Fallacy

It came from the Latin word “fallo” which means “I deceive”

and “fallere” which means

“to deceive”

NEXT

TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS

1. Fallacies of a Languagea. Equivocation

b. Amphiboly

c. Composition

d. Division

e. Accent

f. Figures of Speech

2. Fallacies not of a Language

a. Accident

b. Confusion of Absolute Statement

c. Begging the Question

d. False Cause

e. Consequent

f. Many Questions

g. Non-Sequitur

h. Ignoratio Elenchi

1. Argumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum3. Argumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam5. Argumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam

Equivocation

It is a fallacy consisting of using a word that has the same spelling or sound but the meaning is different, in different parts of the inference.

EXAMPLES1. Every water is in liquid form.

We should water the plant everyday.Ergo, we should plant everyday in liquid form.

2. Every pen is a writing instrument. The cage of a pig is a pen. Ergo, the cage of a pig is a writing instrument.

back

Amphiboly

It is a fallacy expressed in using a statement whose meaning is ambiguous exposing it to various interpretations.

EXAMPLES

1. My wife Jenny said to her sister Eva that she has to go to the mall.

Due to this formulation of the argument, we are at the lost of who is actually being referred to as “she”. Is it Jenny or Eva?

2. “While standing one leg, the boy played with his dog”

Who is standing on one leg: the boy or the dog?

back

Composition

It is a fallacy of considering words or statements as a whole when they should be considered separately. In other words, it is an error of stating that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole.

EXAMPLE:

Those who topped the 1999 Bar Exam are from Cebu

Jose of UST is the 1999 Bar Topnotcher

Ergo, Jose of UST is from Cebu

back

Division

• It is a fallacy of considering words or statements separately when they should have been considered as a whole.

EXAMPLE:

X University is vital to Catholic Education

Mr. Y is a professor of X University

Ergo, Mr. Y is vital to Christian Education

back

Accent

This kind of fallacy arises due to difference in interpretation brought about by misplaced emphasis on a phrase, word or syllable in a proposition.

EXAMPLE:

You may laugh as you like.

(Meaning: Others may laugh)

You may laugh as you like.

(Meaning: You are not prohibited from laughing)

You my laugh as you like.

(Meaning: It is permissible that you laugh or not to laugh)

back

Figures of Speech

This kind of fallacy is a special type of false analogy that consist in wrongly inferring similarity of meaning from similarity of word structure

EXAMPLE

What is immaterial is not material

and what is insoluble is is not soluble;

ergo, what is inflammable is not flammable.

back

Accident

This fallacy is involved in affirming or denying of a thing what has been affirmed or denied only of some accidental modification or condition of the thing or vice versa

EXAMPLE

“You say that you ate what you bought;

but you bought a raw meat;

ergo, you must have eaten raw meat.

back

Confusion of Absolute Statement

This fallacy uses a principle that uses absolutely true statements but restricted by practical limitations

EXAMPLE

“Water boils at 212 Fahrenheit

ergo, water boils at 212 Fahrenheit on the top of Mt. Everest

back

Begging the Question

This fallacy is a.k.a.as petitio principii is involved when we assume a conclusion is proving what is not known in the premises

EXAMPLES

All in this room are wearing shoes

but Martha is in this room

ergo, Martha is wearing shoes

back

False CauseAlso known as “non causa pro causa”This fallacy is involved from a conclusion of causal with a

non-causal relationship under the form of “post hoc, ergo propter hoc” (after this, therefore because of this)

EXAMPLENight comes before the dayergo, night causes the day

Don’t look directly at the sunotherwise, the sun will punish you

A man cannot think without his brainErgo, a man’s brain is the cause of his thought back

Consequent

This fallacy is involved when we infer that an antecedent is true because the consequent is true

EXAMPLE

A dog is an animal

but Moby Dick is an animal

ergo, Moby Dick is a dog

A dog is an animal

but Moby Dick is not a dog

ergo, Moby Dickis not an animal

back

Many Question

This is also known as Complex QuestionThis fallacy is involved when we are asking either a multiple

question as though it were a single question demanding a yes or no answer

EXAMPLE

Have you not given up the habit of cheating in my class?

Have you stopped beating your wife?

back

Non Sequitur

It is the Latin of “it does not follow”

This fallacy is involved to true but unrelated propositions without any connections

EXAMPLES

Cows give milk

but sheep have wool

ergo, goats chew their cud

As a student of a Catholic school, I will become a minister later.

back

Ignoratio elenchi

It came from the Latin ignoratio = irrelevant

elencho = conclusion

This fallacy is involved when we prove other conclusions not the issue t be concluded

It has various minor forms as presented below:

back

1. Argumentum ad hominem 2. Argumentum ad populum3. Argumentum ad misericordiam 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam5. Argumentum ad baculum 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam

Argumentum ad hominem

This fallacy is the Latin for “attack or appeal to the man”

This fallacy is involved in court hearings when the defense or prosecution is attacking the dignity of the person or witness instead of weighing the evidences presented

EXAMPLE

“Your honor, it would be very difficult for us not to believe that the accused of this murder case is not guilty, because his father and grandfather has been convicted of murder several years ago. And besides, the accused is of bad moral reputation.”

back

Argumentum ad populum

This is known as “appeal to people” where popular prejudice is preferred rather than truth and reason where an argument may be believed by most, if not by all people, although that argument may not be true

EXAMPLE• “Clinically proven safe and effective…”• “The only earth structure visible in space is the

Great Wall of China.”• Save the user, jail the pusher• “If you will vote for me…”

back

Argumentum ad misericordiam

This is “appeal to pity” a kind of fallacious argument that arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by an appeal to pity, mercy or sympathy

EXAMPLE

“Please, just give me a 3.0 grade. Ishould not receive a failing grade since it is my 3rd time to take this Logic subject”

“The accused in robbery case must not be put to jail, because he is a father of 12 children and his wife is in the hospital suffering from stage 3 cancer.”

back

Agumentum ad vericundiam

This is “appeal to awe, modesty, shame, respect or authority” committed by overawing people by the dignity of those who hold the opinion without special reference to the truth they hold

EXAMPLE• The Roman Catholic Church… “The earth is the center

of the Universe.”

back

Argumentum ad baculum

This is “appeal to force or appeal to might” arises when one appeal to intimidation, or use of force in order to gain acceptance of his propositions

EXAMPLE

President of a state to the citizens: “Commit heinous crimes and you will surely enjoy the lethal injection.”

Father to his son: “If you will not be serious with your studies, your future will be bleak. And you can never expect me to lift finger to help when you need me.”

back

Argumentum ad ignorantiam

The “appeal to ignorance” is committed when we infer a false statement because it cannot be proved, true because it cannot be refuted.

EXAMPLE

This evidence must be accepted

because it cannot be refuted

You cannot declare me guilty

since you cannot prove it.

back