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FEED ENHANCERS: nutritional perspectives

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ruminants but rarely in poultry. Enzymes however are used in most

poultry feeds and have been for many years and are also very commonly found in pig feeds, particularly in the starter and early grower phases. Since the substantial rise in phosphate prices and at times shortage of supply phytase use is very widespread. Enzymes are rarely used in ruminants and much more research is required in this area in order to find an effective solution if indeed there is one.

Antioxidants and preservatives are widely used in all feed types in order to protect val-uable nutrients for the shelf life of the feed.

Omega-3 fatty acids are becoming more popular due to the removal of fishmeal from feeds. The oil present in fishmeal is a source of omega-3 fatty acids and fishmeal removal has led to most diets being deficient in these fatty acids. As more and more research is done into their effects and benefits it is certain their use will increase further.

Mycotoxin binders are becoming more common as the world’s weather patterns are leading to more challenging growing condi-tions increasing the risk of mould growth. Moulds are the source of mycotoxins and as recent surveys have shown around 40

percent of feed and raw mate-rial sam-ples tested from around the world have one

The term feed enhancer covers a very wide range of products ranging from simple flavours and sweeteners

through to enzymes. They all have the same basic aim, which is to enhance the feed in a beneficial way. The enhancement may be to make the feed more attractive to the animal or bird or to enable more nutrients to be obtained from it. The ultimate goal is to maximise the feed intake and ensure that the most nutrients can be obtained from it in order to maximise performance and achieve the most profitability.

Types of Enhancer1 Flavours and sweeteners2. Enzymes3. Antioxidants4. Preservatives5. Omega-3 fatty acids6. Mycotoxin binders7. Yeasts

Popularity The popularity of the different products

depends upon the species with some being very specific and some used across all spe-cies. Flavours are widely used in pigs and

or more mycotoxin present.Yeasts and yeast cell wall products have

been shown to enhance feed digestibility across all species with species-specific prod-ucts available.

How do they work?

1. Flavours and sweetenersThe basic mode of action of a flavour is

to increase feed intake. There are a huge number of different products such as ani-seed, citrus, red fruits, vanilla and so on. It has been shown that certain flavours are better for some species than others. Typically ani-seed and citrus are used in ruminant feeds whereas red fruits and vanilla are used in pig feeds typically starter feeds. They range from simple natural products to very complex blends of synthetic, natural and nature identi-cal compounds.

The aim however is the same: to attract the animals to the feed and make them con-sume more. They are also useful in masking less palatable raw materials. It has also been shown that certain components particularly those in essential oils have other properties. Carvacrol found in oregano oil has been shown to stimulate digestive enzymes in the small intestine thus potentially improving feed digestibility. It has been shown to have an antimicrobial effect on certain Gram negative species such as E. coli

Sweeteners are also useful particularly for pigs and ruminants and can be simply as molasses or sugars such as dextrose or lactose. Molasses is also useful as a pelleting aid and dust suppressant making the feed

FEED ENHANCERS:

nutritional perspectivesby Richard Remmer, Director of Nutrition at Anpario plc, United Kingdom

Figure 1

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy14 | november - december 2012

FEATURE

ruminants but rarely in poultry. Enzymes however are used in most

poultry feeds and have been for many years and are also very commonly found in pig feeds, particularly in the starter and early grower phases. Since the substantial rise in phosphate prices and at times shortage of supply phytase use is very widespread. Enzymes are rarely used in ruminants and much more research is required in this area in order to find an effective solution if indeed there is one.

Antioxidants and preservatives are widely used in all feed types in order to protect val-uable nutrients for the shelf life of the feed.

Omega-3 fatty acids are becoming more popular due to the removal of fishmeal from feeds. The oil present in fishmeal is a source of omega-3 fatty acids and fishmeal removal has led to most diets being deficient in these fatty acids. As more and more research is done into their effects and benefits it is certain their use will increase further.

Mycotoxin binders are becoming more common as the world’s weather patterns are leading to more challenging growing condi-tions increasing the risk of mould growth. Moulds are the source of mycotoxins and as recent surveys have shown around 40

percent of feed and raw mate-rial sam-ples tested from around the world have one

The term feed enhancer covers a very wide range of products ranging from simple flavours and sweeteners

through to enzymes. They all have the same basic aim, which is to enhance the feed in a beneficial way. The enhancement may be to make the feed more attractive to the animal or bird or to enable more nutrients to be obtained from it. The ultimate goal is to maximise the feed intake and ensure that the most nutrients can be obtained from it in order to maximise performance and achieve the most profitability.

Types of Enhancer1 Flavours and sweeteners2. Enzymes3. Antioxidants4. Preservatives5. Omega-3 fatty acids6. Mycotoxin binders7. Yeasts

Popularity The popularity of the different products

depends upon the species with some being very specific and some used across all spe-cies. Flavours are widely used in pigs and

or more mycotoxin present.Yeasts and yeast cell wall products have

been shown to enhance feed digestibility across all species with species-specific prod-ucts available.

How do they work?

1. Flavours and sweetenersThe basic mode of action of a flavour is

to increase feed intake. There are a huge number of different products such as ani-seed, citrus, red fruits, vanilla and so on. It has been shown that certain flavours are better for some species than others. Typically ani-seed and citrus are used in ruminant feeds whereas red fruits and vanilla are used in pig feeds typically starter feeds. They range from simple natural products to very complex blends of synthetic, natural and nature identi-cal compounds.

The aim however is the same: to attract the animals to the feed and make them con-sume more. They are also useful in masking less palatable raw materials. It has also been shown that certain components particularly those in essential oils have other properties. Carvacrol found in oregano oil has been shown to stimulate digestive enzymes in the small intestine thus potentially improving feed digestibility. It has been shown to have an antimicrobial effect on certain Gram negative species such as E. coli

Sweeteners are also useful particularly for pigs and ruminants and can be simply as molasses or sugars such as dextrose or lactose. Molasses is also useful as a pelleting aid and dust suppressant making the feed

FEED ENHANCERS:

nutritional perspectivesby Richard Remmer, Director of Nutrition at Anpario plc, United Kingdom

Figure 1

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy14 | november - december 2012

FEATURE

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy november - december 2012 | 15

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FEATURE

Schothorst Feed Research (SFR) has officially opened its new research

facilities for pigs and sows. The new facilities will enable this independent research organisation to expand its feed research on the effect of technical performances.

In the new faci l i t ies also TOPIGS will test dif ferent sow and boar lines of TOPIGS. Through this co-operation not only the capacity for nutritional research has expanded but also the interaction between nutrition and genetics will be a structural aspect of the research programme. The opening of the new pig facility marks the last stage of a nine million euro investment programme by Schothorst Feed Research.

The sows and pigs facilities of Schothorst will house 350 sows and 3000 growing/finishing pigs and enables both TOPIGS and SFR to perform experiments on a practical scale. Furthermore, 40 Insentec feeder stations are installed that enable measuring individual performance and feed intake of 480 animals. A separate metabolic unit is established for fundamental, c h a l l e n ge , b a l a n ce a nd digestibility expe¬riments. These type of studies are basis for the SFR feedstuff tables and nutrient recommendations. “We are ready for the future”, says Dr Piet van der Aar, research director of SFR . The facilities comply with the EFSA guidelines for animal experiments which will be ef fective in 2017. “We are excited about the possibilities

t h a t t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n with TOPIGS of fer. Our international activities require that we have more expertise about nutritional requirements of different genetic lines and conditions. We will be better able to advise our customers world wide based on our own research” The data collection is digitally as much as possible in order to minimize human errors. Data of individual animals with different genetic background will be used by TOPIGS for analyses of their selection and evaluation programmes. The primarily purpose of TOPIGS is to evaluate various highly productive genetic lines under practical conditions. Schothorst Feed Research is an independent private research organisation which

advises feed manufacturers world wide. Feed producers in 16 countries, representing approximately seven percent of the global feed production, are using the SFR feedstuff table, nutrient recommendations and expertise in formulating t he i r feeds and feed ing programmes.With a production of over 1.1 million crossbred gilts and seven million doses of semen per year TOPIGS is one of the biggest genetics suppliers in the world. In several countries, TOPIGS is either the market leader or one of the major suppliers. Research, innovation and genet ic improvement are the cornerstones of our company. By continuously improving its products, the company enable its clients to achieve maximum results.

Schothorst Feed Research and Topigs join forces in new research facilities

News November - December 2012 NEWS

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy november - december 2012 | 3

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• Xylanase• Beta-glucanase• Amylase• Cellulase• Mannanase• Protease

Xylanase is the most widely used NSP enzyme followed by beta-glucanase and their points of activity are shown in Figure 1.

The second type of enzyme is phytase which acts on the phytate molecule which is the major phosphorus storage compound found in plants (Figure 2). It consists of six phosphorus molecules in a ring and cannot be broken down by pigs or poultry as they lack the enzyme endogenously. This is why we find large differences between total and available phosphorus levels for some of the most commonly used raw materials. As with NSPs phytate can also form complexes with other nutrients. Phytate is classed as an anti-nutritive factor and can cause an inflam-matory response within the gastro-intestinal tract. The addition of phytase to the feed can thus release more of the unavailable phosphorus and allowing less reliance on added inorganic phosphates.

There are two types of phytase a 3-phytase and 6-phytase which start to cleave the phosphate at the three carbon and six carbon positions respectively. The enzyme then works around the phytate molecule in a clockwise manner remov-ing the phosphate molecules. More recent products coming onto the market have predominantly been 6-phytase molecules as this is now proving to be the most effective ver-sion. The reason for this is believed to be due to the phosphate molecule on carbon 2 being more dif-ficult to cleave. This results in the 3-phytase enzyme only removing the phos-phate at the third position and then moving on to another phytate molecule whereas the 6-phytase can remove the phosphate on positions 6, 5, 4 and 3 before encountering position 2 resulting in a more complete breakdown of the phytate molecule.

3. AntioxidantsAntioxidants are very widely used in

order to preserve the nutrient value of feed for the duration of its shelf life and to protect it from harsh and aggressive storage conditions. There are two types these being chemical and natural molecules. Chemical antioxidants are typically one or a combina-tion of the following compounds:• Ethoxyquin• Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)• Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)• Propyl gallate

The use of these and in particular ethoxyquin

causes concerns in some quarters, particularly with pet and horse feed manufacturers due to its perceived carcinogenic properties. This has led to the increased use of natural alternatives such as rosemary extracts. Natural alternatives tend to be high in tocopherols and/or anthocy-anins and these are widely found in red fruits.

All of these compounds exhibit the same effect in that they remove free radicals which can form potentially damaging hydroperox-ide molecules. These hydroperoxides then further oxidise to aldehydes and ketones which give rise to the rancid smells associ-ated with ‘off’ feed. Figure 3 shows the main stages of oxidation. The antioxidant molecule removes the free radical by sacrificing itself in order to stop or delay the termination stage.

4. PreservativesPreservatives are commonly included in

feed to prevent spoilage from bacteria and mould and potentially increase feed intake. It has been shown that high levels of bac-teria and moulds in feed can reduce feed intake. The most widely used compounds are organic acids such as:• Formic acid• Propionic acid• Acetic acid• Lactic acid• Sorbic acid

Various salts of the above are also used such as calcium, sodium and ammonium in order to both prolong activity and reduce corrosivity. The type of acid used will depend upon whether the aim is bacterial or mould

control. Formic and acetic acids are the major antibacterial acids whereas propionic is more useful in controlling moulds. Sorbic acid is a proven killer of yeasts and useful for the control of unwanted fermentations.

All of the acids work in the same basic way, which can best be described in Figure 4. The undissociated acid (AH) enters the bacte-rial cell, dissociates disrupting the intracellular pH which the bacteria then tries to correct by actively removing the hydrogen ions. This results in a build-up of the anionic part of the acid molecule which interferes with cellular metabolism and its replication mechanism and results in death of the organism.

5. Omega-3 fatty acidsAll modern livestock and indeed human

more attractive. Other sweeteners such as saccharine and neohespiridin are also used in more complex products and can be com-bined with flavours in species-specific blends.

2. EnzymesThere are many different types of enzyme

used in pig and poultry feeds with the sole aim of increasing the digestibility of the feed. There are two main groups the non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) enzymes and phytase. NSPs are typically large complex branched chains of simple sugars which are indigest-ible by the animal or bird as it lacks the necessary enzymes to do so. These large chain molecules increase the viscosity of the gut contents by trapping water and other nutrients within their structure. This will reduce the mobility of both the endogenous enzymes through the digesta, hence reduc-ing digestibility and slowing down the flow of nutrients into the body as their passage to the intestinal wall be slower. These large molecules can also bind proteins, fats, and minerals within their structure making them unavailable. The addition of NSP enzymes to the feed will enable the breakdown of these complex molecules into simpler ones which the endogenous enzymes can then act on to realise a more complete digestion. This will also release any other trapped nutrients. The most common NSP enzymes used are as follows:

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy16 | november - december 2012

FEATURE

• Xylanase• Beta-glucanase• Amylase• Cellulase• Mannanase• Protease

Xylanase is the most widely used NSP enzyme followed by beta-glucanase and their points of activity are shown in Figure 1.

The second type of enzyme is phytase which acts on the phytate molecule which is the major phosphorus storage compound found in plants (Figure 2). It consists of six phosphorus molecules in a ring and cannot be broken down by pigs or poultry as they lack the enzyme endogenously. This is why we find large differences between total and available phosphorus levels for some of the most commonly used raw materials. As with NSPs phytate can also form complexes with other nutrients. Phytate is classed as an anti-nutritive factor and can cause an inflam-matory response within the gastro-intestinal tract. The addition of phytase to the feed can thus release more of the unavailable phosphorus and allowing less reliance on added inorganic phosphates.

There are two types of phytase a 3-phytase and 6-phytase which start to cleave the phosphate at the three carbon and six carbon positions respectively. The enzyme then works around the phytate molecule in a clockwise manner remov-ing the phosphate molecules. More recent products coming onto the market have predominantly been 6-phytase molecules as this is now proving to be the most effective ver-sion. The reason for this is believed to be due to the phosphate molecule on carbon 2 being more dif-ficult to cleave. This results in the 3-phytase enzyme only removing the phos-phate at the third position and then moving on to another phytate molecule whereas the 6-phytase can remove the phosphate on positions 6, 5, 4 and 3 before encountering position 2 resulting in a more complete breakdown of the phytate molecule.

3. AntioxidantsAntioxidants are very widely used in

order to preserve the nutrient value of feed for the duration of its shelf life and to protect it from harsh and aggressive storage conditions. There are two types these being chemical and natural molecules. Chemical antioxidants are typically one or a combina-tion of the following compounds:• Ethoxyquin• Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)• Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)• Propyl gallate

The use of these and in particular ethoxyquin

causes concerns in some quarters, particularly with pet and horse feed manufacturers due to its perceived carcinogenic properties. This has led to the increased use of natural alternatives such as rosemary extracts. Natural alternatives tend to be high in tocopherols and/or anthocy-anins and these are widely found in red fruits.

All of these compounds exhibit the same effect in that they remove free radicals which can form potentially damaging hydroperox-ide molecules. These hydroperoxides then further oxidise to aldehydes and ketones which give rise to the rancid smells associ-ated with ‘off’ feed. Figure 3 shows the main stages of oxidation. The antioxidant molecule removes the free radical by sacrificing itself in order to stop or delay the termination stage.

4. PreservativesPreservatives are commonly included in

feed to prevent spoilage from bacteria and mould and potentially increase feed intake. It has been shown that high levels of bac-teria and moulds in feed can reduce feed intake. The most widely used compounds are organic acids such as:• Formic acid• Propionic acid• Acetic acid• Lactic acid• Sorbic acid

Various salts of the above are also used such as calcium, sodium and ammonium in order to both prolong activity and reduce corrosivity. The type of acid used will depend upon whether the aim is bacterial or mould

control. Formic and acetic acids are the major antibacterial acids whereas propionic is more useful in controlling moulds. Sorbic acid is a proven killer of yeasts and useful for the control of unwanted fermentations.

All of the acids work in the same basic way, which can best be described in Figure 4. The undissociated acid (AH) enters the bacte-rial cell, dissociates disrupting the intracellular pH which the bacteria then tries to correct by actively removing the hydrogen ions. This results in a build-up of the anionic part of the acid molecule which interferes with cellular metabolism and its replication mechanism and results in death of the organism.

5. Omega-3 fatty acidsAll modern livestock and indeed human

more attractive. Other sweeteners such as saccharine and neohespiridin are also used in more complex products and can be com-bined with flavours in species-specific blends.

2. EnzymesThere are many different types of enzyme

used in pig and poultry feeds with the sole aim of increasing the digestibility of the feed. There are two main groups the non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) enzymes and phytase. NSPs are typically large complex branched chains of simple sugars which are indigest-ible by the animal or bird as it lacks the necessary enzymes to do so. These large chain molecules increase the viscosity of the gut contents by trapping water and other nutrients within their structure. This will reduce the mobility of both the endogenous enzymes through the digesta, hence reduc-ing digestibility and slowing down the flow of nutrients into the body as their passage to the intestinal wall be slower. These large molecules can also bind proteins, fats, and minerals within their structure making them unavailable. The addition of NSP enzymes to the feed will enable the breakdown of these complex molecules into simpler ones which the endogenous enzymes can then act on to realise a more complete digestion. This will also release any other trapped nutrients. The most common NSP enzymes used are as follows:

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy16 | november - december 2012

FEATURE

diets are deficient in omega-3 fatty acids due to the reduction and removal of fishmeal due to cost and legislative reasons. The increased use of cereals and vegetable protein based diets has led to an over-supply of omega-6 fatty acids. This imbalance can cause an exaggerated inflammatory response to a disease challenge resulting in under performance. The inclusion of an omega-3 source such as salmon oil helps to redress the balance and can result in increased feed intake. Omega-3 fatty acids have been and are continuing to be widely studied with many positive benefits being reported such as:-• Improved growth rates and food

conversion• Improved fertility• Improved viability of young animals and

chicks• Enhanced omega-3 levels of meat and

eggs• Improved bone strength

The perceived mode of action is through altered hormone produc-tion in favour of the anti-inflamma-tory hormones thus reducing their excess pro-inflammatory counter-parts.

6. Mycotoxin bindersMycotoxins are secondary metab-

olites produced by moulds and they are some of the most toxic com-pounds known to man. They are large complex molecules of which many hundred types have been discovered. There are six that are commonly looked for and have been widely researched:• Aflatoxin B1• Fumonisin• Ochratoxin A• Deoxynivalenol (DON)• Zearalenone• T-2

They are rarely present individu-ally and low levels can result in sub-clinical problems that cannot be put down to anything in particular. High levels can cause serious production issues and death and are typical fol-lowing a bad growing year for crops where mould levels are high. They are routinely controlled by the inclu-sion of mycotoxin binders in feed. These fall into three main types as follows:• Mineral binders such as

aluminosilicates• Organic binders such as yeast

cell wall• Biotransformers which may

include one or both of the above in conjunction with enzymesThe mineral binders and biotrans-

formers tend to be more active on the polar toxins such as Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin whereas the yeast cell wall products are more active as DON

and Zearalenone. The aim is that the toxin is bound irreversibly within or to the toxin binder and excreted from the body without being absorbed.

7. YeastsYeasts can be added to feed as a way of

both increasing feed intake and promoting a more beneficial bacterial population within the gut. This has the benefit of reducing the detri-mental bacteria by means of competitive exclu-sion. The beta-glucans and mannans present in yeast cell wall are known to have positive ben-efits on the immune system. Species-specific products are available and they are commonly included in ruminant feed to enhance rumen function.

How are they included?Feed enhancers are normally added directly

to the feed primarily as a powder or granule.

Some of the products may be included as liquids such as organic acids, omega-3 oils. Powder products are usually preferred as no specialist equipment is needed for their addition and a known amount can be added directly to the mixer. Liquid products can usu-ally only be added by the feed manufacturers as they possess the necessary equipment and expertise to do so.

Why use them and what are the benefits?

The aim of feed enhancers is to make the feed more attractive to the animal or bird thus increasing feed intake and ultimately perform-ance. This is becoming ever more important as the price of raw materials keeps on rising and we work towards feeding an ever growing global population. Their use will form an ever more important part of livestock production in the future.

Grain&feed millinG technoloGy november - december 2012 | 17

FEATURE

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November - December 2012

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