The  Influence  of  Wolof  

Rhythmic  Tradition  and  

Culture  in  Rap  Music  By  Carlotta  Naima  Adams  

   

 

Extended Essay Music

St. Stephen’s School of Rome May 2015

Candidate 0000610001

Advisor: Mr. Richard

Trythall

Word Count: 3971

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Abstract  

 

The main purpose of this study is to explore the influence of the Wolof culture and

rhythmic tradition on the rhythm in rap music. I want to outline the impact of the

sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, prominent in Wolof music, on the rhythm

behind the rap genre, and evaluate how similar they are.

The first part of this essay focuses on the historical context of the Wolof culture and

rhythmic tradition: who they were, what their music comprised of, who were the

musicians in their communities, etc. I then go on to compare the griots, the praise-

singers of the Wolof community, to the modern-day rappers, in terms of their styles,

the rhythms they adopt, the instrumentation of their pieces, and their role in society.

The third part of this investigation focuses on two specific sabar rhythms, prominent

in Wolof music, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, where I analyze the individual rhythms of

each of the instruments. The fourth area of this investigation focuses on the analysis

of three rap songs, “Push It Along” by A Tribe Called Quest, “Changes” by Tupac

Shakur, and “In Da Club” by 50 Cent. I examine their rhythms, and compare and

contrast them to the sabar rhythms evaluated earlier.

This research shows that these sabar rhythms did influence rap rhythm greatly, both

in the drum’s rhythm and the rapper’s lyrical rhythm. As rap music evolved, each

rapper found his or her own unique style, slowly moving farther and farther away

from the original, sabar flavor of the beat. The Wolof rhythmic tradition is an

example of the general African rhythmic practices, but more advanced, and has

definitely been influential in the formation of the rap genre.

Word Count: 287

 

 

 

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Table  of  Contents  

 

Introduction………………………………………………………………………...pg.4

The Wolof Culture and Rhythmic Tradition…………………………………….…pg.4

Griots and Modern-Day Rappers: Similarities and Differences…………………...pg.6

Sabar Rhythms in Rap Music……………………………………………………...pg.8

Analyzing two sabar rhythms: Kaolack and Ceebu jën……………...........pg.8

An Analysis of the Rhythm in “Push It Along” by A Tribe Called Quest..pg.12

An Analysis of the Rhythm in “Changes” by Tupac Shakur……………..pg.13

An Analysis of the Rhythm in “In Da Club” by 50 Cent………………....pg.14

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...pg.15

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………pg.16

Appendix………………………………………………………………………….pg.18

 

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Introduction    

When rap was first created, there was a general disproval of it. It was an underground

music genre that was not being recognized as real music by the white society of the

late 70’s because its most predominant element was rhythm, and people were not used

to hearing it. Nevertheless, rap is so much more than just “rhythm”; it is the act of

telling a story, expressing yourself and allowing your soul to follow the beat. I have

always been interested in rap music and its rhythm, and as an aspiring drummer, I

have chosen to explore the beat behind rap music. During one of our school

assemblies, an African drumming group performed rhythms from Senegal that

sounded very similar to those in rap songs. What if there is a relationship between

these Senegalese rhythms and the rhythms in rap music? With this question in mind, I

decided that I would explore the correlation between the two. My aim in this work

will be to show   how the sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, two prominent

Senegalese rhythms, influenced the rhythm behind the rap genre.

The  Wolof  Culture  and  Rhythmic  Tradition  

It is common knowledge that the most renowned instrument in Africa is the drum.

The drum is not only an instrument in Africa, but also a way of life, though different

for each village or tribe. Anthony B. Pinn notes in his work, Noise and Spirit: The

Religious and Spiritual Sensibilities of Rap Music, that the “dense configurations of

independent, but closely related, rhythms, harmonic and non-harmonic percussive

sounds, especially drum sounds, are critical priorities in many African… musical

practices” (pg. 112). Furthermore, drums are often considered sacred in African

communities: some are brought on special occasions because of their value and others

are used to accompany the everyday activities in the village. Drums are almost

personified and treated as members of the community. The African people believed

that all African drums could “speak”: the rhythms played upon them were imitative of

the human voice. The drum spoke the language of the drummer and anyone who

spoke the drummer’s language would be able to understand the drum’s voice (Finn,

pg. 86).

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For this specific investigation, the focus is going to be on a particular ethnic group

from Senegal called Wolof. The Wolof people are known for their ability as

drummers and bards, who carry on the West African oral tradition. Oral tradition

amongst the Wolof people is comprised of two important elements, much like rap

music or today: a beat and a voice. The beat is often times supplied by the sabar

drum. Adam Novick states in his article, “Sabar: Puzzling Drumming from Senegal”,

that “the term sabar not only refers to the specific type of drum1, but also to the music

played on them and the dance that accompanies them and the gathering to dance”

(Novick). It can also be referred to as a genre of music within the Senegalese region.

There are a couple of important characteristics in Wolof drumming to take note of.

First of all, the dominant bass beat always anticipates the backbeat2. The anticipation

varies according to the rhythm that is being played but it is important to note that this

anticipation keeps the rhythm dynamic and interesting over the long run. Since the

music is solely comprised of percussion instruments, it is important to keep the

rhythm as interesting and as entertaining as possible. It must also be kept very lively

due to the fact that the rhythms are accompanying dancers. The second characteristic

is that the sabar rhythms are highly syncopated3. The syncopation often times is so

strong that is makes it harder for the dancers to keep up with the beat. The third

characteristic is that the rhythm is always based on a meter of four-beats. In this way

they keep the rhythm organized, but with the help of polyrhythms, complex enough to

seem odd-metered or in compound time (Novick).

It is important to note that these rhythms are not written down, as they would be in the

Western world. The rhythms are passed down from generation to generation and

shared within the communities and between villages and tribes. There is no clear

notation for these rhythms or simplistic way of putting them down on paper. The

specialty of these rhythms is that, although they are not written down, the way they                                                                                                                1 Sabar drums are the traditional drums of the Wolof people and are often times carved out of mahogany or mango wood. The shell of the drum is elongated and can either have an hourglass or cylinder shape. Both ends of the drum are covered in goatskin. Wooden pegs circle the head of the drum to serve as tuning devices. The goatskin is attached to the pegs and in order to tighten or tune the drum, the pegs need only be driven further into the body of the drum. It is a generally small drum and is considered a hand drum (Dr.Tom). It is not a solo instrument, so often times it will be accompanied by other hand drums or simply larger, bass drums, like the djembe or congas. 2 In a 4/4 time signature, the backbeat would be considered the second and the fourth beat. 3 Syncopation is the incorporation of rhythmic accents on specific beats that wouldn’t occur naturally.

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are played is unique. Western music has been documented using the traditional

western notation since 1000 A.D. and, as long as it is written down, anyone with a

background in music theory could play it; however, if these rhythms were to be

written down according to western notation, the same would not apply. African

musicians must play African music because otherwise the same flavor and groove is

not delivered.

Griots  and  Modern-­‐Day  Rappers:  Similarities  and  Differences  

As previously mentioned, the Wolof music is comprised of two specific elements: the

beat and the voice. In his book, Hip Hop Africa: New African Music in a Globalizing

World, Eric Charry states that a griot is “best known as a hereditary artisan of the

spoken word, who also specialized in a variety of musical instruments” (pg. 79-80).

Griot is a common term for storyteller and musician in the western region of Africa.

They are praise-singers and hold an esteemed position in the social caste system.

They had an incredible gift for storytelling and were known as “purveyors of

knowledge” because of their ability to memorize entire family lineages and historical

tribal events. The griots would travel from tribe to tribe recounting the stories of the

great kings and would promulgate information all around the western region. Each

ethnic group has its own way of calling their griots and a signature instrument that

represents their ethnic group. As seen, the sabar drum represents the Wolof musicians

and, in addition to that, their griots are called géwëls. It is important to note that not

just anybody from the community can become a griot. It is a position of honor that is

passed down from generation to generation (Khameneh).

Now that we’ve finally explored in depth the meaning of griots, who they were and

what their role was in West African communities, I will compare and contrast the two

similar figures of the griot, in particular the Senegalese géwëls, and the rappers of

America. Historically, both figures were considered storytellers. They were there to

share stories about their culture, the environment in which they live, and anecdotes

from the history of their people, all elements that would shed light on their respective

realities. Due to this, often griots were referred to as historians and rappers were

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referred to as the “black CNN” because of their ability to tell America what was going

on in the ghetto, what was going on around them. Also, they were both very

“linguistically and lyrically fluent” (Khameneh), in the sense that they would know

how to appropriately space each word or phrase in order to emphasize its meaning.

Their way of narrating or rapping needed to be systematic and entertaining at the

same time because their main goal is to get the story across and to do that they must

keep the beat and match their lyrics to the rhythm, making it easy to follow. To

explore the concept of merging rhythm with language, I will need to define taasu4.

Charry defines taasu as “a traditional Senegalese Wolof style of rhythmic poetry,

involving the declamation of heightened rhythmic speech over accompanying

percussion” (pg. 85). This style of speech is very similar to the standard griot “praise-

singing”, yet instead of focusing on a strict form, most of the poems written are

improvised. With all this being said, it is important to keep in mind that taasu has

existed long before American rap, and it is hypothesized that the latter is an evolution

of the former; however, there are many rhythmic verbal forms existent in Africa and

that taasu may have just been one of the many to influence the new genre.

What is “flow”? In his journal article, The Aesthetics of Rap, Mtume ya Salaam

defines flow as what “describes a rapper’s sense of rhythm and timing […] Rap lyrics

are delivered in a rhythmic cadence, not simply recited or melodically half-sung. The

quality of the rhythmic delivery is what defines flow. A rapper with good lyrics and

style who can’t flow is like a singer with a good voice and a well-written song who

ignores the melody. When the rapper flows, the lyrics blend into a continuous melodic

line like the flow of notes from a jazz soloist’s horn.” (306) This is an essential part of

being a great storyteller because by following this structure, one can create a sound.

This sound will then be what allows one to stand out in a crowd, along with creativity,

sincerity, originality, style5, and thought-provoking lyrics. Improvisational skills and

“free style” also played an enormous part in the one’s credibility as a rapper. Rappers

needed, at least originally, to know how to address an issue and express their thoughts

on the spot, and based on how well they performed, they would be able to gain “street

                                                                                                               4 The Wolof word taas is a verb, which indicates “to praise” or “to bless”. 5 Refers both to the tonal quality in a rapper’s vocals and to the level of originality in presentation and delivery (ya Salaam, 305).

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cred”, or street credibility.6 This ties into the theme of their craft. Both griots and

rappers use their skills to comment upon social issues; the formers use proverbs and

words of wisdom that would serves as advice in specific situations, whereas the latters

use metaphors or simply state the facts explicitly.

There is no doubt that these two figures hold similar characteristics, but their function

within society stops being alike after their roles as storytellers. First of all, griots hold

an esteemed position within their society. They worked for the king and almost acted

as personal “praisers”. The griots would recount anecdotes and stories from the past,

but these would all be very biased towards the view of the king. They would not

recount anything that went against their employer and often spent their time

glorifying and praising him. Therefore, they treated their griot lineage as more of a

job than a desire to voice something. Rappers are the exact opposite in this sense. The

rest of white America did not take them seriously, and it wasn’t until much later that

record labels started to understand the true value of rap music. Despite this, their

music was born from their desire to voice their opinion and rebel against power and

injustice. They were fighting for their people and trying to be heard by the figures of

power.

Sabar  Rhythms  in  Rap  Music  

Analyzing  two  sabar  rhythms:  Kaolack  and  Ceebu  jën  

When evaluating how a specific rhythm influences a whole genre and the beat behind

it, it is not possible to compare two musical pieces, as one would do if comparing

various elements within the work. Since, the purpose of this essay is to show the

similarities between rhythms contained in Senegalese music and rhythms contained in

American rap, I have decided to analyze two prominent rhythms in the Wolof

community, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, and compare them to the rhythms in three rap

songs: “Push It Along” (1990) by A Tribe Called Quest, “Changes” (1998) by Tupac

Shakur, and “In Da Club” (2003) by 50 Cent. The reason I have chosen these three

songs is because they are representative of three different stages of the rap scene, and

                                                                                                               6 A level of respect earned by experience or capabilities. It is another way of referring to one’s reputation in the urban environment.

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each of them shows an evolution from the previous forms of rap, in terms of the

context and the addition of different musical elements (melody, harmony, drum

machines, etc.); however, in all of these tracks, rhythm is prominent and dominates

over the riffs each piece contains.

Primarily, I will be presenting the two, sabar rhythms. The first of the two, Kaolack,

named after the region in which it was created, is one of the most important rhythms

because it is often used in musique, which is the Wolof term for popular music, also

known as mbalax7 music (Tang, Ch. 5) It is the rhythm most known amongst the

people of Senegal because it is the basis for all dance music. Because it is the primary

rhythmic accompaniment, it is the rhythm onto which many bàkks overlay. These

bàkks are musical phrases that overlap short rhythms and are fundamental in Wolof

music. They can differ from family to family and often serve to distinguish the one

percussionist from another. 8

With this in mind, another parallel could be drawn between the griot and sabar

culture, and the rap culture. The families of the rap culture could be seen as the rap

groups and gangs that formed during the creation of this genre. There are different

sub-genres within rap (old school, new school, east coast hip hop, west coast hip hop,

gangsta rap, etc.) and each of them have a signature style and groove to them, just like

the griot families do. There is also this notion of “rap-battles”, which occur when two

rappers challenge each other to come up with the best freestyle, and try to do so by

“outdoing” one another.

                                                                                                               7 In the sabar dictionary, it literally means “accompaniment”; however it is also used to refer to the popular music genre in Senegal, made famous by Youssou N’Dour (Tang, Ch. 5). 8  “Because each family has its own repertory, it develops its own bàkks that become signifiers or markers of that particular family’s identity. Géwël percussionists are always listening to what other sabar groups are doing – what bàkks they play, etc. In this way, there is friendly competition that involves building on one another’s bàkks, trying to be innovative, and trying in some way to “outdo” one another in the quality of a bàkk – its catchiness, as well as its virtuosity.” (Tang, Ch. 5)  

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Figure 1. A form of the Kaolack rhythm

Transcription by Patricia Tang (Ch. 5)

 The example above shows one of the many variants of the Kaolack rhythm. It is in

common time (4/4) and the tempo indicated is approximately 144bpm. At a fast

tempo, the rhythms above create a strong impression of perpetual motion that keeps

the music driving forward. The four staves represent the voices of the rhythm, played

by drums that produce different sounds. The Tulli drum is somewhat of a bass drum

and its voice is composed of a 16-beat cycle that is heavily syncopated. The two

variants of Mbalax could be considered the “snare drums” of the western world drum

set. They both play nearly the same musical phrases. Each phrase is divided into two

8-beat cycles that show the 3+3+2 form of additive rhythm. The Talmbat is the tenor

drum and its voice contrasts the rest, forming a polyrhythm and a more complex

structure. By looking closely at the example, it is clear that the syllables transcribed

correspond to specific tones. These symbols also indicate how the sound is produced,

so where and in what way the drum is hit to create that specific tone. Here, pax is the

highest tone played and gin the lowest, bass tone. In her book, Masters of Sabar:

Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal, Patricia Tang refers to pax when “the left hand

strikes the edge of the drumhead, primarily with the fingertip pads, and the hand is

left there, creating a sharp, slap-like sound” and to gin as the sound created when “the

left hand strikes the center of the drum, creating a resonant bass sound” (Ch. 5).

Based on where these tones are played in all four voices, pax on the 1st and 3rd beats,

and gin on the 2nd and 4th beats, it could be said that the accents fall on the 2nd and 4th

beat, because gin is the bass sound that keeps the rhythm in time. This, however, is

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only speculation based on the given score. These instruments together form the

backbone rhythm, so that other instruments or voices can improvise and add a second

layer on top of it.

The second sabar rhythm I will be exploring is the Ceebu Jën rhythm, named after

the national dish of Senegal: fish and rice. It is considered one of the hardest rhythms

to play because of the complex rhythmic pattern, but also the fast tempo of

approximately 154bpm. The fast tempo shapes and gives energy to the music; for this

reason, most of these rhythms pushed people to get up and move. The overall Ceebu

Jën rhythm is in cut time (2/4), but contains two measures, instead of one, as did the

Kaolack rhythm.

 

Figure 2. A form of the Ceebu Jën rhythm

Transcription by Patricia Tang (Ch. 5)

 The example above depicts the standard form of a Ceebu Jën rhythm, which, in

structure, is very similar to the Kaolack rhythm observed earlier. It is composed of

four voices: the Tulli (bass voice), the Talmbat (tenor voice), and two Mbalax variants

(snare drums). The Tulli drum’s voice, like its voice in the Kaolack rhythm, is

composed of a 16-beat cycle that is heavily syncopated. In this rhythm, the two

variants of Mbalax play two entirely different musical phrases. The Mbalax Nder

voice is composed of two 8-beat cycles that show the 2+3+3 form of additive

rhythms, essentially the inverse of the previously explored Mbalax voices. The

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Mbalax voice, on the other hand, is composed of a simple additive rhythm that

emphasizes each beat of the cycle. The tenor drum presents a completely different

voice that is composed of two 8-beat cycles, which contrast the other voices, creating

a polyrhythm. Based on where the placement of the syllable gin, the bass tone, in all

four staves, it could be said that the accents are located on the 2nd and 4th beat.

Both Senegalese music and rap music consists of two or more different rhythmically

functional levels. The first level is composed by a simple, short, fixed rhythm that

persists throughout the entire length of the piece. This repetition and continuity of a

single musical phrase is known as the ostinato. The second level is composed of a

variable rhythm that continuously changes throughout the piece, usually carried by a

musician or a solo drum. The overlapping of these two different sections sometimes

creates a phenomenon known as polyrhythm. In the sabar music, the variable section

can be represented either by taasu, which I described earlier, or a simple drum solo

that is elaborated and expanded upon throughout the piece. In rap music, the variable

section is represented by the actual lyrics. The flow acts as a secondary rhythm that

changes based on the flow and style of the rapper.

An  Analysis  of  the  Rhythm  in  “Push  It  Along”  by  A  Tribe  Called  Quest   A Tribe Called Quest first released “Push It Along” in 1990 and it was featured in

their debut album People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm. The piece is

in common time and displayed in the example below are two measures that are

repeated continuously throughout the song. In the appendix, I have inserted the

complete transcription of riff; however, for my purpose, I have only included the

rhythmic parts.

Figure 3. Transcription of A Tribe Called Quest, “Push It Along”

Transcription by Kyle Adams

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The two staves represent the rhythmic voices of the clicks and drum set, composed of

cymbals (top line), snare drum (middle line), and bass drum in the (bottom line). I

have highlighted the 16-beat cycles in red boxes that are simple additive rhythms that

emphasize each beats individually and have no syncopation. Enclosed by the blue

boxes are the two 16-beat cycles played by the bass drum. These cycles are repetitive

and highly syncopated, as they were in both the Kaolack and Ceebu Jën rhythms. The

accents of this piece are on the 2nd and 4th beats, highlighted, in Fig. 3, by the green

oval shapes. The accents emphasize both the length and speed of each measure, two

vital elements that need to be emphasized in rap music so that the rapper can follow

with the same beat with his or her lyrics.

An  Analysis  of  the  Rhythm  in  “Changes”  by  Tupac  Shakur  

The second rap song I will be analyzing is Tupac Shakur’s single, “Changes”,

released in 1998. The piece is in common time. Displayed in the example below are

two measures containing the drumbeats that are repeated continuously throughout the

song. In the appendix, I have inserted the complete first page of the score; however,

again, for my purposes, I have only included the rhythmic parts.

Figure 4. “Changes” by Tupac Shakur, Score – Drum Beat

Here, just like in “Push It Along”, I have included the rhythmic section composed of

the cymbals (top line), snare drum (middle line), and bass drum (bottom line). I have

also enclosed the bass drum in a blue box because of its similarity to the bass drum in

“Push It Along” and the Kaolack and Ceebu Jën rhythms. Again, the bass drum voice

is composed of two measures of 16-beat cycles. There is a dislocation of the bass,

which is essentially means that it is heavily syncopated, and contrasts the accented

beats played by the snare drum. The accents on the 2nd and 4th beats are highlighted, in

Fig. 4, by the green oval shapes. Again, there is this constant emphasis on both the 2nd

and 4th beats, maybe to serve as reference points for both instrumentalists and

vocalists, and to facilitate time keeping.

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An  Analysis  of  the  Rhythm  in  “In  Da  Club”  by  50  Cent  

The third song I will be analyzing is 50 Cent’s hit single, “In Da Club”, released in

2003 and featured in his debut album Get Rich Or Die Tryin’. The piece is also in

common time. Displayed in the example below are two measures, which are a little

different from the previous ones I have inserted because they show the lyrical rhythm.

I have included this section of the piece because it demonstrates how these sabar

rhythms can not only appear in the fixed section of the rap songs, but also the variable

section, which I have established is the delivery of the lyrics. In the appendix, I have

inserted the complete first page of the score; however, again, for our purposes, I have

only included the rhythmic parts.

In these two extracts there are two things that stand out. The first is the top stave,

displaying the rapper’s rhythmic line. It is identical to the Mbalax Nder’s line in the

Ceebu Jën rhythm described earlier. The line is composed of two 8-beat cycles of the

2+3+3 form of additive rhythm. The stave below the rapper’s line indicates the piano

line and shows some of the chords being played. In the recording of this song, you

can hear clapping on the 2nd and 4th beats. The clapping is not transcribed, but is

audible in the recording within the spaces indicated by the green ovals, and persists

throughout the entire song.

Figure 5. Extracts from “In Da Club” by 50 Cent

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Conclusion    In my work, I illustrated that although the sabar rhythms, Kaolack and Ceebu Jën, are

not the exact same as those contained within the three sample rap songs, there is a

definite correlation between the rhythmic sensibilities demonstrated by the two. This

shows that the Wolof rhythmic tradition indeed acted as somewhat of a base upon

which rappers could construct their own rhythm. There is no doubt that the rhythms

could have changed from the period of slavery and the beginning of rap music, and in

fact, it must also be noted that rap music has also been influenced by many other

cultures and their music. The Wolof rhythmic tradition is an example of the general

African rhythmic practices, but more advanced and definitely seems to have been

influential in the formation of the rap genre.

To analyze this correlation even further there would have needed to be more sample

rap songs from the earlier rap scene. Unfortunately, it is not that easy to find the

scores of these earlier rap songs that marked the beginning of this music genre. It

would have also been interesting to see what other music had influenced the beat

behind rap, and analyze the rhythm as we did for the sabar rhythms. Overall, I can

say that these sabar rhythms did influence rap rhythm greatly, both in the drum’s

rhythm and the rapper’s lyrical rhythm; however, we must keep in mind, that the

correlation is only relative and there are many different factors that have contributed

to the making of rap music.

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Works  Cited    

Musical  Compositions    

Jackson, Curtis; and Andrew Young, Michael Elizondo. “In Da Club.” Get Rich Or Die

Tryin’. Australia: Universal Music Corp, 2003.

Shakur, Tupac: and Bruce Hornsby, Deon Evans. “Changes.” Greatest Hits. Los Angeles:

Songs of Universal, Inc., 1998.

Books    

Chang, Jeff. "Introduction by DJ Kool Herc." Introduction. Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A

History of the Hip-hop Generation. New York: St. Martin's, 2005. Print.

Fernando, S. H. "Oral Funk Journalism." The New Beats: Exploring the Music, Culture, and

Attitudes of Hip-hop. New York: Anchor /Doubleday, 1994. Print.

Finn, Julio. "The Drum." The Bluesman: The Musical Heritage of Black Men and Women in

the Americas. New York: Interlink, 1992. Print.

Haskins, James. "The Beginning." One Nation under a Groove: Rap Music and Its Roots.

New York: Jump at the Sun/Hyperion for Children, 2000. Print.

Herc, Kool DJ. "Introduction." Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-hop

Generation. By Jeff Chang. New York: St. Martin's, 2005. Print.

Keyes, Cheryl L. "Introduction." Introduction. Rap Music and Street Consciousness.

Urbana: U of Illinois, 2002. Print.

Keyes, Cheryl L. "Preface." Preface. Rap Music and Street Consciousness. Urbana: U of

Illinois, 2002. Print.

Ogg, Alex, and David Upshal. "Block Party Days." The Hip-hop Years: A History of Rap.

London: Channel 4, 1999. Print.

Pinn, Anthony B. Noise and Spirit: The Religious and Spiritual Sensibilities of Rap Music.

New York: New York UP, 2003. Print.

Tang, Patricia. "The Rapper as Modern Griot: Reclaiming Ancient Traditions." Hip Hop

Africa: New African Music in a Globalizing World. By Eric S. Charry. Bloomington:

Indiana UP, 2012. Print.

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E-­‐books  

Tang, Patricia. Masters of the Sabar: Wolof Griot Percussionists of Senegal. Philadelphia:

Temple University Press, 2007. E-book. 19 Nov. 2014.

Images  

Adams, Kyle. Adams, Example 3. Digital image. Music Theory Online. Society for Music

Theory, May 2008. Web. 22 Aug. 2014.

Journal  Articles      

Novick, Adam. "Sabar Drumming: Puzzling Rhythms From Senegal." DRUM! Magazine.

Enter Music Publishing, Inc., 14 Mar. 2012. Web. 17 June 2014.

Salaam, Mtume Ya. "The Aesthetics of Rap." African American Review 29.2, Special Issues

on The Music (1995): 305-06. JSTOR. Web. 17 June 2014.

Websites    

Dr.Tom. "African Drums & Drumming." African Drums & African Drumming. N.p., n.d.

Web. 04 Sept. 2014.

Khameneh, Caroline. "Class Experience and African Music Overview." Web log

post. African Music. Wordpress, n.d. Web. 17 June 2014.

Recordings  

Jackson, Curtis. By Michael Elizondo and Andrew Young. In Da Club. 50 Cent. Universal

Music Corp., 2003. MP3.

  18  

Appendix    

Complete Transcription of the riff in “Push It Along” by A tribe called Quest

Complete Score of “In Da Club” by 50 Cent (pg. 1)

  19  

Complete Score of “Changes” by Tupac Shakur (pg.1)