Exxon Valdez oil spill

The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince WilliamSound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez,an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struckPrince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 a.m.[1] lo-cal time and spilled 11,000,000 to 38,000,000 gallons ofcrude oil[2][3] over the next few days. It is considered to beone of the most devastating human-caused environmentaldisasters.[4] The Valdez spill was the largest in US wa-ters until the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in termsof volume released.[5] However, Prince William Sound’sremote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, orboat, made government and industry response effortsdifficult and severely taxed existing plans for response.The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals andseabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bayoil field, eventually covered 1,300 miles (2,100 km) ofcoastline,[6] and 11,000 square miles (28,000 km2) ofocean.[7]

According to official reports, the ship was carrying ap-proximately 55 million US gallons (210,000 m3) of oil,of which about 10.1 to 11 million US gallons (240,000to 260,000 bbl; 38,000 to 42,000 m3) were spilledinto the Prince William Sound.[8][9] A figure of 11 mil-lion US gallons (260,000 bbl; 42,000 m3) was a com-monly accepted estimate of the spill’s volume and hasbeen used by the State of Alaska’s Exxon Valdez OilSpill Trustee Council,[6] the National Oceanic and Atmo-spheric Administration and environmental groups such asGreenpeace and the Sierra Club.[5][10][11] Some groups,such as Defenders of Wildlife, dispute the official esti-mates, maintaining that the volume of the spill, which wascalculated by subtracting the volume of material removedfrom the vessel’s tanks after the spill from the volume ofthe original cargo, has been underreported.[12] Alterna-tive calculations, based on the assumption that the offi-cial reports underestimated how much seawater had beenforced into the damaged tanks, placed the total at 25 to32 million US gallons (600,000 to 760,000 bbl; 95,000to 121,000 m3).[2]

1 Identified causes

Multiple factors have been identified as contributing tothe incident:

• Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise themaster and provide a rested and sufficient crewfor Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was

During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil coveredlarge areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.

Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushedlarge quantities of fresh oil on to the rocky shores of many of thebeaches in the Knight Island chain.[13] In this photograph, pooledblack oil is shown stranded in the rocks.

widespread throughout the industry, promptinga safety recommendation to Exxon and to theindustry.[14]

• The third mate failed to properly maneuver the ves-sel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.[14]

• Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly main-tain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System(RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would haveindicated to the third mate an impending collisionwith the Bligh Reef by detecting the “radar reflec-tor”, placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reeffor the purpose of keeping boats on course via radar.This cause has only been identified by Greg Palast(without evidentiary support) and is not present inthe official accident report.[15]

1

2 2 CLEAN-UP AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Captain Joseph Hazelwood, who was widely reported tohave been drinking heavily that night, was not at the con-trols when the ship struck the reef. However, as the se-nior officer, he was in command of the ship even thoughhe was asleep in his bunk. In light of the other findings,investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008, “Forgetthe drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood,he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm,the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reefhad he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar wasnot turned on. In fact, the tanker’s radar was left bro-ken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster,and Exxon management knew it. It was [in Exxon’s view]just too expensive to fix and operate.” [16] Exxon blamedCaptain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.[15]

Other factors, according to an MIT course entitled “Soft-ware System Safety” by Professor Nancy G. Leveson,[17]included:

1. Tanker crews were not told that the previous practiceof the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reefhad ceased.[18]

2. The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.[19]

3. Exxon Valdezwas sailing outside the normal sea laneto avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.[19]

4. The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977crew, worked 12–14 hour shifts, plus overtime. Thecrew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load ofoil.[20]

5. Coast Guard tanker inspections in Valdez were notdone, and the number of staff was reduced.[20]

6. Lack of available equipment and personnel ham-pered the spill cleanup.[18]

This disaster resulted in International Maritime Organi-zation introducing comprehensive marine pollution pre-vention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions.The rules were ratified by member countries and, underInternational Ship Management rules, the ships are beingoperated with a common objective of “safer ships andcleaner oceans”.In 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood of-fered a “heartfelt apology” to the people of Alaska, sug-gesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster:“The true story is out there for anybody who wants tolook at the facts, but that’s not the sexy story and that’snot the easy story,” he said.[21] Yet Hazelwood said hefelt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.

Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiledshoreline

2 Clean-up and environmental im-pact

There was use of a dispersant, a surfactant and solventmixture. A private company applied dispersant onMarch24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Becausethere was not enough wave action to mix the dispersantwith the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant wasdiscontinued.[22] One trial explosion was also conductedduring the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a re-gion of the spill isolated from the rest by another explo-sion. The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue, but be-cause of unfavorable weather no additional burning wasattempted.[23][24] The dispersant Corexit 9580 was con-sidered and tried but was not used for shore clean-up duelargely to concerns about toxicity. According to the book-let Shoreline Treatment Techniques published in 1993 bythe Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,while it effectively assisted in clean-up, “It had not beentested, scientific data on its toxicity were either thin orincomplete, and it had operational problems. In addition,public acceptance of a new, widespread chemical treat-ment was lacking. To landowners, fishing groups, andconservation organizations, the idea of dumping chemi-cals on hundreds of miles of shorelines that had just beenoiled seemed much too risky - especially when there wereother alternatives.” [23][25][25][26]

According to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, themain component of the Corexit formulation used duringcleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identified as “one of theagents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system,and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska fol-lowing the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill.Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards usingbooms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readilyavailable during the first 24 hours following the spill, andthick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment.Despitecivilian insistence for a complete clean, only 10% of totaloil was actually completely cleaned.[9] Exxon was widelycriticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster

3

and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his com-munity felt betrayed by Exxon’s inadequate response tothe crisis.[27] More than 11,000 Alaska residents, alongwith some Exxon employees, worked throughout the re-gion to try to restore the environment.

Clean-up efforts after the 'Exxon Valdez' oil spill

Because Prince William Sound contained many rockycoves where the oil collected, the decision was made todisplace it with high-pressure hot water. However, thisalso displaced and destroyed the microbial populationson the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton)are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others(e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitat-ing the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scien-tific advice and public pressure was to clean everything,but since then, a much greater understanding of naturaland facilitated remediation processes has developed, duesomewhat in part to the opportunity presented for studyby the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanupattempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recoveredand a study conducted by NOAA determined that as ofearly 2007 more than 26 thousand U.S. gallons (98 m3)of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shore-line, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.[28][29]

In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and theAlaska Oil Spill. It was provided to schools with the label“A Video for Students”.[30]

Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill.

Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spillhave been studied.[31] Immediate effects included thedeaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, atleast 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an un-known number of salmon and herring.[8][32]

In 2003, fifteen years after the spill, a team from theUniversity of North Carolina found that the remainingoil was lasting far longer than anticipated, which in turnhad resulted in more long-term loss of many species thanhad been expected. The researchers found that at only afew parts per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonscaused a long-term increase in mortality rates. They re-ported that “species as diverse as sea otters, harlequinducks and killer whales suffered large, long-term lossesand that oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habi-tats will take an estimated 30 years to recover.”[33]

In 2006, a study done by the National Marine FisheriesService in Juneau found that about 9.6 kilometres ofshoreline around Prince William Sound was still affectedby the spill, with 101.6 tonnes of oil remaining in thearea. Exxon Mobil denied any concerns over any re-maining oil, stating that they anticipated a remaining frac-tion that they assert will not cause any long-term ecolog-ical impacts, according to the conclusions of the studiesthey had done: “We've done 350 peer-reviewed studiesof Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude thatPrince William Sound has recovered, it’s healthy and it’sthriving.”[34] However, in 2007 a NOAA study concludedthat this contamination can produce chronic low-level ex-posure, discourage subsistence where the contaminationis heavy, and decrease the “wilderness character” of thearea.[29]

The effects of the spill continued to be felt for many yearsafterwards. As of 2010 there were an estimated 23,000US gallons (87 m3) of Valdez crude oil still in Alaska’ssand and soil, breaking down at a rate estimated at lessthan 4% per year.[35]

On March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of thespill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seemto have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creatureto return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have moni-tored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concernremains for one of two pods of local orca whales, withfears that one pod may eventually die out. [36] Federalscientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 gal-lons of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Soundand up to 450 miles away. Some of the oil does not ap-pear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist whoanalyses the remaining oil along the coastline states thatit remains among rocks and between tide marks. “Theoil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out,the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consis-tency of mayonnaise – or mousse.” [37] Alaska state sena-tor Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demandthat the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the fi-

4 4 POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES AND REFORMS

nal $92 million (£57 million) still owed from the courtsettlement. The major part of the money would be spentto finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to re-store the crippled herring population.[37]

3 Litigation and cleanup costs

Eagles rescued from the oil spill

In the case of Baker v. Exxon, an Anchorage juryawarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billionfor punitive damages. To protect itself in case the judg-ment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion creditline from J.P. Morgan & Co. J.P. Morgan created thefirst modern credit default swap in 1994, so that Mor-gan’s would not have to hold as much money in reserve(8% of the loan under Basel I) against the risk of Exxon’sdefault.[38]

Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S.Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the original judge, Rus-sel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On Decem-ber 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reducedthe damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justi-fied by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive.Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to beconsidered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in asimilar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase thepunitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.After more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9thCircuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the dam-ages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006.The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative tolimits on punitive damages.Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Cir-cuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil’s request fora third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes$2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed tothe Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.[39] OnFebruary 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral argu-ments for 90 minutes. Justice Samuel Alito, who at thetime, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon

stock, recused himself from the case.[40] In a decision is-sued June 25, 2008, Justice David Souter issued the judg-ment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and re-manding the case back to a lower court, finding that thedamages were excessive with respect to maritime com-mon law. Exxon’s actions were deemed “worse than neg-ligent but less than malicious.”[41] The punitive damageswere further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million.[42]The Court’s ruling was that maritime punitive damagesshould not exceed the compensatory damages,[42] sup-ported by a peculiar precedent dating back from 1818.[43]Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahyhas decried the ruling as “another in a line of cases wherethis Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional in-tent to benefit large corporations.”[44]

Exxon’s official position was that punitive damagesgreater than $25 million were not justified because thespill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spentan estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a fur-ther $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges.Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore re-sponsibility for the accident because the company “put adrunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound.”[45]

Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up andlegal expenses through insurance claims associated withthe grounding of the Exxon Valdez.[46][47] Also, in 1991,Exxonmade a quiet, separate financial settlement of dam-ages with a group of seafood producers known as theSeattle Seven for the disaster’s effect on the Alaskanseafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 mil-lion to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafoodcompanies would have to repay almost all of any punitivedamages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 bil-lion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seat-tle Seven’s share could have been as high as $750 millionif the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have ob-jected to this secret arrangement,[48] and when it cameto light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have toldthe jury at the start that an agreement had already beenmade, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxonwould have to pay.[49]

As of December 15, 2009, Exxon paid all owed $507.5million punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plusinterest, which were further distributed to thousands ofplaintiffs.[50]

4 Political consequences and re-forms

4.1 Coast Guard report

A report by the US National Response Team summarizedthe event and made a number of recommendations, suchas changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in orderto address the causes of the accident.[9]

5

4.2 Oil Pollution Act of 1990

In response to the spill, the United States Congress passedthe Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation in-cluded a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 millionUS gallons (3,800m3) in anymarine area, from operatingin Prince William Sound.[51]

In April 1998, the company argued in a legal actionagainst the Federal government that the ship should beallowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPAwas effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was un-fairly directed at Exxon alone.[52] In 2002, the 9th CircuitCourt of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPAhad prevented 18 ships from entering Prince WilliamSound.[53]

OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of adouble hull design, providing an additional layer betweenthe oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull wouldlikely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a CoastGuard study estimated that it would have cut the amountof oil spilled by 60 percent.[54]

The Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego,arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Ap-proximately 1,600 short tons (1,500 t) of steel wereremoved and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, re-named S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 millionof repairs.[53] It was still sailing as of January 2010, reg-istered in Panama. The vessel was then owned by a HongKong company, who operated it under the name OrientalNicety. In August 2012, it was beached at Alang, Indiaand dismantled.

4.3 Alaska regulations

In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cow-per issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to es-cort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through PrinceWilliam Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the planevolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats wasreplaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle(ERV). The majority of tankers at Valdez are no longersingle-hulled. Congress has enacted legislation requiringall tankers to be double-hulled by 2015.

4.4 Opposition to oil drilling

The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers InternationalUnion, representing approximately 40,000 US workers,announced opposition to drilling in the Arctic NationalWildlife Refuge (ANWR) until Congress enacted a com-prehensive national energy policy.

5 Economic and personal impact

In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine popu-lation (particularly clams, herring and seals) the ChugachAlaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, filedfor Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. It has sincerecovered.[55]

According to several studies funded by the state ofAlaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term eco-nomic effects. These included the loss of recreationalsports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of whateconomists call "existence value", which is the value tothe public of a pristine Prince William Sound.[56][57][58]

The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was ad-versely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmonand herring in the area.

6 See also

• List of oil spills

• Deepwater Horizon oil spill

• Ixtoc I oil spill

• Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster, 1992HBO movie

• Into Great Silence: A memoir of discovery andloss among vanishing Orcas. Eva Saulitis: Boston,Mass.: Beacon Press, Copyright 2013

7 References[1] http://library.thinkquest.org/10867/spill/timeline.shtml

[2] Elizabeth Bluemink (June 10, 2010). “Size of Exxon spillremains disputed”. Anchorage Daily News. RetrievedJune 29, 2010.

[3] Riki Ott (June 18, 2010). How Much Oil Really SpilledFrom the Exxon Valdez? (audio/transcript). Interviewwith Brooke Gladstone. On The Media. National PublicRadio. Retrieved June 29, 2010.

[4] “Frequently Asked Questions About the Spill”. ExxonValdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Archived from the orig-inal on June 30, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2010.

[5] Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division(September 1992). “Oil Spill Case Histories 1967–1991,Report No. HMRAD 92-11” (PDF). Seattle: NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 80. Re-trieved March 10, 2008.

[6] “Questions and Answers”. History of the Spill. ExxonValdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved May 26,2009.

6 7 REFERENCES

[7] Brandon Keim (March 24, 2009). “The Exxon ValdezSpill Is All Around Us”. Wired Science. Retrieved June29, 2010.

[8] Graham, Sarah (December 19, 2003). “EnvironmentalEffects of Exxon Valdez Spill Still Being Felt”. ScientificAmerican. Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[9] Skinner, Samuel K; Reilly, William K. (May 1989). TheExxon Valdez Oil Spill (PDF). National Response Team.Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[10] “Exxon Valdez disaster – 15 years of lies”. GreenpeaceNews. Greenpeace. March 24, 2004. Retrieved March10, 2008.

[11] “16 Years After Exxon Valdez Tragedy, Arctic Refuge,America’s Coasts Still At Risk” (Press release). SierraClub. March 23, 2005. Retrieved March 10, 2008.

[12] “Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Fifteen Years Later” (Press re-lease). Defenders ofWildlife. March 24, 2004. RetrievedMarch 10, 2008.

[13] “Exxon Valdez Photos”. NOAA. p. 7. Archived fromthe original on 2005-07-14. Beginning 3 days after thevessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of freshoil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in theKnight Island chain.

[14] Practices that relate to theExxonValdez. Washington, DC:National Transportation and Safety Board. September 18,1990. pp. 1–6.

[15] “Ten years after but who was to blame?". Greg Palast.March 21, 1999. Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[16] Court Rewards Exxon for Valdez Oil Spill

[17] Leveson, Nancy G. (July 2005). “Software SystemSafety” (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.pp. 18–20. Archived from the original on November 8,2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010.

[18] Leveson, p.20

[19] Leveson, p.18

[20] Leveson, p.19

[21] Loy, Wesley. “Captain of Exxon Valdez offers 'heartfeltapology' for oil spill.” Anchorage Daily News. March 4,2009. . Retrieved March 24, 2011.

[22] http://www.pwsrcac.org/wp-content/uploads/filebase/programs/environmental_monitoring/report_on_non_mechanical_response.pdf

[23] Oil Spill Case Histories. Report No. HMRAD 92-11(NOAA). September 1992. Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[24] http://www.pwsrcac.org/wp-content/uploads/filebase/programs/environmental_monitoring/report_on_non_mechanical_response.pdf

[25] http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/static/PDFs/deccleanuptechniques.pdf

[26] Oil Spill Facts - Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council

[27] Baker, Mallen. “Companies in Crisis – What not to dowhen it all goes wrong”. Corporate Social ResponsibilityNews. Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[28] Marybeth Holleman (March 22, 2004). “The LingeringLessons of the Exxon Valdez Spill”. The Seattle Times.Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[29] MacAskill, Ewan (February 2, 2007). “18 years on, ExxonValdez oil still pours into Alaskan waters”. The Guardian.Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[30] D. Michael Fry (November 19, 1992). “How Exxon’s“Video for Students” Deals in Distortions”. The TextbookLetter. Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[31] SC Jewett, TADean, andMHoberg (2001). “Scuba Tech-niques Used to Assess the Effects of the Exxon ValdezOil Spill”. In: SC Jewett (ed). Cold Water Diving forScience. Proceedings of the American Academy of Un-derwater Sciences, 21st Annual Scientific Diving Sympo-sium. Retrieved June 27, 2008.

[32] "Exxon Valdez: Ten years on”. BBC News. March 18,1999. Retrieved May 24, 2010.

[33] Williamson, David (December 18, 2003). “Exxon Valdezoil spill effects lasting far longer than expected, scientistssay”. UNC/News (University of North Carolina at ChapelHill). Retrieved March 9, 2008.

[34] “Exxon Valdez oil spill still a threat: study”. AustralianBroadcasting Corporation. May 17, 2006. RetrievedMarch 9, 2008.

[35] Federal Register / Vol. 75, No. 14 / Friday, January 22,2010 / Notices

[36] 25 years later, scientists still spot traces of oil from ExxonValdez spill | PBS NewsHour

[37] ExxonValdez - 25 years after the Alaska oil spill, the courtbattle continues - Telegraph

[38] Lanchester, John (January 7, 2009). “Books: Out-smarted”. The New Yorker. Retrieved July 21, 2010.

[39] Staff writer (October 29, 2007). “Supreme Court to re-view Exxon Valdez award”. CNN. Retrieved March 10,2008.

[40] Staff writer (February 27, 2008). “High Court may lowerExxon Valdez damages”. CNN. Associated Press. Re-trieved March 10, 2008.

[41] Savage, David G. (June 26, 2008). “Justices slash ExxonValdez verdict”. articles.latimes.com (Tribune Company).Retrieved June 26, 2008.

[42] Exxon v. Baker, 554 U.S. (Supreme Court of the UnitedStates of America June 25, 2008).

[43] Smith, Sharon. “Exxon’s Legal Guardians”. Counter-Punch. Retrieved 21 March 2013.

[44] “Reaction Of Sen. Leahy On Supreme Court Ruling InExxon v. Baker”. Leahy.senate.gov. June 25, 2008. Re-trieved February 25, 2009.

7

[45] Egelko, Bob (January 28, 2006). “Punitive damages ap-pealed in Valdez spill”. San Francisco Chronicle. Re-trieved March 10, 2008.

[46] Bandurka, Andrew; Sloane, Simon (March 10, 2005).“Exxon Valdez – D. G. Syndicate 745 vs. BrandywineReinsurance Company (UK) – Summary of the Courtof Appeal Judgment”. Holman Fenwick & Willan. Re-trieved March 10, 2008.

[47] “Exxon Corporation 1993 Form 10-K”. EDGAR. U.S.Securities and Exchange Commission. March 11, 1994.Archived from the original on March 4, 2008. RetrievedMarch 10, 2008.

[48] Erb, George (November 3, 2000). “Exxon Valdez casestill twisting through courts”. Puget Sound Business Jour-nal. Retrieved March 10, 2008.

[49] Exxon v. Baker, CV-89-00095-HRH (9th Cir. 2006).

[50] “News and Information”. Exxon Qualified SettlementFund. Retrieved 21 March 2013. December 15, 2009[...] Exxon has now paid to the EQSF all monies owedin the EVOS litigation pursuant to the punitive damagesjudgment

[51] “Oil Pollution Act of 1990 – Summary”. Federal Wildlifeand Related Laws Handbook. August 18, 1990. RetrievedMarch 10, 2008.

[52] Carrigan, Alison. “The bill of attainder clause: a newweapon to challenge the Oil Pollution Act of 1990”.Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review (Fall2000). Retrieved March 10, 2008.

[53] “Exxon Valdez Is Barred From Alaska Sound”. The NewYork Times. November 2, 2002. Retrieved March 10,2008.

[54] Kizzia, Tom (May 13, 1999). “Double-hull tankers faceslow going”. Anchorage Daily News. RetrievedMarch 10,2008.

[55] Loshbaugh, Doug (2000). “School of Hard Knocks”.Juneau Empire. Archived from the original on Septem-ber 27, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2010.

[56] Carson, Richard; Hanemann, W. Michael (December 18,1992). “A Preliminary Economic Analysis of Recre-ational Fishing Losses Related to the Exxon Valdez OilSpill” (PDF). Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council.Retrieved March 10, 2008.

[57] “An Assessment of the Impact of the Exxon Valdez OilSpill on the Alaska Tourism Industry” (PDF). ExxonValdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. August 1990. RetrievedMarch 10, 2008.

[58] “Economic Impacts of Spilled Oil”. Publications. ExxonValdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Retrieved March 10,2008.

8 External links• NTSB safety recommendation to address crewman-agement deficiencies at Exxon and in industry.

• Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council

• ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez

• Exxon Valdez oil spill at National Ocean Service

• EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration atNational Marine Fisheries Service

• Exxon Valdez at United States Environmental Pro-tection Agency

• US National Response Team

• Exxon Valdez oil spill at Encyclopedia of Earth

• Ronen Perry, Economic Loss, Punitive Damages,and the Exxon Valdez Litigation, Georgia Law Re-view (2010)

• The story behind the oil spill verdict – originallypublished in San Diego Union-Tribune

• Alaskan Regional Response Team report on theExxon Valdez disaster.

• BP Played Central Role in Botched Containmentof 1989 Exxon Valdez Disaster – video report byDemocracy Now!

• The short film Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Assessment(April 24, 1990) is available for free download at theInternet Archive

• The short filmExxon Valdez: One Year Later (March22, 1990) is available for free download at theInternet Archive

• Photos related to the oil spill from the Alaska Re-sources Library and Information Services (ARLIS)

• 25 Years After Exxon Valdez, BP Was the HiddenCulprit. Truthdig. Mar 23, 2014

8 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

• Exxon Valdez oil spill Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon%20Valdez%20oil%20spill?oldid=650435813 Contributors: Axel-Boldt, The Epopt, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Hotlorp, Camembert, Olivier, Mbecker, Edward, JohnOwens, Lquilter, Cyde, Se-bastianHelm, Minesweeper, Alfio, Ahoerstemeier, Susan Mason, Bueller 007, Nikai, Big iron, Robertkeller, Raven in Orbit, Conti,Hppl, Jengod, Guaka, Timwi, Choster, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Gutsul, Shizhao, Dcsohl, Nightsky, Wetman, The lorax, Chu-unen Baka, Nufy8, Mustang dvs, Pigsonthewing, Babbage, Academic Challenger, Ktotam, Hadal, Davidcannon, Radagast, Alan Lieft-ing, Julianp, Marcika, Average Earthman, Curps, Varlaam, Bovlb, Crag, Bobblewik, YapaTi, Edcolins, Neilc, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Antan-drus, Beland, Plasma east, Demeter, Neutrality, TJSwoboda, Ukexpat, Wadsworth, Clemwang, Mike Rosoft, D6, Eyrian, Rohan nog,Ischorr, Moverton, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Hydrox, Marxmax, Billfred, Bender235, ESkog, Neko-chan, Il-lumynite, MBisanz, El C, Pjrich, Shanes, Tom, Coolcaesar, ZooCrewMan, Bobo192, Longhair, Mordemur, Fremsley, Ziggurat, Psychob-abble, Cavrdg, Sam Korn, Pearle, Nsaa, Bongle, Frank101, Alansohn, Gary, Appzter, Vanished user kasjqwii3km4tkid, Ricky81682,Garfield226, Stack, VladimirKorablin, Snowolf, Bucephalus, BaronLarf, Garzo, RainbowOfLight, LFaraone, Kenyon, Dismas, Tariqab-jotu, Bobrayner, Scienda, Bushytails, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Anilocra, LOL, Dodiad, Ardfern, Fred J, Apokrif, Hailey C. Shan-non, Hbdragon88, Damicatz, GregorB, Jhankens, Macaddct1984, Kralizec!, Leeshipley, Prashanthns, NeonGeniuses, A3r0, Emerson7,Deltabeignet, Kbdank71, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, TPIRman, Kchoboter, NeonMerlin, Graibeard, KAM, Sango123, Ghalas, Rangek, Eexle-bots, RexNL, Gurch, Thonil, Patken4, Alphachimp, King of Hearts, Lightsup55, Antiuser, The AdaMan, Wavelength, Sceptre, Jimp,RussBot, Ventolin, Epolk, GLaDOS, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Shaddack, Kimchi.sg, NawlinWiki, Dysmorodrepanis, Wiki alf, SpikeWilbury, Tfine80, Arichnad, Kjl, RazorICE, Adrian Malacoda, Renata3, Anetode, Ben b, Shinmawa, Moe Epsilon, Emersoni, JPMc-Grath, Xompanthy, DeadEyeArrow, Avraham, Eurosong, Mholland, American2, 21655, Closedmouth, E Wing, Josh3580, Sarefo, SeanWhitton, JoanneB, Fram, Benhealy, RunOrDie, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Dtype, Jonathan.s.kt, CIreland, Veinor, Iorek85, SmackBot,Pwt898, Jeffreykopp, KnowledgeOfSelf, AndrewQue, Pgk, C.Fred, Jfurr1981, Delldot, Doc Strange, ZS, Onebravemonkey, Mintpieman,Ralphybaby, Gilliam, Hmains, Bidgee, JDCMAN, Owlkeeper, SchfiftyThree, Uthbrian, CMacMillan, Wackjum, Szidomingo, Daniel J.Forman, Darth Panda, Gracenotes, MaxSem, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SiriusAlphaCMa, Hagbard Celine, Zone46, Neo139, Bcadam,Onorem, MJCdetroit, Rrburke, Rsm99833, Backspace, RedHillian, Drono, Ryansasteroid, Emre D., Flyguy649, PrometheusX303, Dread-star, Only, Nihaar, Salamurai, Nitr0smash, Ohconfucius, Xtrememachineuk, Madeleine Price Ball, Lambiam, Kuru, John, Ourai, Arthu-ralee, Mugsywwiii, Jonger1150, Accurizer, PseudoSudo, Compwiz312, Slakr, Acaryatid, Anonymous anonymous, Copey 2, JeffK1971,Nehrams2020, Iridescent, K, Andrewrpalmer, Shoeofdeath, Haus, Igoldste, Blehfu, JohnnyXCore, Shehee, Courcelles, Dlohcierekim,Timrem, Eastlaw, Chaosrxn, Tanthalas39, Dgw, Jesse Viviano, Rockysmile11, Pickles9375, Ispy1981, Cydebot, Meno25, Crowish,Corpx, A Softer Answer, Consequentially, DumbBOT, Patrick O'Leary, DBaba, Ssilvers, Fishonfire, Jonovak77, Satori Son, Thijs!bot,Epbr123, Biruitorul, Kubanczyk, TK421, SomeStranger, Pmrobert49, 54gsze4ghz5, Yettie0711, JustAGal, Ognir, Farrtj, Tocino, NatalieErin, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Jj137, Jcone999, Farosdaughter, ARTEST4ECHO, Yellowdesk, Gökhan, Raylopez99,Missy1234, DuncanHill, Damien o'connell, AniRaptor2001, NapoliRoma, MER-C, Hodgetts, Db099221, Albany NY, Mantion, Maias,RadioKAOS, LittleOldMe, Wildhartlivie, Huphelmeyer, Thesurveyor, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Scanlan, AtticusX, Iceon-fire1, Think outside the box, Harel, Skew-t, Kevinmon, Otterfan, Recurring dreams, The Anomebot2, Catgut, Umang.joshi, Cgingold,MetsBot, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Beagel, Ilechoo, Halogenated, DerHexer, GermanX, Pax:Vobiscum, Pissedpat, Calltech,Funkfrost, Markco1, BenWoodruff, Euneirophrenia, Flowanda, MartinBot, STBot, Gandydancer, Padillah, Cputrdoc, CommonsDelinker,AlexiusHoratius, Verdatum, Lilac Soul, Djma12, J.delanoy, AstroHurricane001, Uncle Dick, Yonidebot, Ncmvocalist, Jeepday, Kroush,JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Vanished User 4517, NewEnglandYankee, Dividing, Matthardingu, SJP, Flatterworld, Duggyrocks,Group29, Edmund Blackadder, Tvbrichmond, Vanished user 39948282, Presidio9, Thester11, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, Tom Ridout, Indu-bitably, JohnBlackburne, AdamSommerton, Gene Hobbs, Winterborn, CART fan, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Ferdie33, Someguy1221,Tonysybil, C.J. 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9.2 Images 9

9.2 Images• File:Alaska-StateSeal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Alaska-StateSeal.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: ATSDR (part of the CDC) series of state-specific fact sheets. Bitmap versions have been seen on US Embassy websites.Direct PDF URL [1] Original artist: U.S. Government

• File:EVOSWEB_013_oiled_bird3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/EVOSWEB_013_oiled_bird3.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/Gallery/gallery-spill.htm#nogo Original artist: ?

• File:Exval.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Exval.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/photos/exxon/02.html Original artist: ?

• File:Exxon_Valdez_Cleanup.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Exxon_Valdez_Cleanup.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DVIC_View/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=DNSC8907300&JPGPath=/Assets/Still/1989/Navy/DN-SC-89-07300.JPG Original artist: PH2 POCHE

• File:Flag_of_Alaska.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Alaska.svg License: CC0 Contributors:? Original artist: ?

• File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Complex01 using CommonsHelper.Original artist: Original uploader was Mav at en.wikipedia

• File:OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:RaptorEducationGroupIncEagles.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/RaptorEducationGroupIncEagles.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Com-mons by User:Magnus Manske using CommonsHelper.Original artist: Mckennagene (talk). Original uploader was Mckennagene at en.wikipedia

9.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0