase in the treatment of pleural empyema and complicated parapneumonic effusions. Chest 1997;111:275-279. 11. Bilaceroglu S, Cagirici U, Cakan A. Management of complicated patapneumonic effusions with image-guided drainage and intrapleural urokinase or streptokinase – A controlled randomised trial. Eur Respir J

1997;10:325S. 12. Bouros D, Schiza S, Patsourakis G, Chalkiadakis G, Panagou P, Siafakas NM. Intrapleural streptokinase versus urokinase in the treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions: A prospective, double-blind study.

Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:291-295. 13. Ozcelik C, Inci I, Nizam O, Onat S. Intrapleural fibrinolytic treatment of multiloculated postpneumonic pediatric empyemas. Ann Thorac Surg 2003;76:1849-1853 14. Yao CT, Wu JM, Liu CC, Wu MH, Chuang HY, Wang JN. Treatment of complicated streptokinase in children. Chest 2004;125:566-571. 15. Singh M, Mathew JL, Chandra S, Katariya S, Kumar L. Randomized controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase in empyema thoracis in children. Acta Paediatr 2004;93:1443-1445. 16. Kornecki A, Sivan Y. Treatment of loculated pleural effusion with intrapleural urokinase in children. J Pediatr Surg 1997;32:1473-1475. 17. Weinstein M, Restrepo R, Chait PG, Connolly B, Temple M, Macarthur C. Effectiveness and safety of tissue plasminogen activator in the management of complicated parapneumonic effusions. Pediatrics

2004;113:182-185. 18. Hawkins JA, Scaife ES, Hillman ND, Feola GP. Current treatment of pediatric empyema. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2004;16:196-200. 19. Wait MA, Sharma S, Holn J, Nogare AD. A randomised trial of empyema therapy. Chest 1997;111:1548-1551.

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20. Petrakis IE, Kogerakis NE, Drositis IE, Lasithiotakis KG, Bouros D, Chalkiadakis GE. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery for thoracic empyema: primarily, or after fibrinolytic therapy failure? Am J Surg. 2004;187:471-474.

21. Angelillo Mackinlay TA, Lyons GA, Chimondeguy DJ, Piedras MA, Angaramo G, Emery J. VATS debridement versus thoracotomy in the treatment of loculated postpneumonia empyema. Ann Thorac Surg 1996;61:1626-1630.

22. Lawrence DR, Ohri SK, Moxon RE, Townsend ER, Fountain SW. Thoracoscopic debridement of empyema thoracis. Ann Thorac Surg 1997;64:1448-1450. 23. Stovroff M, Teague G, Heiss KF, Parker P, Ricketts RR. Thoracoscopy in the management of pediatric empyema. J Pediatr

Surg 1995;30:1211-1215. 24. Kern JA, Rodgers BM. Thoracoscopy in the management of empyema in children. J Pediatr Surg 1993;28:1128-1132. 25. Hoff SJ, Neblett WW, Edwards KM, et al. Parapneumonic empyema in children: Decortication hastens recovery in patients

with severe pleural infections. Pediatr Infect Dis 1991;10:194-199. 26. Carey JA, Hamilton JRL, Spencer DA, Gould K, Hasan A. Empyema thoracis: A role for open thoracotomy and decortication.

Arch Dis Child 1998;79:510-513. 27. Alexiou C, Goyal A, Firmin RK, Hickey MJ. Is open thoracotomy still a good treatment option for the management of

empyema in children? Ann Thorac Surg 2003;76:1854-58.

http://www.jficm.anzca.edu.au/pdfdocs/Journal/Journal2005/J2005%20(b)%20June/Case1a.pANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system can be conveniently subdivided into an upper respiratory tract (or conducting zone) and lower respiratory tract (respiratory zone), trachea and lungs.The conducting zone starts with the nares (nostrils) of the nose, which open into the nasopharynx (nasal cavity). The primary functions of the nasal passages are to: 1) filter, 2) warm, 3) moisten, and 4) provide resonance in speech. The nasopharnyx opens into the oropharynx (behind the oral cavity). The oropharynx leads to the laryngopharynx, and empties into the larynx (voicebox), which contains the vocal cords, passing through the glottis, connecting to the trachea (wind pipe).The trachea leads down to the thoracic cavity (chest) where it divides into the right and left "main stem" bronchi. The subdivision of the bronchus are: primary, secondary, and tertiary divisions (first, second and third levels). In all, they divide 16 more times into even smaller bronchioles.The bronchioles lead to the respiratory zone of the lungs which consists of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and the alveoli, the multi-lobulated sacs in which most of the gas exchange occurs.Ventilation of the lungs is carried out by the muscles of respiration.Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from the part of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected neurons within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements. The sections are the pneumotaxic center, the apneustic center, and the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. This section is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped or shaken violently. The result can be death due to "shaken baby syndrome."[1]

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Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute. Its time period is 2 seconds. During vigorous inhalation (at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching respiratory failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the strap muscles of the neck.Inhalation is driven primarily by the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a larger thoracic volume, which in turn causes a decrease in intrathoracic pressure. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified as it flows to the lungs.During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and accessory muscles further expand the thoracic cavity.Exhalation is generally a passive process, however active or forced exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles.The lungs have a natural elasticity; as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out until the pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium. [2]

During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.The right side of the heart pumps blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk. The trunk branches into right and left pulmonary arteries to the pulmonary blood vessels. The vessels generally accompany the airways and also undergo numerous branchings. Once the gas exchange process is complete in the pulmonary capillaries, blood is returned to the left side of the heart through four pulmonary veins, two from each side. The pulmonary circulation has a very low resistance, due to the short distance within the lungs, compared to the systemic circulation, and for this reason, all the pressures within the pulmonary blood vessels are normally low as compared to the pressure of the systemic circulation loop.Virtually all the body's blood travels through the lungs every minute. The lungs add and remove many chemical messengers from the blood as it flows through pulmonary capillary bed . The fine capillaries also trap blood clots that have formed in systemic veins.The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained two opposing conditions could occur: 1) respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and 2) respiratory alkalosis.Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres), and are permeable to gases. The alveoli are lined with pulmonary capillaries, the walls of which are also thin enough to permit gas exchange. All gases diffuse from the alveolar air to the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, as carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from capillary blood to alveolar air. At this point, the pulmonary blood is oxygen-rich, and the lungs are holding carbon dioxide. Exhalation follows, thereby ridding the body of the carbon dioxide and completing the cycle of respiration.In an average resting adult, the lungs take up about 250ml of oxygen every minute while excreting about 200ml of carbon dioxide. During an average breath, an adult will exchange from 500 ml to 700 ml of air. This average breath capacity is called tidal volume.The respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system is drained of fluid and cleaned to assure proper functioning of the system. If an infant is born before forty weeks gestational age, the newborn may experience respiratory failure due to the under-developed lungs. This is due to the incomplete development of the alveoli type II cells in the lungs. The infant lungs do not function due to the collapse of the alveoli caused by surface tension of water remaining in the lungs. Surfactant is lacking from the lungs, leading to the condition. This condition may be avoided if the mother is given a series of steroid shots in the final week prior to delivery. The steriods accelerate the development of the type II cells.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This case study aims to determine “How the patient acquired the illness, and the process by which the body responds to the situation”.This also specifically attempts to answer the following questions:

What is Pneumonia and Empyema?

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What organs and parts of the body are affected by the disease process? Where and how the illness was obtained, how it progressed and affected the body? What were the predisposing factors that lead the patient to acquire the disease? What interventions are needed to manage the such condition? Why was Chest Tube Thoracotomy was performed to the patient? Were the interventions effective in helping the patient recover?

CHAPTER TWOData Collection, Analysis and Interpretation

OPT Model

CLIENT IN CONTEXT PRESENT STATE INTERVENTIONS EVALUATION

KNS, 3 months old, female, Roman Catholic, Filipino, residing at Candabo, Argao and born on January 26, 2007 via Normal Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery (NSVD) at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital, was admitted for the 1st time in Cebu Velez General Hospital (CVGH) for complaints of fever, cough, and convulsion. Patient was admitted under the services of Dr. Lydia Chang and Dr. Maribel Du under the Department of Pediatrics and Surgery with the case number of 87395 and hospital number of 039874.

History of Present Illness

1 month PTA, patient had an onset of intermittent nonproductive cough. No medical consult was done.9 days PTA, patient had an onset of intermittent fever ranging from 38.0-

ER Blotter

Accompanied by mother and aunt, patient arrived at CVGH-ER at 10:58pm on May 5, 2007 per ambulance, febrile, with the following vital signs: PR: 116 bpm RR: 78 cpm T: 38.1 C/axilla. At around 12:10 am, she was admitted to the Pediatrics department under the services of Dr. Lydia Chang and Dr. Maribel Du with case # 87395 and was transported around 12:30 am to Ward 6-A per mother’s arm in a wheelchair.

DATE OF ASSESSMENT: May 9, 2007General Measurements:mid-arm: 15.5 cmchest circumference: 45 cmHead circumference: 40.5 cm Abdominal circumference: 48 cmHt: 63.5 cm

Doctor’s OrdersAt the CVGH-ER, patient was given oxygen inhalation at 1L/min via nasal cannula at 11:40pm. He was started with an IVF of D5IMB 1 pint at 27ugtts/min.

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38.5oC/axilla with nonproductive cough still noted. No chills nor convulsion were manifested. This prompted the patient’s mother to seek consultation at Dr. Villaflor’s clinic at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital where the patient was nebulized with Salbutamol 1 cycle (a bronchodilator which binds to beta-2 adrenergic receptors in airway smooth muscle, leading to activation of adenyl cyclase and increased levels of -3, -5 adenosine monophosphate) and was prescribed with cetirizine (an antihistamine which antagonizes the effect of histamine at H1-receptor sites; does not bind to or inactivate histamine) and amoxicillin (an anti-infective which binds to bacterial cell wall, causing cel death), both of unrecalled dose. Ibuprofen (Dolan) 100mg/5ml 2ml (an antipyretic, non-opioid analgesic and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent, which inhibits prostaglandin synthesis) as needed for temperature above 38oC/axilla was also prescribed. There was no relief of fever and cough, as claimed by patient’s mother.1 week PTA, patient had an acute attack of convulsion with fever of 40oC/axilla, accompanied by pallor, profuse sweating and nonproductive cough; thus, was brought to Miller Hospital. There, nebulization of Salbutamol was done and patient was prescribed with ceftriaxone (an anti-infective and 3rd generation cephalosporin, which binds to bacterial cell wall membrane, causing cell death), prostaphlin (an anti-infective and penicillin, which binds to bacterial cell wall, resulting in cell death) and ibuprofen, all of unrecalled dose. Chest X-ray was done and

Wt: 6.5 kgIBW: 8.3 kgFontanels: anterior: open posterior: closed

Physiologic MeasurementsT°: 37°C/axillaRR: 78 cpmPR: 120 bpm

May 9, 2007GENERAL APPEARANCE 3pm >seen per aunt’s arm, awake, conscious, with O2 inhalation via nasal cannula at 1L/min, with Chest Tube Thoracotomy (CTT) attached on left lung in the left lower chest, with IVF 3 D5IMB 1 pint @ 27 mgtts per minute infusing well on right hand, with pulse oximeter on big toe of right foot, with the following vital signs:PR: 120 bpm RR: 60 cpm T: 37°C/axilla

Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right arm, with good skin turgor, no edema, no lesions, long fingernails and toenails with pinkish nail beds, CRT <2 secs, no cyanosis, as well as jaundice. Head: normocephalic, (+) ROM, Hair is fine, straight, black and evenly distributed, with no dandruff nor lice infestations, open anterior fontanel, closed posterior fontanel. Eyes : symmetrical, anicteric sclerae, smooth, moist and pale palpebral conjunctivae and clear bulbar conjuctivae, (-)discharges, equal distribution of eyebrows and eyelashes, (+) Pupils Equally Round and Reactive to Light

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revealed moderate pleural fluid on left lung.3 days after Chest X-ray was done, patient was referred to CVGH for insertion of Chest Tube Thoracotomy. PAST HISTORYPrenatal History

Mother is a 35 year old with an obstetrical score of G4P4004. Prenatal care was started at 5 months Age of Gestation (AOG) at their Barangay Health Center in Argao. Regular pre-natal check-up was done once every month thereafter. Mother claimed to have had an onset of fever during the course of pregnancy, specifically during the 7th month AOG and was prescribed Paracetamol (Biogesic) 500mg (an anti-pyretic, non-opioid analgesic, which inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins that may serve as mediators of pain and fever, primarily in the central nervous system) three times a day upon pre-natal visit. Condition improved. Vitamins taken during the course of pregnancy included Ferrous Sulfate (an anti-anemic and iron supplement, which is required for the production of hemoglobin necessary for O2 transport to cells), which was prescribed by the physician at the Health Center. Mother claimed to have had a complete Tetanus Toxoid immunization. Mother was confined for a day at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital after delivery and was discharged with improved condition. No distress was detected on the baby.

Previous Hospitalizations: Patient has no previous hospitalization.

and Accomodation, Ears : symmetrical, no lesions, pinna is in line with the outer canthus of the eye, no swelling, pinna is nontender, no discharges noted on auditory meatus. Nose: symmetrical, no masses, no discharges, nasal septum at midlineMouth and throat: lips are symmetrical but pale, no ulcerations and no lesions, buccal mucosa pink, pinkish gums with no ulcerations, tongue located at midline, uvula at midline, no deciduous teethChest: Symmetrical, no lesions, equal chest expansion, presence of CTT incision on left anterior lower chest.Lungs: Equal lung expansion, (+) rales on left lower lung field upon auscultation, CTT attached to left lungHeart: distinct s1 and s2 heart sounds upon ausculation, no murmurs heard, heart rate of 120 bpm with regular rhythm.Abdomen: protuberant, no masses, no tenderness, presence of bowel sounds at 15 gurgling sounds/minute auscultated at right lower quadrantGUT-Reproductive: grossly female, no swelling, no abnormal discharges, no lesions, no rashes.Anus: no lesions, no hemorrhoids, no rashes.Extremities: symmetrical, (+) ROM for all extremities, no lesions, presence of pulse oximeter on right toe. Musculoskeletal: no deformities, good muscle tone.

NEUROLOGIC ASSESSMENT Mental Status/Cerebral Functioning

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Labor and Delivery

Age of Gestation was 9 months. Patient’s mother experienced 1 hour and 45 minutes of spontaneous labor. She delivered a live baby girl with cephalic presentation at Argao Isidro Quintana Memorial Hospital, assisted by an obstetrician of unrecalled name. The patient was 6.5 pounds upon birth. Patient had a loud cry upon delivery and had no congenital anomalies noted. Patient was given a shot of Vitamin K and Hepatitis B vaccine as well as terramycin (an anti-infective and tetracycline, which inhibits bacterial protein synthesis at the level of the 30s bacterial ribosome), immediately after delivery. Patient stayed for a day at the hospital and was discharged improved.

Feeding History

Patient was immediately breastfed after birth. Currently, the patient is breastfed every 2 hours or per demand. Vitamins taken were Ceelin (for treatment and prevention for vitamin C deficiency in infants and children) and Tiki-Tiki, a multivitamin supplement, 0.6 ml thrice a day prescribed by Dr. Lydia Chang.

Health History

Patient has no known food and drug allergies. Immunizations received were BCG1, DPT1 and DPT 2, Hep1 and Hep2 as well as OPV1.

Elimination Pattern

Awake, alert, coherent. Able to cry. Irritable behaviorMotor/Cerebellar FunctioningAble to grasp student nurse’s fingers tightly. Extremities symmetrically folded inward with good muscle tone. Reflexes(+) palmar grasp(+)babinski reflex

Sensory FunctioningResponsive to light touch (hanky) and pain (slight pinch) at both upper and lower extremities and both sides of the face.Cranial Nerve TestingCN 1 (Olfactory) – not assessed cannot verbally express himselfCN 2 (Optic) – (+) PERRLA, (+) Blinking reflex CN 3 (Oculomotor) – (+) PERRLACN 4 (Trochlear) – (+) PERRLACN 5 (Trigeminal) – (+) rooting reflex, (+) sucking reflexCN 6 (Abducens) – (+) PERRLA CN 7 (Facial) – able to close eyes, can smile, wrinkle forehead, cry.CN 8 (Auditory) – (+) moro reflex with loud noise, eyes follow direction of soundCN 9 (Glossopharyngeal) – (+) gag reflex, able to swallowCN 10 (Vagus)- (+) gag reflex , able to swallowCN 11 (Accessory) – cannot be assessedCN 12 (Hypoglossal) – mouth opens when nose is pinched, tongue midline at protrusion

Current Developmental SkillsGross Motor skills:(+) Landau reflex , able to lift head on prone position, slight lag present when pulled to a sitting position, able to support part of weight upon

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Patient defecates at least 4 times a day with soft, light brown stools and urinates at least 4 to 5 times a day.

Family History:

Patient’s father, a 40 year old, is a highschool graduate, currently working as a house painter. His mother is a 35-year old housewife and is a highschool undergraduate. The patient has 3 siblings; the first of which is a 6-year old male, currently in kindergarten, followed by a 4- year old male, now enrolled in Day Care and the third sibling is a 2-year old female.The patient has no known heredofamilial diseases (HFDs) on both maternal and paternal side.

Genogram:

standingFine Motor Skills:Can attempt to reach for pacifierLanguage skills:Makes cooing sounds and is able to slightly laugh, cries when hungry or wet

Developmental Theories:

Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development: sensory motor stagePatient relates through senses, primarily reflex behavior.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development:Trust vs. mistrustThe patient was provided with 3 primary care givers with whom trust can be established. The student nurses provided experiences that add to security, such as keeping voices low and providing soft touches.

Freud’s theory of Psychosexual development: oral stagePatient uses a pacifier (oral stimulation) and is breastfed by the mother every 2 hours or as needed.

DATE OF ASSESSMENT: May 10, 2007General Appearance:3pm> Seen lying on bed, awake, conscious, afebrile, with O2 inhalation via nasal cannula at 1L/min, with CTT attached to left lung, with IVF of 5 D5 IMB 1 pint @ 27 ugtts / min, infusing well at right hand, with pulse oximeter attached to big toe of right foot, with the following vital signs: Temperature: 36.3ºC/axillaPulse Rate: 136 bpm Respiratory rate: 70 cpm

Maternal Paternal

Deceased female Deceased male

female male

patient

Legend:

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Personal and Social history:

The personal caretaker of the child is her mother. Mother also readily feeds the patient through breastfeeding every 2 hours or per demand. The baby sleeps in between her mother and father using one pillow. There is only 1 room in the house and 6 people in the household. The family goes to church every Sunday, as claimed by the patient’s mother. Patient’s parents have been married for 7 years now. They believe in consulting a doctor whenever a health problem arises. They do not believe in quack doctors.

Environmental History:

Patient lives with her mother, father, and 3 siblings in Candabo, Argao, Cebu in a 1-storey house made of mixed materials. They have 1 bedroom, a separate room for the living room and the dining room. It has enough ventilation owing to 6 screened windows. Their house is furnished. It has a TV set and 3 electric fans. Water source is from MCWD. Electricity is from CEBECO. Drainage is closed. Toilet is water sealed type. Their garbage disposal is through motorized garbage collection. They live 5 meters from the main road, 75meters from the market, police station, and church and 60 meters from the nearest Barangay Health Center. They live in a congested area, as claimed by the patient’s mother.

Significant findings:Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right armEyes: pale palpebral conjuntivaeMouth and Throat: pale lipsLungs: rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung fields. CTT still attached to left anterior lower chestExtremities: pulse oximeter still attached to right toe

DATE OF ASSESSMENT: May 11, 2007General Appearance:3pm> Seen per mother’s arm, awake, conscious, afebrile, with O2 inhalation via nasal cannula at 1L/min, with CTT attached to left lung, with IVF of 6 D5 IMB 1 pint @ 27 ugtts / min, infusing well at right hand, with the following vital signs: Temperature: 36.5ºC/axillaPulse Rate: 144 bpm Respiratory rate: 60 cpm

Significant findings:Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right armEyes: pale palpebral conjuntivaeLungs: rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung fields. CTT still attached to left anterior lower chest

LABORATORY FINDINGS

January 26, 2007

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X-RAYChest AP:Chest reveals a band like density along the left lateral chest wall. Heart and the rest of the lungs are essentially normal.Findings:Moderate Pleural Fluid Left

May 1, 2007Chest X-ray Revealed moderate pleural fluid, left

May 2, 2007Specimen: CSFCulture: No growth after 72 hrs. of incubationBlood Culture with ARD

May 7, 2007CT Scan of chest: plain and contrastPre and post contrast CT scan of the chest demonstrate fluid collection in the left hemithorax with areas of loculations. The left lung parenchyma is compressed. There is segmental consolidation seen on the right lower lung. The mediastinal structures are shifted to the right. The thymus is not enlarged. Trachea is normal in caliber. The superior mediastinal vessels are preserved. There are no enlarged mediastinal or hilar lymph nodes seen. The cardiac chambers and pericardial sac are intact. The thoracic aorta and esophagus are within normal limits. The soft tissue and visualized osseous structures are unremarkable.

Remarks:Left pleural effusion with areas of loculations

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on the left hemithoraxAtelectasis, left lungInflammatory process, right lower lung

May 7, 2007Creatinine 0.3 Low N˚0.6-1.5 mg/dL

May 7, 2007CBCThis is a basic screening test in all patients and is one of the most frequently ordered laboratory procedure. The significant findings in the CBC gives valuable information about patient’s diagnosis, response to treatment and recovery

WBC 23.7 K/uLNEU 14.9 63.0 %NLYM 3.47 14.7 %LMONO 3.40 14.4 %NEOS .972 4.11 %EBASO .914 3.86 %B

RBC 4.11 M/uLHGB 10.1 g/dLHCT 29.5%MCV 71.9 fLMCH 24.7 pgMCHC 34.3 g/dLRDW 18.6%

PLT 477.6 K/uLMPV 7.57 fL

Comments: Few Hypochromic red cells

Implications:

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Increase in neutrophil count may indicate presence of Vitamin B12 and Folic acid deficiency. This may occur in hemolysis, tissue break down as in burns, hemolytic transfusion reactions and after surgery. Decrease in lymophocyte may be due to presence of trauma and burns. Increase in eosinophil usually occur during the late stages of inflammation. Increase in basophil may indicate IDA, chronic hemolytic anemia and inflammation. Decrease in hematocrit signifies presence of severe dehydration and shock. MCH is a measurement of the average weight of Hgb in RBC.

Normal Limits

WBC 4.1-10.9 K/uLNEU 2.5-7.5 47-80 %NLYM 1-4 13-40 %LMONO .1-1.2 2-11 %NEOS 0-.5 0-5 %EBASO 0-.1 0-2 %B

RBC 4-5.2 M/uLHGB 12-16g/dLHCT 36-46MCV 80-100 fLMCH 26-34 pgMCHC 31-36g/dLRDW 11.6-18%PLT 140-440 K/uLMPV 0-100 Acid Fast Bacilli (AFB) SmearMay 8: Specimen (Chest Tube Thoracostomy)

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May 9: Gram Staining : no microorganism seen Pus cells: abundant

P.R.: Smear of culture: Gram (+) cocci in pairs and in clustersMay 10: P.R.:Culture: Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Remarks: Sensitivity Test result of culture MRSAMay 11: P.R.: Remarks: No other pathogens isolated

AFB StainingMay 9, 2007Smear of specimenAFB STAINING: NEGATIVE FOR ACID FAST BACILLINational TB Program Scale= 0Remarks:1.) conc. Method done2.) AFB National TB Program Scale 0= no AFB seen/ 300 visual fields+ (1-9)= 1-9 AFB seen/100 visual fields 1+= 10-99 AFB seen/ 100 visual fields 2+= 1-10 AFB seen/ at least 50 fields 3+= more than 10/ at least 20 fields5/7 3.) Final report after 6 weeks of incubation5/7 Gram Staining: No microorganisms seen

May 9, 2007X-rayChest APL:Examination reveals there are patchy densities noted in the left lower lung. There are hazy densities noted in the hemithorax. There is

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chest tube in the left hemithorax.Conclusion : Pneumonia left lower lung

: Pleural thickening and effusion left

: Chest tube left

May 9, 2007Appendum Report

A comparative study with the outside film taken on May 5, 2007 shows diminution of fluid in the left hemithorax

May 10, 2007Creatinine 0.3 Low N˚0.6-1.5 mg/dL

KEY ISSUES

Date Identified: May 9, 20071. Ineffective Airway Clearance related to exudates in the alveoli secondary to pleural effusion as manifested by rales and crackles upon auscultation on left lower lung fields, dyspnea, irritability and increase in respiratory rate, RR=78cpm

SB: The inflammation and increased secretions seen with pneumonia make it difficult to maintain a patent airway.(Black, Joyce. Medical-Surgical Nursing. P1842)

Independent Interventions:1. Assessed rate and depth of respirations as well as chest movement.R: Tachypnea, shallow respirations, and asymmetric chest movement are frequently present because of discomfort of moving chest wall and fluid in the lung.2. Auscultated both lung fields as well as breath soundsR: to ascertain status and note progression3 Changed position in bed as needed.R: To enhance drainage of and ventilation to different lung segments.4. Did chest tapping for 10 minutes.R: To mobilize secretions5. Provided opportunities for restR: to prevent fatigue

Desired OutcomeWithin 15 to 30 minutes of nurse-client interaction, the patient will be able to: -maintain airway patency-demonstrate reduction of congestion with breath sounds clear, respirations noiseless-have an RR within normal range (36-40 cpm)

Actual outcome:May 9, 2007After 15 to 30 minutes of nurse-client interaction, the patient was able to have an RR of 56 cpm and had rales heard on the left lower lung field upon auscultation. Dyspnea was no longer noted; however, the baby was still irritable.

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Date Identified: May 9, 20072. Impaired Gas Exchange related to alveolar-capillary membrane changes as manifested by restlessness, an abnormal rate of breathing with RR= 78cpm

S.B: Pneumonia is an inflammatory process in the lung parenchyma usually associated with a marked increase in interstitial and alveolar fluid.

(Black-Hawk.Medical-Surgical Nursing.6th Ed. Vol.2.page 1711)

Collaborative Interventions:1. Administered O2 @ 1L/min via nasal cannulaR: To provide supplemental oxygen2. Measured and drained CTT drainageR: To ascertain amount of fluid inside the lungs and to allow re-expansion the lungs

Independent interventions1. Noted respiratory rate and depthR: Manifestations of respiratory distress are dependent on and indicative of the degree of lung involvement and underlying general health status.2. Observed baby’s skin color, mucous membranes, and nailbedsR: Cyanosis of nailbeds may represent vasoconstriction or the body’s response to fever or chills; however, cyanosis of earlobes, mucous membranes, and skin around the mouth is indicative of systemic hypoxemia.3. Monitored heart rate and rhythmR: Tachycardia is usually present as a result of fever.4. Monitored body temperature.R: High fever greatly increases metabolic demands and oxygen consumption and alters cellular oxygenation. 5. Encouraged frequent position changes

May 10, 2007After 15 to 30 minutes of nurse-client interaction, the patient was able to have an RR of 58 cpm, rales still noted on left lower lung field. Nonproductive cough was still noted. Baby was irritable despite absence of dyspnea.

May 11, 2007After 15 to 30 minutes of nurse-client interaction, the patient was able to have an RR of 60 cpm, rales still noted on left lower lung field upon auscultation; however, sounds became fainter. Nonproductive cough was still noted with absence of dyspnea.

Desired outcomeWithin 2 to 3 minutes of nurse-client interaction, the client will be able to demonstrate improved ventilation and adequate oxygenation of tissues within the client’s normal limits and will be able to exhibit absence of symptoms of respiratory distress.

Actual outcomeAfter 3 minutes of nurse-client interaction:

May 9 and 10, 2007: client’s RR remained elevated (above 60 cpm); restlessness and irritability were both still noted.

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Date Identified: May 9, 20073. Ineffective Breathing Pattern related to inflamed and fluid-filled alveolar sacs secondary to pneumonia as manifested by RR=78 cpm, nonproductive cough, and presence of CTT drainage.

SB: Many clients experience compensatory tachypnea because of an inability to meet metabolic demands. This occurs because affecte alveoli cannot effectively exhange oxygen and carbon dioxide.

R: promote optimal chest expansion and drainage of secretions6. Maintained adequate I/O.R: for mobilization of secretions, at the same time, avoiding fluid overload.7. Encouraged adequate rest and limit activities to within patient tolerance.R: helps limit oxygen needs/ consumption.8. Promoted calm/restful environment.R: helps limit oxygen needs/ consumption.9. Kept environment allergen/ pollutant.R: to reduce irritant effect on airways.

Collaborative Interventions1. Insertion of CTT at bedside done by Dr. Maribel DuR: to improve respiratory function/ oxygen-carrying capacity.2. Administered O2 @ 1L/min via nasal cannulaR: To provide supplemental oxygen and to maintain PaO2 above 60 mmHg.3. Monitored pulse oximetry.R: Follows progress of disease process and facilitates alterations in pulmonary therapy.

Independent Interventions1. Performed handwashing before handling the patient. R: to prevent spread of microorganisms2. Monitored vital signs, auscultated chest, and noted presence of secretionsR: to identify precipitating factors3. Kept head of bed elevatedR: to facilitate ease in respiration8. Chest tapping doneR: Facilitates mobilization of secretions

Desired OutcomeWithin 30 minutes of student nurse-patient interaction, the patient will be able to establish a normal or effective respiratory pattern, within 40 to 60 cpm, will not use accessory muscles when breathing and will not have signs of nasal flaring.

Actual OutcomeAfter 30 minutes of student nurse-patient interaction:

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(Black, Joyce. Medical-Surgical Nursing. -1842-43)

Date Identified: May 9, 20074. Acute pain related to surgical incision on

left hemithorax (Chest Tube Thoracotomy) secondary to pleural effusion as manifested by restlessness, crying, irritability, and RR=78cpm

SB: All clients who have just had surgery will experience pain (Medical-Surigical Nursing by Black. 6th edition. P.311)

Pain after thoracotomy may be severe, depending on the type of incision and the patient’s reaction to and ability to cope with pain. Deep inspiration is very painful after thoracotomy. (Medical-Surgical Nursing by Smeltzer & Bare. 10th edition. P 634)

5. Kept incision clean and dry.R: To reduce risk of infection6. Provided adequate rest periods between activities.R: To limit fatigue

Collaborative Interventions1. Administered oxygen via nasal cannula at 1 liter/minute. R: to provide adequate ventilation and oxygenation

Independent Interventions1. Assessed client’s pain including type,

location, and intensity.R: Assessment provides clues to underlying cause of pain & provides a baseline for developing appropriate pain relief strategies.2. Provided comfort measures, such as helping

with positioning and using pillows for support.

R: Comfort measures reduce stress and anxiety, elevate mood, and raise pain threshold.3. Monitored vital signsR: Usually altered in acute pain4. Provided quiet and calm environmentR: To help control pain5. Provided adequate rest periodsR: To prevent fatigue and minimize pain perception6. Encouraged SO to carry/hold baby when

cryingR: This helps the patient to feel secured and minimize pain felt7. Assessed patient’s response to pain relief

measures.

May 9, 10 and 11, 2007: patient’s RR were 56 cpm, 58 cpm and 60 cpm respectively. Patient did not make use of accessory muscles when breathing and showed no signs of nasal flaring.CTT drainage was in place at left anterior lower chest.

Desired OutcomeWithin 4 hours of nursing interventions, the client will be able to manifest signs of decreased pain perception such as being able to sleep, minimize crying, RR within normal limits (40-60cpm) and be less irritable

Actual OutcomeMay 9, 2007: After 4 hours of nursing intervention, the client’s RR decreased to 70cpm, was still crying intensely, still irritable, and was able to sleep for about 2 hours. May 10, 2007: After 4 hours of nursing intervention, the client’s RR decreased to 48cpm, still cries when she sees the student nurses, still irritable, and was able to sleep for about 2 hours. May 11, 2007: After 4 hours of nursing intervention, the client’s RR= 48cpm, cries when she sees a new student nurse, was irritable, and was able to sleep for about 4 hours.

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Date Identified: May 10, 20075. Hyperthermia related to the inflammatory

process secondary to pneumonia as manifested by increased body temperature 38.1ºc/axilla and skin warm to touch

SB: The signs and symptoms of pneumonia vary widely, depending on the age and health status of the infected persons, the onset usually is sudden and is characterized by malaise, a severe, shaking chills, and fever. The temperature may go s high as 106OF. (Pathophysiology Concepts of Altered Health Status 6th Ed., page 613).

R: Follow-up assessment is essential to determine the effectiveness of pain relief measures used and need for any change.

Collaborative Interventions1. Administered ibuprofen (Dolan) 100 mg/5

ml, 2 mL q 6 hrs round the clock, as prescribed

R: this drug is an antipyretic and an analgesic as well to help lower pain perception by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis

Independent Interventions1. Monitored v/s especially body temperature.

R: temperature is an indicator of fever2. Maintained a well-ventilated environment.

R: to reduce stimulation of ↑ temperature3. Loosened clothingR: to reduce heat4. TSB (Tepid Sponge Bath) doneR: to reduce heat by conduction5. Noted developmental ageR: children are more susceptible to acquiring fever due to underdeveloped immune system6. Promoted rest and sleep

R: to reduce metabolic demands and oxygen consumption7. Instructed SO to increase fluid intake of the

baby through breastfeedingR: to prevent dehydration8. Maintained a calm attitudeR: to reduce stimulants

Collaborative Interventions1. Administered Ibuprofen (Dolan) 100 mg

per 5 ml, 2 ml q 6 hours round the clock.R: It inhibits prostaglandin synthesis.

Desired Outcome Within 30 minutes to 1 hour of nursing interventions, patient’s body temperature will fall within normal limits (36.5-37.5ºC/axilla)

Actual Outcome After 1 hour of nursing interventions, the patient’s body temperature decreased to 37.5ºC/axilla. Body temperature remained within normal limits (36.5-37.5 degrees Celsius)

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Date Identified: May 9, 20076. Impaired Skin Integrity related to presence of Chest tube thoracotomy secondary to empyema as manifested by presence of incision site located at the left lower anterior chest.

SB: Injury to skin and surrounding soft tissue can occur from sharp objects, blunt force, injury scraping mechanism or surgical procedures resulting in lacerations, abrasions, avulsions, puncture wounds. (p.2502. Medical Surgical Nursing by Joyce Black, 7th ed. Vol.2)

Independent Interventions1. Noted changes in vital signs.R: To detect any deviations from the normal.2. Noted signs of infection such as increase in

temperature, presence of purulent discharges, redness, inflammation or edema.

R: To assess the extent of injury.3. Kept incision area clean and dry.R: To assist body’s natural process of repair.4. Encouraged SO and other care givers

handwashing.R: To lessen introduction of microorganisms.5. Encouraged mother in breastfeeding.R: To aid in healing and maintain general good health.6. Encouraged mother and other care givers to

position the client properly.R: To secure chest tube.7. Removed wet/wrinkled linens.R: Moisture potentiates skin breakdown.8. Monitored IV site for signs of infection

such as inflammation and thrombophlebitis while administering Vancomycin.

R: vancomycin is irritating to tissue cells and veins upon administration

Collaborative Interventions1. Administered Vancomycin 65mg IV

infusion over 1 hour every 6 hoursR: Hinders bacterial cell wall synthesis, damaging the bacterial plasma membrane and making the cell more vulnerable to osmotic pressure. Also interferes with RNA synthesis.2. Change of dressing done by the pediatric

intern

Desired OutcomeWithin 8 hours of nursing intervention, the incision site will not show signs of infection (redness, swelling, increase in temperature, presence of purulent discharges), and the patient will maintain physical well-being.

Actual OutcomeAfter 8 hours of nursing intervention:May 9,10,11, 2007- the incision site did not show signs of infection and the patient maintained a physical well-being.

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Date Identified: May 9, 20077. Ineffective protection related to invasion of

the bacteria in the lungs as manifested by RR=78cpm, nonproductive cough with (+)rales on left lower lung field, presence of IV catheter on right arm, chest X-ray examination reveals there are patchy densities noted in the left lower lung with the conclusion of Moderate Pleural Fluid in the left lung.

SB: The feature common to all types of pneumonia is an inflammatory pulmonary response to the offending organism or agent. The defense mechanism of the lungs lose effectiveness and allow organisms to penetrate the sterile lower respiratory tract, where inflammation develops. Disruption of the mechanical defenses of cough and ciliary motility leads to colonization of the lungs and subsequent infection.(Black, Joyce. Medical-Surgical Nursing 7th ed. P1839-1941)

Date Identified: May 9, 20078. Risk for Injury: Falls related to developmental age and impaired primary

R: Prevents growth of microorganisms and facilitate healing.

Independent Interventions1. Continually monitored vital signs.R: a change in vital signs is a significant indicator for the alteration of the patients body defenses.2. Noted for any changes related to systemic and/ or alterations in breathingR: to know level of impairment 3. Evaluated for signs of infection especially when immune system is compromisedR: to relieve the symptoms manifested by the patient.4. Determine duration of problemR: to note degree of impairment5. Did handwashing before and after patient interaction.R: To prevent transmission of mircroorganisms.6. Encouraged SO to breastfeed the baby every 2 hours of per demandR: Nutrients have been demonstrated to be required for the immune system to function effectively.

Collaborative Interventions1. Administered Vancomycin 65mg IV infusion over 1 hour every 6 hoursR: Hinders bacterial cell wall synthesis, damaging the bacterial plasma membrane and making the cell more vulnerable to osmotic pressure. Also interferes with RNA synthesis.

Independent Interventions1. Evaluated age, sex, developmental level,

Desired OutcomeWithin 8 hours of nurse-patient interaction, the patient will be free from any complications brought about by the disease such as having an RR within normal range, (-) nasal discharges, (-) rales and wheezes, (-) cough, accessory muscles not used

Actual OutcomeMay 9, 2007After 8 hours of nursing interventions, RR was 56 cpm , (-) nasal discharges , rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung field. Accessory muscles not used when breathing, nonproductive still noted. May 10, 2007After 8 hours of nursing interventions, patient had an RR of 58cpm, (-) nasal discharges, rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung field. Accessory muscles not used when breathing, nonproductive cough still noted.

May 11, 2007After 8 hours of nursing intervention, patient had an RR of 60 cpm, (-) nasal discharges, rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung field but are fainter. Accessory muscles not used when breathing, nonproductive cough still noted.

Desired outcomeWithin the course of nursing interventions,

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defensesCues: 3 months old female, presence of IV line, presence of 02 cannula, altered body defenses 2o to pneumonia

SB: The newly developed locomotion abilities and insatiable curiosity of toddlers make them a dangerto their own well-being. Toddlers need close supervision at all times and particularly when in environments that have not been childproofed. Parental actions create a safer environment for exploratory behavior. Limit setting is extremely important for toddler’s safety. Toddlers completely depend on their parents for physical safety.(Potter and Perry. Fundamentals of Nursing 5th ed. P196)

Date Identified: May 10, 20079. Knowledge Deficit of mother regarding diagnosis, condition, prognosis and treatment of her child related to information misinterpretation as manifested by inability to recognize and explain condition of her child when asked and unfamiliarity with the treatment for condition of child.

SB: The personal impact of low literacy skills is seen at many levels. School children fall behind their classmates; youth drop out of school; adults lack the skills to succeed in today’s economy and are often unemployed or underemployed; parents cannot help their children develop pre-literacy skills, read them a story or help them with their homework.

level of cognition and competence.R: children, younger adults, elderly persons and men are at greater risk.2. Continually assessed level of consciousness, behavior and temperament.R: This factors may result in careless/increased risk taking without consideration of consequences.3. Identified hazards, dangerous equipments and other hazards on the environment.R: To promote safe physical environment and individual safety.4. Washed hands before and after dealing with child.R: To reduce transfer of microorganisms5. Encouraged SOs to watch over child at all times and not leave him alone.R: To prevent falls and other harm to child.

Independent Interventions1. Determined pt's mother and aunt's ability to learn.R: to know how one will approach the problem.2. Be alert to signs of avoidance.R: May need to allow client to suffer the consequences of lack of knowledge before the client is ready to accept info.3. Provided information relevant to the situation.R: Encourages continuation of efforts4. Begun with information client already knows and move to what the client does not know.R: Limits sense of being overwhelmed

patient will be free from injury and SOs will take steps to reduce risk factors and modify environment to protect child from injury

Actual outcomeMay 9-11, 2007Throughout the entire nurse-patient interaction, patient was free from any signs of injury such as that from a fall and other complications

Desired outcomeWithin the course of nurse-patient interaction, patient’s aunt and mother will be able to participate in learning process by explaining the condition of the child

Actual outcome:May 10, 2007After 3 hours of nurse-patient interaction, the patient's mother verbalized “possible sad diay dai noh na na kuha ni niya tungod sa panabako sa papa?”

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Illiteracy impacts every facet of a person’s life including the ability to read dosage or precautions on medicine bottles, vote properly, apply for jobs or just read a newspaper. (http://www.fightpoverty.mmbrico. com/reasons/educational.html)

Date Identified: May 11, 200710. Readiness for enhance knowledge.Cues: asking questions, talking to others and generally showing interest

SB: Clients / Significant Other / primary care giver who are ready to learn often behaves differently than those who are not. A client/person who is not ready may seek out information, for instance, by asking question, reading books or articles, talking to others and generally showing interest. (Kozier, Erb, Blais and Wilkinson)

5. Dealt with the client’s anxietyR: anxiety interferes with the client’s learning process6. Provided active role for clients in the learning process.R: provide sense of control over situation.

Independent Interventions1. Verified client’s/ person’s level of

knowledge about specific topics. R: Provides opportunity to assure accuracy and completeness of knowledge base for future learning.2. Determined the motivation and expectation

for learning. R: Provides insight useful in developing goals and identifying information needed.3. Provided information for additional

knowledge in varied formats appropriate for clients/ person’s learning style.

R: Use of multiple formats increase learning and retention of what was learned.4. Reinforced the information and evaluate the

person’s understanding about the topic.R: Reinforcement and evaluation will help greatly in assessing the effectiveness of teaching.5. Provided bedside conference.

R: To further enhance knowledge.

Desired OutcomeWithin 1 hour of student-nurse interaction, the patient will demonstrate eagerness on the teaching activities done.

Actual OutcomeAfter 1 hour of student-nurse interaction, the significant other participated actively by repeating and rephrasing most information said and stated her conclusion.

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DISCHARGE PLAN

HEALTH TEACHINGS: Encouraged SO to do chest tapping to facilitate mobilization of secretions Encouraged SO to change patient’s position regularly to facilitate drainage and mobilization of secretions Instructed SO to observe proper hygiene such as bathing the baby daily to keep the baby from infection Instructed SO to keep the baby clean and dry Advised SO to give toys that are big for the mouth so that the patient may not be able to swallow these Instructed SO to keep incision site clean and dry Instructed SO to observe proper positioning during breastfeeding Instructed SO to do hand washing before and after contact with patient Instructed SO not to take the patient to crowded places to prevent risk of having infection Instructed SO to give medications at the right route, dose and time

ANTICIPATORY GUIDANCE: Advised SO to report to the attending physician any side effects of the prescribed medications Instructed SO to report any signs of infection on incision site such as redness, swelling, pain, increase temperature, foul odor, discharges at site Instructed SO to have a regular check up with the physician Instructed SO to check incision site regularly for any unusualities such as Advised SO to give the prescribed medications Advised SO not to stop medications if not ordered by the physician, especially antibiotics Instructed SO to visit the attending physician, Dr. Lydia Chang 1 week after discharge

SAFETY, SECURITY AND SPIRITUALITY Encouraged SO to continue praying to God and to attend mass every Sundays and other days

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Encouraged to put pillows bedside the baby on the bed to avoid injury or falls Advised not to leave patient alone and to keep watch at all times Instructed to keep sharp objects away from the patient.

MEDICATIONS: Advised SO to give the following medications at the right time, right dose, right frequency and right route.

1. Vancomycin 65 mg intravenous infusion over 1 hour every 6 hours2. Ibuprofen (Dolan) 100mg/5 ml, 2ml by mouth every 6 hours round the clock3. Multivitamins (Nutrilin) drops 0.3ml once a day4. Vitamin C (Ceelin) drops 0.3 ml once a day

INCISION CARE: Advised SO to check incision site for signs of infection such as redness, pain, presence of discharges, inflammation and increase in temperature and to inform the physician if these occur Avoid touching incision site if not necessary Advised to do hand washing before and after incision care

NUTRITION: Advised to follow the right vitamin C and multivitamin supplements to be taken Encouraged to continue breastfeeding until 2 years old, if possible Instructed SO to burp the baby every after feeding to prevent vomiting or aspiration

ENVIRONMENT: Encouraged to maintain a safe home free from any healthy hazards such as sharp objects, chemicals and matches Encouraged to provide adequate lighting on stairs and bathrooms to avoid injury Encouraged to maintain cleanliness of the house and surroundings Encouraged to provide a well ventilated area Encouraged to listen to soft music for relaxation

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Appendix ADRUG STUDY

1. Vancomycin 65mg IV infusion over 1H q 6H Classification: Anti-InfectiveIndication: serious or severe infections when other antibiotics are ineffective or contraindicated, including those caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis or dephtheroid organismsAction: Hinders bacterial cell wall synthesis, damaging the bacterial plasma membrane and making the cell more vulnerable to osmotic pressure. Also interferes with RNA synthesisAdverse reactions: CNS: fever, pain                            CV: thrombophlebitis at injection site, hypotension                            EENT: ototoxicity                            GI: nausea, pseudomembranous colitis                            GU: nephrotoxicity                            RESPI: wheezing, dyspneaContraindications: hypersensitivityNursing considerations: 1. Tell patient to take entire amount of drug exactly as directed, even after he feels better2. Tell S.O to report adverse reactions immediately3. Monitor patient for any signs and symptoms of super infection4. Monitor patient carefully for signs of red-man syndrome, which can occur if drug is infused too rapidly. S/S include maculopapular rash on face, neck, trunk and limbs and pruritus and hypotension caused by histamine release.5. if wheezing, urticaria or pain and muscle spasm of the chest and back occur, notify physician.  2. ibuprofen (Dolan) 100/5 2mL q 6H RTC Classification: NSAIDS

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Indication: Fever, mild to moderate pain, juvenile arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritisAction: Unknown. May inhibit prostaglandin synthesis to produce anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects.Adverse reactions:GI: epigastric distress, nausea, occult blood loss, peptic ulceration, diarrhea, constipation, abdominal pain, bloating, GI fullness, dyspepsia, flatulence, heartburn, decreased appetite.Hematologic: prolonged bleeding time, anemia, neutropenia, pancytopenia, thrombocytopenia, aplastic anemia, leukopenia, agranulocytosis.Respiratory: bronchospasmSkin: pruritus, rash, urticaria, stevenson-johnson syndrome 

Contraindications:> contraindicated in patients hypersensitive to drug and in those with angioedema, syndrome of nasal polyps, or bronchospastic reation to aspirin or other NSAIDs.> contraindicated in pregnant women> use cautiously in patients with GI disorders, history of peptic ulcer disease, hepatic or renal disease, cardiac decompensation, hypertension, preexisting asthma, or known intrinsic coagulation defects. Nursing Considerations:> check renal and hepatic function periodically in patients on long term therapy. stop drug if abnormalities occur and notify prescriber.> tell patient to take with meals or milk to reduce adverse GI reactions> tell patient that full therapeutic effect for arthritis may be delayed for 2 to 4 weeks. although pain relief occurs at low dosage levels, inflammation doesn’t improve at dosages less than 400 mg QID> caution patient that use with aspirin, alcohol or corticosteroids may increase risk of GI adverse reactions> teach patient to watch for and report to prescriber immediately s/s of GI bleeding, including blood in vomit, urine or stool; coffee-ground vomit, and black tarry stool.> tell patient to contact prescriber before using this drug if fluid intake hasn't been adequiate or if fluids have been lost as a result of vomiting or diarrhea. 

3. vitamin C (Ceelin) drops 0.3 mL OD

Classification: vitamin C supplementIndication: >RDA> Frank and subclinical scurvy>Extensive burns, delayed fracture or wound healing, postoperative wound healing, severe febrile or chronic disease states> to prevent vitamin C deficiency in patients with poor nutritional habits or increased requirements> to acidify urineAction: stimulates collagen formation and tissue repair; involved in oxidation-reduction reactionsAdverse reactions:GI: diarrhea, heartburn, nausea, vomiting

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CNS: faintness, dizzinessContraindications:>contraindicated in patients with an allergy to tartrazine or sulfites> contraindicated in large doses in pregnant patients.Nursing Considerations:> when giving for urine acidification, check urine pH to ensure efficacy> protect solution from light and refrigerate ampules> stress proper nutritional habits to prevent recurrence of deficiency.> inform patient that vitamin C is readily absorbed from citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes, and leafy vegetables> advise smokers to increase intake of vitamin C

4. multivitamins (Nutrilin) drops 0.3 ml OD

Vitamin A Indication: RDA, severe vitamin A deficiency, maintenance dose to prevent recurrence of vitamin A deficiencyAction: a coenzyme that stimulates retinal function, bone growth, reproduction, and integrity of epithelial and mucosal tissues.Adverse reactions: GI: anorexia, epigastric pain, vomiting, polydipsiaSkin: alopecia, dry, cracked, scaly skin, pruritus, lip fissures, erythema, inflamed tongue, lips and gums, massive desquamation, increased pigmentation, night sweatsContraindication:> contraindicated orally in patients with malabsorption syndrome; if malabsorption is from inadequate bile secretion, oral route may be used together with bile salts>contraindicated in patients hypersensitive to any ingredient in product and in those with hypervitaminosis A.Nursing Considerations:> assess patients vitamin A intake from all sources. consider dietary intake. > warn patient not to take megadoses of vitamins without specific indications, to avoid toxicity.>stress that prescribed vitamins shouldn’t be shared with others>instruct patient to protect drug from air and light> teach patient about good food sources of vitamin a, such as green and yellow vegetables, cantaloupe, and liver > advise patient that liquid product can be mixed with food>tell patient to notify prescriber of signs of overdose (nausea, vomiting, appetite loss, malaise, dry and cracking skin and lips, irritability, headache)  Thiamine hydrochloride (Vitamin B1)

Classification: vitamin supplementIndication: RDA, beriberi, wernicke's encephalopathy

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Action: combines with adenosine triphosphate to form a coenzyme needed for carbohydrate metabolismAdverse reactions:CV: cyanosisGI: nausea, hemorrhageRespiratory: pulmonary edemaSkin: feeling of warmth, pruritus, urticaria, diaphoresisContraindications: contraindicated in patients hypersensitive to thiamine productsNursing considerations: > thiamine malabsorption is most likely in alcoholism, cirrhosis, and GI disease> thiamine deficiency can occur after about 3 weeks of totally  thiamine-free diet> thiamine deficiency usually requires concurrent treatment for multiple deficiencies> stress proper nutritional habits to prevent recurrence of deficiency > instrct patient to protect oral doses from light  Pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B6)Classification: vitamin supplementIndication: RDA, dietary vitamin B6 deficiency, seizures related to vit.b6 deficiency, antidote for isoniazid poisoningAction: acts as a coenzyme that stimulates various metabolic functions, including amino acid metabolismAdverse reactions: CNS: paresthesia, unsteady gait, numbness, headacheSkin: photoallergic ractionContraindications: >contraindicated in patients hypersensitive to drug> don’t use drug in patients with heart diseaseNursing Considerations:>patients taking high doses ( 2-6 g daily) may have difficulty walking because of diminished proprioceptive and sensory function>carefully monitor patient's diet. excessive protein intake increases daily pyridoxine requirements.>stress importance of compliance and of good nutrition if drug is prescribed for maintenance therapy to prevent recurrence of deficiency.>advise patient taking levodopa alone to avoid multivitamins containing pyridoxine because of decreased levodopa effect.>warn patient that there may be burning at injection site  Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)Classification: vitamin supplementIndication: RDA, vitamin b12 deficiency from inadequate diet, subtotal gastrectomy, or other condition, disorder or disease, except malabsorption, related to pernicious anemia or other GI disease. also indicated for methylmalonicaciduria, schiling test flushing dose

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Action: a coenzyme that stimulates metabolic function and is needed for cell replication, hematopoisesis, and nucleoprotein and myelin synthesis.Adverse reaction:GI: transient diarrheaRespi: pulmonary edemaskin: itching, transitory exanthema, urticariaContraindications:>contraindicated in pxs hypersensitive to Vit.b12 or cobalt and in those with early Leber's disease (hereditary optic nerve atrophy)> use cautiously in anemic patients with coexisting cardiac, pulmonary or hypertensive disease> use cautiously in premature infants; product may contain benzyl alcohol which may cause "gasping syndrome"Nursing Considerations:>don’t mix parenteral preparations in same syringe with other drugs> drug is physically incompatible with dextrose solutions, alkaline or strongly acidic solutions, oxidizing or reducing agents, heavy metals, chlorpromazine, phytonadione, and other drugs> don’t give large doses of vitamin b12 routinely; drug is lost through excretion> deficiencies are more common in patients who are strict vegetarians and in their breastfed infants.> stress need for patient with pernicious anemia to return for monthly injections or weekly use of intranasal form> teach patient using intranasal form how to administer drug>stress importance of follow-up visits and laboratory studies.>teach patient health dietary habits > instruct patient not to take folic acid as a replacement for vit. b12; folic acid may ease blood-related symptoms of pernicious anemia, but neurologic complications will progress. 

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Appendix B

Casey’s Model of Nursing

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Appendix C

Betty Neuman’s Systems Model

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CHAPTER THREE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Gordon’s

3 months old female infant mother’s first pre-natal visit was during the 5th month they live in a congested neighborhood father is a smoker

Physical Examination

May 9, 2007Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right arm, with good skin turgor, no edema, no lesions, long fingernails and toenails with pinkish nail beds, CRT <2 secs, no cyanosis, as well as jaundice.Eyes : symmetrical, anicteric sclerae, smooth, moist and pale palpebral conjunctivae and clear bulbar conjuctivae, (-)discharges, equal distribution of eyebrows and eyelashes, (+) Pupils Equally Round and Reactive to Light and Accomodation, Mouth and throat: lips are symmetrical but pale, no ulcerations and no lesions, buccal mucosa pink, pinkish gums with no ulcerations, tongue located at midline, uvula at midline, no deciduous teethChest: Symmetrical, no lesions, equal chest expansion, presence of CTT incision on left anterior lower chest.Lungs: Equal lung expansion, (+) rales on left lower lung field upon auscultation, CTT attached to left lungExtremities: symmetrical, (+) ROM for all extremities, no lesions, presence of pulse oximeter on right toe.

May 10, 2007Significant findings:Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right armEyes: pale palpebral conjuntivaeMouth and Throat: pale lips

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Lungs: rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung fields. CTT still attached to left anterior lower chestExtremities: pulse oximeter still attached to right toe

May 11, 2007Significant findings:Skin and appendages: Presence of IV catheter on right armEyes: pale palpebral conjuntivaeLungs: rales still heard upon auscultation of left lower lung fields. CTT still attached to left anterior lower chest

Laboratory Results

CBCThis is a basic screening test in all patients and is one of the most frequently ordered laboratory procedure. The significant findings in the CBC gives valuable information about patient’s diagnosis, response to treatment and recovery

WBC 23.7 K/uLNEU 14.9 63.0 %NLYM 3.47 14.7 %LMONO 3.40 14.4 %NEOS .972 4.11 %EBASO .914 3.86 %B

RBC 4.11 M/uLHGB 10.1 g/dLHCT 29.5%MCV 71.9 fLMCH 24.7 pgMCHC 34.3 g/dLRDW 18.6%

PLT 477.6 K/uLMPV 7.57 fL

(see Laboratory entry for implications)

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CONCLUSION

Through the assessment and data gathered, we concluded that the patient was affected by mindless actions done by the parents. Since the patient is still an infant, she greatly depended for

her needs from her parents. Parents are responsible of keeping their child safe and well protected from harmful agents of environment.

Moreover, we connected her father’s usage of cigarettes, a congested neighbor, as well as her sibling’s coughs and colds, which increased her exposure to the disease. And in the long run, when the

illness was not managed immediately, it complicated to a more serious condition, which is empyema, an infection that often spreads from the lungs following pneumonia. This then cause an

accumulation of a large quantity of pus and fluid in the cavity between the lungs and their membrane. With this illness the patient is experiencing, the growth of her respiratory system is not normal.

She is greatly affected with her illness, affecting not only her physical development but also her social development. In her age, she already experienced such agony of undergoing pain.

Because of such serious conditions, holistic nursing care is indeed needed by the family in order to cope up and improve their lifestyle or way of living, as well as preserve their health for

the better. They must be always reminded that it is a great responsibility to keep their children especially their infants always safe from harmful environment. Health is better managed with

prevention. Changes must be made in order to avoid the recurrence of the illness and develop further complications. The student nurses also conclude that utmost care must be given to the patients

with this kind of illness especially in infant cases. Identification of symptoms is carefully assessed so as to avoid complications.

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is recommended that student nurses enhance their knowledge, skills and attitude to further improve total patient care and to give the patients better service to aid them as they recuperate from their

illness and to prevent a recurrence of the same condition, as well as other illnesses.

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The school administrators and faculty members of the College of Nursing may as well lift their standards for training nursing students so as to be able to render the most competent services

possible to the clients.

It is also recommended that one must always take care of their own health. Since we all are responsible for our own bodies, and whatever things we do always have consequences, may it be

a punishment or a reward. Besides, "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure."

In addition, the researchers have recommendations for the following people:

To the nurses or student nurses caring for a patient with empyema secondary to pneumonia or any respiratory diseases: they should show the proper attitude towards dealing with this kind

of illnesses and in dealing with the affected family. They must always be reminded that before anything else, patient comes first regardless of their race, illness, religion and belief.

Bibliography:

Black, Joyce and Jane Hokanson Hawkes. Medical-Surgical Nursing. 7th Philippines: Elsevier Saunders, 2004.

Davis Drug Handbook for Nurses

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