factors related to perception of parental...

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 13 - 21 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702© Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Factors Related to Perception of Parental Efficacy

ROZUMAH BAHARUDIN and JAN LA! MUIJabatan Pengajian Pembangunan Keluarga

Fakulti Ekologi ManusiaUniversiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: family background, quality of parenting, parent-child relationship, parentingknowledge, parental efficacy, parental behaviour

ABSTRAK

Kajian ini menentukan perkaitan di an tara faktor terpilih dalam konteks sosial keluarga (iaitu latarbelakangkeluarga: pendidikan, pendapatan keluarga, dan bilangan anak; dan faklOr keibubapaan: kualiti keibubapaanyang diterima semasa kanak-kanak, kepuasan hubungan keibubapaan, dan pengetahuan keibubapaan)dengan persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan. Responden terdiri daripada 118 orang ibubapa yang mempunyaianak Daljah Lima daripada 2 buah sekolah di Subang Jaya, dan telah dipilih secara persampelan rawakberlapis. Data telah dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan soalselidik yang dijawab sendiri oleh responden.Persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan telah diukur menggunakan skala 'Perception of Parental Efficacy'(Luster 1985). Kualiti keibubapaan yang diterima semasa zaman kanak-kanak telah diukur menggunakanskala 'Supportive Parenting' (Simon et al. 1992) yang telah dimodifikasi. Kepuasan hubungan keibubapaantelah diukur menggunakan 5 item yang telah diadaptasi daripada skala 'Relationship Satisfaction' (Simonset al. 1993) dan 'Parent-child Rational Quality' (Umberson 1989). Pengetahuan keibubapaan telah diukurmenggunakan 5 item yang telah diadaptasi daripada skala 'Parental Influence' (Simon et al. 1993) dan'Parenting Knowledge' (RoZllmah 1995). Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa diperingkat bivariat, pendapatankeluarga, kepuasan hubungan keibubapaan, dan pengetahuan keibubapaan mempunyai perkaitan signifikandengan persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan. Apabila kesemua variabel konteks sosial keluarga dikawal secarastatistik, hanya pengetahuan keibubapaan sahaja menyumbang seCal"a signifikan kepada persepsi keberkesanankeibubapaan. Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa beberapa faktor dalam konteks sosial keluarga bolehmempengaruhi persepi ibu bapa terhadap keberkesanannya sebagai ibu bapa. Hasil kajian menunjukkankepentingan mengambilkira konteks di mana ibu bapa dan anak berinteraksi apabila membantu ibu bapa.Ibu bapa juga perlu diberi kesedaran tentang kepentingan interaksi yang berkualiti dengan anak dan impakpengetahuan keibubapaan terhadap keberkesanan keibubapaan dan perkembangan kanak-kanak.

ABSTRACT

The present study determined the relationships between selected factors within the family social context i.e.family background: education, family income, and number of children; and parenting factors: quality ofparenting received as a child, satisfaction with the parent-child relationship, and parenting knowledge) andperception of parental efficacy. Respondents were 118 parents with Standard Five children from 2 primaryschools in Subang Jaya, and were selected using the stratified-random sampling procedure. Data weregathered using a self-administered questionnaire. Perceiyed parental efficacy was measured using Luster'sperception of parental efficacy scale. Quality of parenting received as a child was measured using a modifiedyersion of Simons et al.'s supportive parenting scale. Satisfaction with the parent-child relationship wasassessed using 5 items adapted from Simons et al. 's relationship satisfaction scale and Umberson's parent-childrational quality scale. Parenting knowledge was measured using 5 items adapted from Simons et al. 's parentalinfluence scale and Rozumah's parenting knowledge scale. Results from the study show that at the bivariatelevel, family income, parent-child relationship satisfaction, and parenting knowledge are significantly relatedto perception of parental efficacy. When all of the family social context variables were statistically controlled,only parenting knowledge showed significant contribution to perception of parental efficacy. The studyconcludes that several factors within the social context of the family may influence parents perception of theirefficacy. Findings from the study indicate the importance of considering the context in which the parent andchild interact when working with parents. In addition, parents should be made aware of the importance ofquality parent-child interaction and the impact of parenting knowledge on parental efficacy and childdeyelopment.

Rozumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

INTRODUCTION

As our society becomes more and moreindustrialized, there is a danger of parentsbecoming too involved in providing their familieswith the economic necessities and neglectingtheir children's psycho-social needs. Parents willtend to spend more time in paid employmentoutside the home, thus leaving them with verylittle time to interact with their children. Lowlevel parent-child interaction is expected to bedetrimental not only to parents' perception oftheir parenting efficacy, but also to theirchildren's development (Luster and Kain 1987;Simons et at. 1990; Teti and Gelfand 1991).

Luster and Kain defined perceived parentalefficacy as the degree of belief parents haveregarding their influence on the development oftheir children. They noted that some parentsbelieve that they have a major impact upon tl1eirchildren's value, self-concept and life choices, whileotl1ers believe that these factors are largely beyondtheir control. According to Simons et at. (1990),when a parent believes that he or she has no skillor competence in getting a fruitful result in aparticular parenting activity, he or she will investvery little time and energy in it. This behaviour isconsistent with Bandura's (1989) theory of selfefficacy, which states tl1at people who have a highsense of efficacy visualize success scenarios thatyield positive guides for performance and theycognitively rehearse good solutions to potentialproblems. Those who judge themselves asinefficacious tend to visualize failure scenarios andoften dwell on how things will go wrong. Bandurafurther asserts that such inefficacious thoughtsweaken motivation and undermine performance.

The present study was designed to determinethe relationships between selected factors withinthe family social context and perceptions ofparental efficacy. These factors include familybackground (i.e. parent's level of education,family income, number of children) andparenting factors (i.e. quality of parentingreceived as a child, satisfaction with parent-childrelationship, and parenting knowledge). Theselection of variables for the present study wasinfluenced by past research. Furthermore,proponents of the ecological perspectiveemphasized the importance of considering thecontext in which the parents and child interactin order to understand parenting and parentalefficacy (Bronfenbrenner 1979; Belsky 1984;Bubolz and Sontag 1993).

Few researchers have focused on theinfluence of factors within the social context ofthe family on the perception of parental efficacy.However, these researchers have providedevidence that parents who have higher levels ofeducational attainment and family income, havefewer children, experienced quality parentingduring childhood, have a satisfying relationshipwith their children, and have a higher level ofparenting knowledge, perceive themselves ashaving a higher level of parental efficacy (e.g.Luster and Kain 1987; Teti and Gefland 1991).Luster and Kain (1987) examined therelationships between several variables associatedwith a parent's status in society (for example,income, education, occupation, race and maritalstatus) and perceived parental efficacy. Parentsin the study were asked, "Considering all thethings that can influence children today, howmuch effect do you think parents can have indetermining how their children will turn out - a great deal, a fair amount, a little, or almost·none?" The study found that majority of theparents surveyed (n = 3,000) thought that parentsexerted "a great deal" of influence on thedeveloping child. Only 7% of those sampledperceived that parents could do little or nothingto influence how children turned out. Race,education and income were found to besignificant predictors of perceived efficacy. Thestudy concluded that parents who are highlyeducated and financially secure are more likelyto perceive themselves as being highly influentialthan low socio-economic status parents.

The number of children in the family canchange or modify a parent's beliefs or perceptionof his or her parenting effectiveness. Findingsfrom previous studies indicate that parents witha larger number of children demonstrate lesseffective parenting behaviour (Blake 1989;Menaghan and Parcel 1991; Hannan andEggebeen 1995), and thus are more likely toperceive themselves as inefficacious paren ts.These studies noted that having a greater numberof child);en in the family could reduce theamount of individual parent-child interaction.In addition, these parents may be ovenvhelmedwith the challenge of having to control andmeet the needs of a larger number of children.Parents who have a poor sense of internal locusof control and poor perception of efficacy maytherefore, be incapable of performing effectivelyas parents.

14 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No.1 1998


In his influential model of the determinantsof parenting, Belsky (1984) explains that parent'spsychological well-being and parental functioningmay be traced back to the experiences parentshad while growing up. The quality of parentingreceived during childhood has an effect on anadult parent's parenting ability and efficacy.Simons et al. (1993) found in their study on 451two-parent families that parental satisfaction withtheir mvn children is related to the quality ofparenting they received during childhood. Theresearchers assert that paren ts who haveexperienced and involved in supportive parentingwhen they were young have ideas conveyed tothem that parenting is a pleasant and gratifyingendeavour. These parents later take theirparenting tasks positively, which subsequentlyhelp them to feel confident and efficacious asparents.

Past studies have shown that parentalknowledge on child rearing influences the qualityof care parents provide for their children (Parksand Smeriglio 1986; Rozumah 1995). Based ona sample of 126 mothers of varying socioeconomic status, Parks and Smeriglio found thatinfant mental development is related to parentingknowledge. Mothers who understand thedevelopmental needs of their infant were foundto be more responsive to the infant. Rozumah'sstudy on a sample of 60 Malay mothers withchildren aged 8 to 9 years lends support to thisfinding. The study revealed significant andpositive relationships among parentingknowledge, quality of stimulation in the home,and children's academic performance. Thefindings seemed to imply that mothers with ahigher level of parenting knowledge have a betterinsight into how to provide stimulation conduciveto their children's development than motherswith a lower level of knowledge.

Many sociological and psychological theorieshave suggested that the parent-child relationshipis one of the strongest social ties available toindividuals, and has important implications forthe parent's behaviour, attitudes, values andadjustments (Umberson 1989). Based on hisstudy on 1502 parents, Umberson concludesthat a positive parent-child relationship isbeneficial to parents' psychological well-being,for it can enhance parents' self-confidence inperforming their parenting tasks. Langenbrunnerand Blanton (1993) interviewed 15 mothers andfat)1ers regarding their level of satisfaction in

their parent-child relationship. They found thatparents with children who displayed affection tothem and engaged in frequent verbal transactionwith them, expressed higher levels of satisfactionin their relationship with their children. Suchpositive parent-child interaction will enableparents to perceive themselves as efficaciousparents.

Thus, the literature reviewed indicates thatparents' perception of their parenting efficacyis influenced by various factors embedded withinthe context in which the parent-childrelationship is evolving. In line with pastresearch and theory, the following hypotheseswere tested in the study:

1. Respondents with a higher level of educationare more likely to have a higher level ofperceived parental efficacy.

2. Respondents with a higher level of familyincome are more likely to have a higher- levelof perceived parental efficacy.

3. Respondents with fewer children are morelikely to have a higher level of perceivedparental efficacy.

4. Respondents who received better qualityparenting during childhood are more likelyto have a higher level of perceived parentalefficacy.

5. Respondents who experienced a higher levelof satisfaction in their parent-child relationshipare more likely to have a higher level ofperceived parental efficacy.

6. Respondents with a higher level of parentingknowledge are more likely to have a higherlevel of perceived parental efficacy.

METHOD

Sample

The research sample consisted of 118 parentsfrom SubangJaya, Selangor, who were identifiedvia their Standard Five children using thestratified-randomized selection procedure. Of the5 primary schools in Subang Jaya, two schoolswere selected at random-Sekolah RendahKebangsaan Subang Jaya and Sekolah RendahKebangsaan Sri Subang Jaya. From these twoschools, 25 parents were randomly recruitedthrough the cohort of all the 16 classes ofStandard Five children. From the 400

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No.1 1998 15

Rozumah Baharudin and Jan Lai iV!un

questionnaires distributed to the children, only161 were returned to the researchers. However,only 118 of the 161 questionnaires were completeand usable.

Data Collection

A bilingual (Malay and English) questionnairewas used as a tool for data collection. Thequestionnaire was taken home by the children,completed by either of the children's parents,and returned to the school after 3 days. Thepretested questionnaire consists of 2 parts, thefirst focusing on the family social context variables(i.e. family background and parenting factors)and the second focusing on perception ofparen tal efficacy.

The family background measures includedage, gender, race, marital status, number ofyears offormal education completed, occupation,family income (total income of respondent andspouse) per month, and number of children inthe family.

The parenting factors included in theanalysis comprised three measures: quality ofparenting received as a child (QPC), satisfactionwith parent-child relationship and parentingknowledge.

The QPC was measured using a modifiedversion of Simons et al.'s (1992) supportiveparenting scale. The scale consists of 7 itemsthat focus on various components of supportiveparenting, for example, concern, communicationand assistance. An example of an item includedin the scale is: "How often did your parents talkto you about what was going on in your lifeduring your childhood days?" The responseformat for each item on the scale is 1 'never', 2'sometimes' (3 out of 10 occurrence), 3 'often'(6 out of 10 occurrence) and 4 'very often' (9out of 10 occurrence). The total score on thescale is achieved by adding the scores of all 7items. Scores attainable by the respondentsranged from 7 to 28. A high score on the scaleindicates high quality parenting received by therespondent as a child, and vice-versa. Cronbachalpha for the scale was found to be 0.89.

The parent-child relationship scale (PRS) assessesparents' satisfaction with their relationship withtheir children. The scale consists of 5 itemsadapted from Simons et al.'s (1993) relationshipsatisfaction scale and Umberson's (1989) parentchild rational quality scale. Each item was ratedon a four-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree)

to 4 (strongly agree). A sample item is, "Hasbeing a parent to your child been an enjoyableexperience?". Possible scores on the scale rangedfrom 5 to 20. Parents with high scores wereconsidered to be experiencing a high level ofsatisfaction in their relationship with theirchildren. Reliability assessment of the scaleyielded an alpha coefficient of 0.88.

The panJnting knowledge (PK) scale measuresthe extent to which parents understand theeffect of their caregiving behaviour on thedevelopment of their children. The scalecomprises 5 items (3 positive and 2 negative)adapted from Simon et cd.'s (1993) parentalinfluence scale and Rozumah's (1995) parentingknowledge scale. Examples of items on the scaleare:(i) Parents' behaviour largely determines a

child's self-concept (e.g. self-image of achild) (positive).

(ii) Parents should treat their children like adultso that they can mature quickly (negative).

The response for each item on the PK scaleranged from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (stronglydisagree). Positive items were recorded so thathigher scores indicated a higher level of parentalknowledge. Scores attainable by the respondentson the scale ranged from 5 to 20. A high scoreon this measure indicates a high level ofparenting knowledge. Cronbach alpha for thestudy sample was calculated to be 0.48.

The Perception ofparental efficacy (POP}:,; scalewas designed to measure two aspects of paren tperception on effectiveness or efficacy-parent'sperceived contingency and perceived importanceof extrafamilial influences (Luster 1985). Theinstrument has 7 items (3 positive and 4 negative)with responses ranging from strongly agree (1)to strongly disagree (4). Examples of positiveand negative items are:

(i). The way children turn out has much to dowith how their parents raised them (positive).

(ii). Success in bringing up a child has much todo with luck (negative).

The 3 positive items were recorded so thathigher scores indicated a higher level ofperceived efficacy. The highest score attainableon the scale is 28, and the lowest possible scoreis 7. High scores indicate a high level of perceivedparental efficacy. Cronbach's alpha of the scalewas calculated to be 0.48 for the study sample.


Factors Related to Perception of Parental Efficac)'

RESULTS

Descriptive Analysis

Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics of thesample, including the family social contextvariables and perception of parental efficacy.Seventy-eight of the respondents were fathers,and the rest (40) were mothers. A majority(54.2%) of the respondents were Malays, withChinese (33.1%), Indians (11.9%) and others(0.8%). The age of the respondents rangedfrom 33 to 56 years with a mean of 41.8. Nearlyall (96.6%) of the respondents were married atthe time of the study. On average (50%), theycompleted secondary level (mean = 13.8 years,SD. = 3.9) education. The median of the totalfamily income per month of the respondent wasRM4548, and the mean was RM5338 (SD. =

RM4583). The average number of children inthe family was 3.5 (SD. = 1.6), and the range wasfrom 1 to 12.

As presented in Table 1, the respondents'scores on the QPC ranged from 7 to 26, witha mean of 16.2 (SD. = 4.6). Most (71.4%) ofthe respondents scored between 10-20 pointson the QPC scale. Only a small percentage(20.2%) of the respondents seemed toexperience high quality parenting as a child.Nevertheless, the respondents tend to indicatethat they have a high level of satisfaction intheir relationships with their own children.Most of the respondents achieved high scores(>15) on the PRS scale. The PRS scores ofthe respondents ranged from 5 to 20, and themean was 17.4 (SD. = 2.7). More than half(56.9%) of the respondents were also foundto have a high level of parental knowledge.Their average scores on the PK scale was 15.8(SD. = 1.9), and the range was from 8-20.The respondents' scores on the POPE rangedfrom 12 to 27, with a mean of 20.7 (SD. =3.1). A large proportion (56.8%) of therespondents tend to perceive themselves ashaving a high level of parental efficacy (seeTable 1).

Test oj the Hypotheses

The Pearson product-moment correlationanalyses were conducted to determine therelationships between the independent and thedependent variables as stated in hypotheses 1-6presented earlier. Table 2 presents the results ofthe correlational analyses. The correlations

TABLE 1Descriptive statistics of respondents and study

variables (n = 128)

n %Gender:Ylale 78 66.1Female 40 33.9

RaceMala)' 64 54.2Chinese 39 33.1Indian 14 11.9Other 1 0.8

Age<40 34* 29.340 - 50 80 69.0>50 2 1.7Mean: 41.8SD: 4.4

lvlarital StatusMarried Il4 96.5Divorced 3 2.5Widowed 1 0.8

EducationHSC or below 59 50.0Diploma 18 15.3Bachelo(s degree 24 20.3Master's degree 8 6.8Ph.D. degree 2 1.7Other professional 7 5.9qualificationMean: 13.8 yearsSD: 3.9 )'ears

Monthly Family Income (RM)< 1000 22 16.61000 - 5000 82 68.7>5000 14 14.7Mean: 5,338SD: 4,583

Number of Childr·en<4 68 57.64 - 6 46 39.0> 6 4 3.4Mean: 3.5SD: 1.6

QPC Scores< 10 10 8.410 U 20 84 71.4>20 24 20.2Mean: 16.2SD: 4.6

PRS Scores< 10 3 2.510 U 15 19 16.0> 15 96 81.5Mean: 17.4SD: 2.8


ROlumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

Note SD. = standard deviation. '" Age of 2respondents ,,'as not reponed.QPC scores = quality of parenting receivedduring childhoodPRS scores = parent- child relationshipsatisfactionPI<. scores = parenting knowledgePOPE scores = perception of parental efficacy

were found to be in the expected direction.However, the size of the correlation coefficientswas small to moderate in magnitude. At thebivariate level, only three of the six hypotheses\,'ere supported (see Table 2). Family income(r = 0.17, P < .05), parent-child relationshipsatisfaction (r = 0.23, P < .05) and parentingknowledge (r = .32, P < .05) are positively andsignificantly correlated with parents'perception of efficacy. However, parents' levelof education and number of children in thefamily and quality of parenting received duringchildhood are unrelated to perception ofparental efficacy. The results of the bivariatecorrelational analyses therefore suggest thatparents with a higher family income perceivedthemselves as more efficacious compared to

parents with a lower family income. Similarly,parents with higher satisfaction in theirrelationships with their children and who havegreater knowledge in parenting scored higheron the POPE scale.

TABLE 2Correlation between family social context variables

and perception of parental efficacy (n = 128)

To examine the combined effect of thefamily social context (family background andparenting factors) on the outcome of interest,and to identify which of the variables uniquelypredicted the perception of parental efficacywhen other variables are controlled, multipleregression analysis was performed. All of theindependent variables were enteredsimultaneously in the analysis. In this way thepercentage of variance accounted for by each ofthe variables could be determined.

Overall, the multiple regression modelperformance is modest, F (6, 111) = 3.112, P <.05 (see Table 3). All of the regression coefficientswere in the expected direction except education(see Table 4). Table 4 also shows results of thebeta weights on the regression analysis ofperception of parental efficacy. Parentalknowledge was found to be the only significantpredictor of perception of parental efficacy whenother family social context variables werecontrolled. The six family social context variablesmanaged to explain only 14% of the variance inthe POPE scores.

0.190.04

0.180.15

0.010.01

SignificanceLevel

r

0.08

0.17-0.080.09

0.230.32

quality of parenting received duringchildhoodparent- child relationship satisfactionparenting knowledgeperception of parental efficacy

PRSPI<.POPE

NoteQPC

Family Social Context

Education

;\1onthly family incmoe

Number of children

QPC

PRS

PI<.

0.043.256.8

1.641.556.9

o51

7

24967

POPE Scores< 10lOll 20>20Mean: 20.7SD: 3.1

PI<. Scores< 1010 U 15> 15Mean: 15.8SD: 1.9

Table 1 (continued)

TABLE 3Overall regression of perception of parental efficacy

Source

RegressionResidual

Total

DF

6III

117

Sum of Mean RSquares Squares

161.07607 26.84601 .37957.54258 8.62651

1118.6186

R

.14

"Sig. F

.007

18 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. &: Hum. Vol. 6 :\0.1 1998


TABLE 4Regression analysis on perception of parental efficacy

Variable B SE B Beta T Sig T

Education -0.023208 0.074742 .029207 -0.311 0.7568

Family 8.874890 6.274704 0.131549 1.414 0.1600income

Number of -0.162979 0.173521 -0.083196 -0.939 0.3496children

QPC 0.039099 0.061056 0.057898 0.640 0.5232

PRS 0.104368 0.109724 0.93885 0.951 0.3436

PK 0.449027 0.158502 0.276860 2.833 0.005

Constant 11.561212 2.628782 4.398 0.000

Note.QPC quality of parenting received during childhoodPRS parent-child relationship satisfactionPK parenting knowledge

DISCUSSION

The results of the present study on 118 parentswith children in primary school provideinformation on the relationships between severalfactors within the family social context andperception of parental efficacy. The study foundthat at the bivariate level, family income is relatedto perception of parental efficacy. Parents with ahigher family income perceived themselves ashaving a higher level of parental efficacycompared to those with lower family income.This finding is consistent with earlier researchon parenting and parental efficacy (Luster andKain 1987; McLyod 1990). Luster and Kain foundthat parents from high income families perceivedthemselves as more efficacious, while those inthe lower income group saw themselves asincapable of influencing the development oftheir children. In addition, parents with financialstrain experience greater emotional stress whichcould affect their ability to parent effectivelyMcLyod (1990). This inability may, in turn, affectparents' perception on their efficacy.

Parent-child relationships, like otherrelationships, are interdependent and reciprocal(Anderson and Sabatelli 1995). The present studyfound a significant correlation between parentchild relationship satisfaction and perception ofparental efficacy. Parents who are satisfied withthe relationship they have with their childrentended to perceive themselves as efficacious.This finding is consistent with findings from alarge body of litl"rature (e.g. Umberson 1989;Cheng et al.1991; Langenbrunner and Blanton

1993; Simons et al. 1993). These studies foundthat parents who are happy and satisfied withthe relationship they have with their childrenperceive themselves as being able to control thedevelopmental outcomes of their children. Ahealthy parent-child relationship may alsoenhance parents' confidence in performing theirparental role. As Bigner (1994) noted, the parentchild relationship is the most significant andintimate relationship among humans. This specialbond can be one of the most fulfilling of humanexperiences and a challenging opportunityfor personal growth and development for anadult.

Knowledge of child development is indeed animportant asset for parents. Results from thecorrelational analyses show that parentingknowledge is positively and significantly related toparental efficacy. After the effects of other familysocial context variables were statistically controlled,parenting knowledge was also found to uniquelypredict parents' perception of their efficacy. Thisfinding parallels those of past studies (e.g. Parksand Smeriglio 1986, Rozumah 1995), whichindicated that parents with a higher knowledge ofchild development provide better quality childrearing than those with lower knowledge. Thusthe findings tended to suggest that parents whoare more conversant \\~th parenting tended tohave a better insight into their efficacy.

Based on the results, the present studyconcludes that several factors within the familysocial context may influence a parent'sperception of his or her parenting efficacy. These


ROlumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

factors include family background characteristics(such as family income) and parenting factors(such as parent-child relationship satisfactionand parenting knowledge). Findings from thisstudy have implications for family practitioners,family counsellors, family-life educators and thosewho work with parents. In particular, findingsfrom this study will help those working withparents to consider the impact of family socialcontext on parenting and parental efficacy. Forexample, parents with low socia-economic statusmay experience different stresses from high socioeconomic status parents. Thus, the kind ofintervention or parenting education programmeoffered to these two groups must be appropriatelydesigned to their needs and circumstances.Appropriate strategies will encourage parents toperform their child-rearing tasks effectively; inthis way perception of efficacy would be positivelyinfluenced.

The interactional processes evolving withinthe family system, especially between the parentand child subsystem, can shape parents'perception of their ability to influence thedevelopmental outcomes of their children. Familydevelopment agents may, therefore, need toencourage parents to engage in positive andstimulating interaction with their children. Suchhealthy interaction would bring happiness andsatisfaction to both parent and child. Parentswho experience a high level of satisfaction intheir relationship with their children will likelyperceive themselves as more efficacious thanparents with a low level of satisfaction.

As in previous studies, findings from thepresent study emphasize the importance ofknowledge in childbearing and childdevelopment. Parenting education programmesshould be made available to all parents regardlessof their socio-economic status. Such programmescan create awareness among parents of thesubstantial influence of caregiving ondevelopment. Parents who are moreknowledgeable will realize that they can controlthe way their children turn out.

The present study was subject to thelimitations of a self-administered questionnaire.Future research may include a similar studyusing the interview technique so that therespondents' perception of their efficacy couldbe better described. The significant contributionof parenting knowledge to parental efficacyfound in the present study underscores the

importance of more work on this front.Furthermore, the low internal reliability obtainedon the parental knowledge scale warrants furtherinvestigation.

The parenting role is only one of the manyadult roles. It would be interesting to know howother adult roles such as a spouse, a worker oran employer influence perceived efficacy amongparents. In addition, child characteristics such asage, gender, and temperamental disposition maybe of interest to future researchers. Future studiesmay also compare the levels of parental efficacybetween rural and urban parents, and betweenparents of different races. An ethnographic studywould also further expand and refine ourunderstanding of the determinants of parentalefficacy.

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(Received 4 November 1998)

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