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Exploring Grade 1 Students' TextualConnectionsSylvia Pantaleo aa University of Victoria , Victoria, British Columbia, CanadaPublished online: 03 Nov 2009.

To cite this article: Sylvia Pantaleo (2003) Exploring Grade 1 Students' Textual Connections, Journalof Research in Childhood Education, 18:3, 211-225, DOI: 10.1080/02568540409595036

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Journal of Research in Childhood Education

2004. Vol. 18. No.3

Copyright 2004 by the Association for

Ch ildhood Education International

0256 -8543104

Exploring Grade 1 Students' Textual Connections

Sylvia PantaleoUniversity a/Victoria. Victoria. British Columbia , Canada

Abstract. Th is article focuses specifically on an asp ect ofGrade 1 children's liter­ary understanding-the textual associations made by the students as they di s­cus sed nine pi cture books. This work extends the small body ofresearch that hasexam ined th e responses ofGrade 1 children (e.g., Kiefer, 1993; McGee, 1992; Sipe,2000a), and also contributes to previous research by describing the types and usesof textual connections articulated by Grade 1 children during small-group andwhole-class read-aloud sessions.

Before, during, and after reading a text,readers make connections to other textsand to their own life experiences. Textualconnections are the subject ofintertextuality. Although the term"intertextuality" pervades professional andacademic writing on textual connections,it is used in various ways in the literature;some people describe all types of textualconnections as intertextual, and othersdescribe only text-to-text connections asintertextual. Allen (2000) argues that"int ert extuality is one of the most com­monly used and misused terms in contem­porary critical vocabulary" (p . 2).

The term intertextuality is derived from"the Latin intertexto , meaning to inter­mingle while weaving" (Keep, McLaughlin,& Parmar, 2002 ). Julia Kristeva, a Frenchsemiotician who was influenced by the workofBakhtin, coined the term intertextualityin 1966 (Cuddon , 1999, p. 424 ). Bakhtinand Kristeva "share an insistence that textscannot be separated from the larger cul­tural or social textuality out of which theyare constructed" (Allen, 2000, p. 36) . Ac­cording to Kristeva (1980), "any text is con­structed of a mosaic of quotations; any textis the absorption and transformation ofanother" (p . 66), and a literary work "is not

simply the product of a single author, butof its relationship to other texts and to thestructures of language itself' (Keep et al. ,2002 ). Krisetva (1980) referred to texts interms of two axes: "The word's status isthus defined horizontally (the word in thetext belongs to both writing subject and ad­dressee) as well as vertically (the word inthe text is ori ented toward an anterior orsynchronic literary corpus)" (p. 66). Thus,authors "communicate to readers at thesame moment as their words or texts com­municate the existence of past texts withinthem" (Allen , 2000 , p. 39).

Many other scholars also have writtenabout intertextuality. Like Kristeva (1980 ),Still and Worton (1990) identify two axesof intertextuality: "Texts entering via au­thors . .. and texts entering via readers"(p. 2). To Nikolajeva and Scott (2001), "in­ter-textuality refers to all kinds oflinks be­tween two or more texts" (p , 227 ). They,too , acknowledge the reader's contribution,and write that in some cases , "in t er ­textuality may be culturally dependent" (p.228 ), because a reader brings to a text allof the other texts she has read, as well asher own cultural context. Indeed, an "al­lusion only makes sense if the reader is fa­miliar with the hypotext (the text alluded

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to )" (p . 228 ). Nodelman (1996) also dis­cusses how intertextuality depends on areader's background knowledge, and writesthat "all literature and all experience of lit­erature are tied together" (p . 22). Like oth­ers, Barthes recognizes that a reader is aplurality of other texts; the reader existsand works "within an intertextual field ofcultural codes and meanings" (Allen , 2000 ,p. 89 ). Barthes (1975) writes that everytext is "it self the intertext of another text"(p. 77). To Barthes (1977 ), a text is "a mul­tidimensional space in which a variety ofwritings, none of them original, blend andclash. The text is a tissue of quotations"(p. 146 ). Finally, Fairclough (1992) statesthat texts "ar e inherently intertextual, con­stituted by elements of other texts" (p. 270).He makes the distinction betweenintertextual links to other texts andintertextual links to conventions (e .g.,genres, discourses, styles, activity types, p.271 ). Fairclough also describes how indi­vidual and contextual factors influence areader's interpretation of a text.

The term palimpsest, "a parchment, tab­let, etc. that has been written upon or in­scribed two or three times, the previous textor texts having been imperfectly erased andremaining, therefore, still partly visible"(Guralnik, 1976, p . 1022), has been used todescribe intertextuality (Keep et al., 2002 ;Sipe, 2001). Sipe (2001) uses palimpsestas a metaphor to describe the "overl appingof texts with one another," and the waysthat meaning is "gr adually built upon pre­vious meanings in a continual process ofintertextual linkages" (p. 324). Althoughpalimpsesting involved ''layering,'' this pro­cess should not be envisioned as a strictlylinear procedure. Often, the under-writingsof palimpsests were partly visible, result­ing in an intermingling of texts . Thus ,when described this way, palimpsest seemsan appropriate term to describeintertextuality. All writing takes place inthe presence of other writings, and all read­ings are fore grounded in a "reader 's ownprevious readings, experiences and posi­tion" within her culture (Keep et al. , 2002 ).Making links among "text s" (including the

text of life) involves a dynamic, complex,and iterative process.

As is evident from this theoretical review,intertextuality is defined, interpreted, andemployed in various ways throughout theprofessional literature. (For further read­ing on theories and practices on inter­textuality see Allen, 2000; Hartman, 1995;Lemke, 1992 , 2002 ; Worton & Still, 1990 .)In this paper, the term intertextuality isused in a manner that re sonates with thosewho believe that the text and the readerare synergetic constituents of intertext­uality. However, it is important to remem­ber that identifying an intertext is an actof interpretation by a reader; indeed, ahermeneutic activity gives way tointertextuality. Two types ofintertextualityare described in this paper: intertextual(text-to-other-text connections) andintratextual (text-within-text connections).A third type of textual connection, autobio­graphical (text-to-life or life-to-text), is al sodiscussed. Some of the research that hasexplored intertextuality and autobiographi­cal connections is presented below.

Research on Intertextuality andAutobiographical Connections

"J . R. Tolkien claimed that there are no newstories , only a 'cauldron of stories' intowhich we dip as we write" (Cairney, 1990,p.478). Cairney (1990) extended Tolkien'sclaim by adding that we also dip into a"cauldron of stories" as we read. Cairneyfound that both "low-ability" and "high-abil­ity" Grade 6 students made reference toother texts in their own writing in numer­ous ways. Lancia (1997) also found thatGrade 2 students "borrowed" ideas from lit­erature when writing their own stories. Inanother study by Cairney (19 92 ) onintertextuality, he found that Grade 1 stu­dents' writing also was influenced by thetexts they had heard in the classroom .Furthermore, he observed how the Grade1 children's shared intertextual history wasshaped within a social context.

Oyler and Barry (1996) also exploredintertextuality in a Grade 1 classroom.They examined read-aloud sessions of in-

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formational texts, and documented how thestudents juxtaposed the information books"with other texts such as poems, songs, tele­vision videos and cartoons, retold stories,information books, storybooks, and per­sonal experiences ofthe clas sroom, self, andfamily members" (p. 326 ). The researchersdiscussed the significance of the teacher'sbehavior during the interactive reading ses­sions, and concluded that teachers need torecognize, acknowledge , and encourageintertextual connections, and allow time forstudents to follow up on intertextual ini­tiations. The authors also noted the con­tribution ofintertextual connections to theconstruction of shared understandings, andto the building of community.

Sipe (2000a, 2000b, 2001 ) also exploredprimary grade students' intertextual andautobiographical connections. In his study(2000a) on the construction of literary un­derstanding by primary grade children,intertextual and personal responses consti­tuted two ofthe five aspects ofthe children'sliterary understanding. Sipe described theintertextual facet as "relating to the textbeing read to other cultural products," andthe personal aspect as "connecting the textto one 's own life , moving either from the lifeto the text or from the text to one 's life" (p.268 ). In examining data from several of hisstudies with primary grade students, Sipe(2000b) found two major purposes ofchildren's intertextual connections duringstorybook read-aloud sessions: hermeneu­tic (in terpret ive) and ae sthetic (creat ive).In another study, Sipe (2001) examined theintertextuallinks made by Grades 1 and 2children who listened to five variations ofthe Rapunzel story. He developed seven con­ceptual categories to describe the children'sintertextual conversational turns.

Many and Anderson (1992) examinedautobiographical and intertextual as socia­tions of Grades 4, 6, and 8 students as partoftheir study that compared students' writ­ten responses to three short stories. Theresearchers found that few students linkedtheir intertextual or autobiographical as­sociations to their understanding ofthe sto ­ries. Similar to Oyler and Barry (1996),

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

Many and Anderson (1992) believe that"teachers need to be aware that students'intertextual and autobiographical re­sponses may need to be probed in order forstudents to make associations" that add totheir literary experiences in meaningfulways (p. 66).

In their research on how adolescents usedintertextuallinks to understand literature,Beach, Appleman, and Dorsey (1990 ) foundthat making intertextual connections con­tributed to understanding texts, and that''learning to define intertextual links is alearned discourse practice" (p . 241 ). Theresearchers also wrote about the social con­struction of intertextuality, and discussedthe importance of teachers modeling waysof making connections between texts "andelaborating on those connections" (p. 242).

Bloome and Egan-Robertson (1993) alsowere interested in intertextuality "as a so­cial construction" (p . 305). In their mi­croanalysis and discussion of a Grade 1reading lesson, they presented "the socialconstruction of intertextuality as a heuris­tic" for describing and interpreting class­room reading and writing events (p. 330).They found that the teacher and the stu­dents used intertextuality for various indi­vidual and collective purposes.

From this literature review, it is appar­ent that several researchers have exploredwriters' and readers' construction ofintertextual and autobiographical connec­tions , and the social nature of inter­textuality. Although Cairney (1990, 1992)and Oyler and Barry (1996) include text­to-text, life-to-text, and text-to-life links intheir discussions ofintertextuality, they donot separate intertextual and autobio­graphical associations. Similar to Sipe(2000a), Many and Anderson (1992), andBeach et al. (1990), the author differenti­ates between intertextual and autobio­graphical associations in this paper.

MethodParticipantsThe re search site was a Grade 1 classroomin an elementary school of approximately300 students in a midsize city in eastern

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Ontario. The school draws students frompredominantly lower socioeconomic classfamilies, and sever al families are recentimmigrants to Canada. For eight of the 23participants, English was not the languagespoken at home. Four girls and 11 boyswere of European Canadian ethnicity, onegirl and one boy were South Asian, two boyswere Asian, one boy was Libyan, one boywas Saudi Arabian, one boy was Cambo­dian, and one boy was Chilean. When askedto describe the children's literacy skills atthe beginning of the year, Ms. P., theteacher, believed that the students' skillswere generally below average. The work ofseven students remained below provincialstandards for Grade 1 in both reading andwriting at the en d of the year.

The Grade 1 st uden t s participated ingu ided reading groups and numerouswhole-class reading and writing activitiesin language arts and other curricular ar­eas. Ms. P. would read aloud at least onebook (fiction, nonfiction, or poetry eachday), and often presented follow-up writ­ing activities related to the selections. Ac­cording to the teacher, the students 'enjoyment of listening to stories had beenevident from the beginning of the schoolyear. Ms . P. described the large-group storydiscussions as "limited in depth" and domi­nated by a few students. She believed thatthe limited vocabularies of some studentsinhibited their contributions to the storydiscussions.

ProcedureThe author spent time in the Grade 1 class­room during January 2001 in order to de­velop a rapport with the children. Datacollection occurred from February to May.With input from the teacher, the studentswere organized into heterogeneous groupsof three or four students, and small-groupmembership fluctuated throughout thestudy. Findings from research indicate that"reading to children in small groups offerlslmuch interaction as one-to-one readings andappearls] to lead to greater gains in compre­hension than whole-class or even one-to onereadings" (Morrow & Gambrell, 2000 , p. 571).

The following picture books were read tothe Grade 1 children: Willy the Dreamer(Browne, 1997), Snowflake Bentley (Martin,1998 ), Safari (Bateman, 1998), SomethingFrom Nothing (Gilman, 1992), Shortcut(Macaulay, 1995), The Empty Pot (Derni ,1990 ), Voices in the Park (Browne, 1998),The Three Pigs (Wiesner, 2001), and Tues­day (Wiesner, 1991). These nine books rep­resented a variety of picture book types(e.g., storybook, nonfiction, informationalnarrative, wordless). Furthermore, the pic­ture storybooks ranged in complexity andsophistication of presentation. (See the ref­erence list for a briefannotation ofeach book.)

The children were pulled out of regularclassroom activities once a week for ap­proximately 25 minutes to participate in thesmall-group read-aloud sessions, whichwere held in a vacant room in the school.The students were encouraged to talk to oneanother or the author at any point duringthe small-group interactive read-aloud ses­sions (Barrentine, 1996). As well as provid­ing expansions on the children's commentsand articulating topic-continuing replies,the author asked questions during the ses­sions that encouraged student consider­ation and discussion of unexplored textualand illustrative aspects. Subsequent toreading the story to each small group, theauthor reread the book to the entire classand, again, encouraged student participa­tion. Understandably, the children's small­group read-aloud experiences with eachbook influenced both their articulations andthe author's questions during the whole­class read-aloud sessions. All read-aloudsessions were audio-recorded.

Ms . P. took field notes and recorded stu­dents' comments, facial expressions, andbody language when the author read eachbook to the class. Although the discussionsduring the large-group read-aloud sessionswere more structured, as the children gen­erally raised their hands to make contribu­tions, many students made spontaneouscomments on numerous occasions.

The students completed an independentwriting activity after the small-group read­aloud sessions for the first five books. Un-

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fortunately, neither Ms. P. nor the authorwere able to assist the children with theirwriting, as Ms. P. was often working with aguided reading group and the author wasconducting another small-group session.Consequently, some students copied eachother's ideas and/or rushed through theirwork . Therefore, for the last four books,the procedures were changed and the chil­dren wrote responses after the whole-classread-aloud sessions. The children were re­minded after the whole-class read-aloudsessions to think about what they were feel­ing, thinking, wondering about, question­ing, or imagining as they listened to andtalked about the story before they beganwriting. Finally, after each whole-classread-aloud session, the students completeda drama, visual arts, and/or writing activ­ity that was designed to extend their read­ing experiences of the literature. Forexample, for The Three Pigs (Wiesner,2001), the children were instructed to copyWiesner's idea and blow the pigs into a dif­ferent story (Pantaleo, 2002).

Data AnalysisResearch data included transcriptions ofsmall-group and whole-class read-aloud ses­sions, drama response sessions, and weeklymeetings between Ms . P. and the author.Other data included photocopies of thechildren's work, the observational field notesof Ms. P., and the author's research journal.

There were six small-group read-aloudsessions and one whole-class read-aloudsession for each book used in the study.However, due to technical problems, onesmall-group read-aloud session of Tuesday(Wiesner, 1991) and one-halfofa small-groupread-aloud of Voices in the Park (Browne,1998), as well as the whole-class discussionof The Empty Pot (Demi, 1990), were notaudiorecorded. Approximately 210 minutesof audiotape was produced for each book.

The author did not approach the studywith a predetermined set of questions to askthe children after reading each book.Rather, questions were asked that wereappropriate for each book , and that werenatural extensions ofthe talk surrounding

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

each book. Furthermore, there was no pre­determined categorization scheme to applyto the data. As in Sipe (2000a), the conver­sational turn, "everything said by onespeaker before another began to speak"(Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975, p. 231), wasutilized as the unit of analysis. The author'sconversational turns were not included inthe data analyses. The generation of cat­egorization schemes was based on theauthor's interpretation of the data. Thetranscriptions of the small-group andwhole-class read-aloud sessions were readmany times, and data analysis was both re­cursive and iterative. Thus, initial codesdescribing the textual connections articu­lated by the students were revised often,based on subsequent readings of the tran­scripts. Readers are reminded that textualconnections are an aspect ofliterary under­standing, and that organizing responsesinto distinct categories, regardless of thecategory labels, minimizes the complex andsynergistic nature of students' literary un­derstanding. Furthermore, the use of dis­crete categories fails to capture the richnessof the read-aloud discussions.

With picture books , readers have the ver­bal text and the visual text, as well as thecomposite text (Doonan, 1993), to considerwhen creating and identifying textual con­nections. Instances when students madeconnections between texts and/or illustra­tions, and cultural knowledge and artifactssuch as other texts, television, media, video,other characters, works of art, advertise­ments, and "sayings," were categorized asintertextual. Conversational turns whenstudents made connections to earlier epi ­sodes, phrases, actions, illustrations, andcharacters within the same text were cat­egorized as intratextual. Life-to-text ortext-to-life connections were categorized asautobiographical, and included the chil­dren identifying with the stories and thecharacters, and connecting their ownworldviews (personal knowledge) to thestory. The latter subcategory was furthersubdivided into explaining and definingvocabulary, and providing information andcommenting on aspects of the text. See

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Appendix A for the quantitative analysis ofturn-taking for each category for each book.

The talk about the books was influencedby the membership of each small group, thenature of each book's text and illustrations,and the questions and comments ofthe par­ticipants and the author. Although eachsmall group's conversations varied bothquantitatively and qualitatively, the tran­script excerpts below, taken only from thesmall-group read-aloud sessions, are rep­resentative of the students' talk about tex­tual connections.

Findings on Textual ConnectionsIntertextual ConnectionsIntertextual (text-to-other-text) connectionsincluded associations or links to televisionprograms, movies, books , characters, andother cultural products. Intertextual con­nections constituted 20.1 percent of the to­tal number of conversational turnsanalyzed as textual connections.

In every small-group discussion aboutSafari (Bateman, 1998), the children talkedabout movies or television shows that weresomehow, in the students' opinions, con­nected to the creatures or events in thebook. When Mohad viewed Bateman'spainting of a large gorilla, he remarked, "It'slike The Jungle Book ." Kathy explained, "Iseen him [the gorilla] on a movie."And Joseadded, "Yeah, George of the Jungle." Thelions on the title and dedication pages ofSafari, as well as a double-page spread inthe book devoted to lions, inspired conver­sation about The Lion King. Several stu­dents recited the names of the moviecharacters, and some children pointed tothe lions in the book as they said the moviecharacters' names.

Willy the Dreamer (Browne, 1997) is filledwith intertextual and intervisual links tocultural products and texts. Browne in­cludes allusions to other books and charac­ters (including his own work), and emulatesthe work of several famous artists, such asMagritte, Dali, and Bacon. The text on theverso ofthe first double-page spread reads"S ometimes Willy dreams that he's a moviestar," and Willy is depicted as several char-

acters from books and movies. The studentsidentified some of the characters-KingKong, Frankenstein, a "vampire" (only acouple of groups called the characterDracula). As the children's school was pro­ducing the musical The Wizard of Oz, thechildren easily identified the CowardlyLion , the Tin Man, and the Scarecrow. Onanother page, Robert identified Cupid andstated, "Cupid's naked and he has the faceof a monkey. He has no bow and arrow andhe always has a bow and arrow." Shamahbelieved that one illustration was depict­ing Alice in Wonderland, "Because in Alicein Wonderland , the girl is in a whole bunchof tea pots and there's a little mouse hidingin there." The students also made connec­tions to Jack and the Bean Stalk, HumptyDumpty , and Superman during the read­aloud sessions of Willy the Dreamer.

In Voices in the Park (1998) , another bookcreated by Anthony Browne, Ryan thoughtthat Charles (one of the main characters)looked "like Willy from far away." As welooked at the first page ofthe section titled"Second Voice," Gurjit exclaimed, "And youknow what? I just realized that this chairlooks like the chair in Willy th e Dreamer,only this one is green. Remember he [Willy]was in one that was pink." The childrenidentified many cultural artifacts inBrowne's illustrations, including KingKong , Mona Lisa, and Mary Poppins.

The silhouettes of the flying frogs at nighton the third double-page spread in Thesday(Wiesner, 1991) reminded each small groupof the Mother's hat in Voices in the Park(Browne, 1998):

Kathy: It's like those hats.Chris : Hats from the park one!The park one!Sam: The voices! The voices! The voices!Changwei: Oh yeah.S: They do look like the Mother's hat from

Voices in the Park . Good for you! Butwhat are they really?

Chris: Leaves.S: Hmm, let's look again.Kathy: Oh, it's lily pads with frogs on it.S: That's right. Those are just their eyes

that are popping up like that, but it does

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look like the hats.Sam: I think David Wiesner likes to put

weird stuff in his books. (I had alreadyread The Three Pigs.)

Chris: Like Anthony Browne.Changwei: Likes to put secrets in.S: Wiesner seems to like to have flying

things because he had the pigs flyingin The Three Pigs.

Chris: Flying things.Kathy: Flying vegetables. (Ms. P. had read

June 29th to the class.)Sam: Yeah, flying vegetables, flying pigs,

and flying frogs.

The children articulated many intertex­tual connections when discussing The ThreePigs (Wienser, 2001). Wiesner's three pigsdeconstruct the original tale of The ThreeLittle Pigs, and create a nonlinear andnonsequential story as they go about theiradventure. The storybook contains a mul­titude of visual and verbal intertextual con­nections. For most children, the title pageconfirmed their prediction that the storywould be the traditional tale, as three pigs,one carrying straw, one carrying sticks, anda third hauling a cart of brick, are depictedthere:

Peter: Oh , this is The Three Little Pigs!Chris: Yeah, I was right. It is The Three

Little Pigs.Omar: And the big bad wolf. Someone puts

up a straw house, and the wolf blowedeverything.

Peter: This guy (pointing to one ofthe pigswith the bricks), his house can't beblowed down and he saves his brothers.

The children were aware of different ver­sions of the classic tale. Ivan commented,"In one version, he blows the one with sticksand the one with straw down and eats thepigs up. But the guy with the brick houseis the one who lives."Ali replied, "I've got atape ofthe story and all the pigs live." Ethanshared that "One time I read a book, andinstead of it being the big bad wolf and thethree little pigs, it was the three littlewolves and the big bad pig ."

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

Intratextual ConnectionsDuring the read-aloud sessions, the chil­dren referred to previous episodes, phrases,actions, illustrations, and characters withinthe text that was currently being read. Ofthe total number of conversational turnsanalyzed as textual connections, 30.1 per­cent were categorized as intratextual.

Browne embedded images ofthe Mother'shat throughout Voices in the Park (Browne,1998), and the children took great delightin identifying this intratextual connection.Similarly, the bananas on the cover andendpapers of Willy the Dreamer (Browne,1997) suggest that readers will discoverbananas throughout the book, and Brownedoes not disappoint. The children searchedfor bananas in every illustration, and astatement by Kathy succinctly summarizedthe children's opinions: "Bananas. I seebananas all over here." The students notedthat no matter his identity, Willy alwayswore the same sweater/vest, even as anadult (and in Browne's other books aboutWilly, the character wears the same vest).The chair depicted on the cover is found inseveral illustrations throughout the book,although in different forms (e.g., couch, sail­boat). As Nathan remarked, "His couchagain, only it 's turned to a boat." Briannanoted that the couch in the illustration ofthejungle was "the same as the one on the cover."

Shortcut (Macaulay, 1995) has a nonlinearand nonsequential plot . Each subsequentchapter relates back to events in ChapterOne. There are numerous intratextual con­nections in Shortcut; some links are re­vealed through words and others aredisclosed solely through illustrations. Thestudents were astute observers and linkedevents and characters as we progressedthrough the book . The student excerptsbelow, taken from several different small­group discussions, illustrate a few of theintratextuallinks noted by the children:

Fernandez: It's the same bridge that they[Albert and June] crossed over. You cansee the signs.

Peter: I knew it! She [cockatoo] went out ofher cage. It was her feather on that

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other page!Sam: She's [Sybil] taking the long, long way

because that man [Albert] covered thesign that said short, short way.

Melissa: Remember the airplane thingy[hot air balloon] , he [Professor Tweet]throwed out the bags and now theylanded on that man's [Bob] feet.

Ethan: Well, remember how the horse acci­dentally pulled on it [the railway switch)when it walked away? Well, instead ofgo­ing on the track that it [the train] wantedto go on, it got onto the abandoned onewhen the horse made it switch.

Something From Nothing (Gilman, 1992),an adaptation of a traditional Jewish tale,includes multiple perspectives-those ofJoseph's grandfather and grandmother,Joseph's parents, and a mouse family. Theparallel story of the mouse family livingbelow the floor of the house is told entirelythrough pictures. The children commentedabout how events in Joseph's world weremirrored by events in the mouse family.Frank remarked, "They're doing the samething, only it's just the other world of themouse." Tom noted, "They're [the mice]walking outside and playing the samethings as Joseph." The students made manycomments about how the mice used the bluematerial that fell through the floor cracksfrom Joseph's world. Shamah commented,"Everything in the mouse house is made outof blue because of all the snipping thegrandfather did. "

Autobiographical ConnectionsThe third category of textual connectionsconsisted of instances when the studentsused their personal knowledge and framesof reference. Ofthe total number of conver­sational turns analyzed as textual connec­tions, 49.8 percent were categorized asautobiographical. Life-to-text or text-to-lifeconnections included the children identify­ing with the stories and the characters, andconnecting their own worldviews (personalknowledge) to the story. The latter subcat­egory was further subdivided into explain­ing and defining vocabulary, and providing

information and commenting on aspects ofthe text.

Identifying With Story and Characters.The Grade 1 students identified with thestory and the characters in every picturebook (constituting 20.1 percent of the totalnumber of textual connections conversa­tional turns). In Willy the Dreamer(Browne, 1997), the text reads, "He dreamsof the past and, sometimes, the future ."There was a discussion about the meaningof the terms "past" and "future," and thechildren shared their dreams ofthe future.Sam said he would dream about being anastronaut and an inventor, and Nathanstated that he would dream about being apolice officer. One illustration shows Willyin a ring with a sumo wrestler. Several chil­dren said they ''would run away" if they wereWilly, but some students demonstratedwrestling moves they would use to defeatthe sumo wrestler.

In The Empty Pot (Derni, 1990), the Em­peror asks Ping, "Why did you bring me anempty pot?" Without prompting, Omar "be­came" Ping and stated, "Because it won'tgrow, Emperor." Chris and Changwei fol­lowed Omar's lead with the following com­ments: "1 tried my best" and "It wouldn'tgrow." Before I read the part describing theEmperor's choice of successor, I asked thechildren whom they would select. Somechose Ping, even though he took an emptypot to the Emperor.

Mohad: I'd pick Ping.S: Why, Mohad?Mohad: Because he was lonely and I was

thinking that if I was the Emperor, 1would want him.

Robert: I want Ping too and I was thinkingthe same as Mohad.

S: Mohad, did you have more to say aboutwhy you would pick Ping?

Mohad: Because I realized that I don't likechildren crying.

S: Ahh, so you don't like children crying, sothat is why you pick him. Jeremy?

Robert: All of the flowers look so nice.S: They do, don't they.

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Jeremy: I would choose Ping cause he didhis best but the flower didn't grow.

Phillip: Yeah, Ping should be emperor be­cause he tried his best.

When the author read that SnowflakeBentley "loved snow more than anythingelse in the world" (Martin , 1998 ,unpaginated), the children talked aboutsnow, sharing their opinions ("I love whenit snows and it is all fluffy"), and describ­ing activities they liked to do with snow ("Icatch snowflakes on my tongue"). Whenthey heard that Snowflake Bentley's par­ents "spent their savings" and bought aspecial camera for their son , the studentsdiscussed their "savings." Peter explained,"I have a piggy bank that's shaped like anelephant." And Jeremy stated, "I keep minein a drawer, in a special drawer that's empty."

The children were captivated byWiesner's flying frogs in Tuesday (1991), awordless picture book . Most children wereenvious of the frogs' aviation experiences.Ivan sighed, "I wish I was a frog. I wouldlove to fly like that. Look at their great bigsmiles." Throughout the book, the studentsdescribed what they thought the frogs orother characters were thinking. The indi­vidual student excerpts below are takenfrom several small-group discussions.

Gurjit: Maybe he's [the man] saying, "Oh ,I've only ever seen birds fly, not frogs!"

Shamah: Look at the way he's [a frog] sit­ting. I know what he's saying, "What aterrible trip!"

Robert: He 's [the dog] going, "Leave mealone! Leave me alone!"

Ali: He 's [frog] saying, "Superfrog to therescue!"

Fernandez: The man, he's saying, "Lastnight I saw flying frogs!"

Jose: (pretending to be a frog ) "Help! Ohno! I'm going to fall off my lily pad."

Worldview. When analyzing the textualconnections conversational turns, 12.3 per­cent were categorized as explaining anddefining vocabulary, and 17.4 percent werecategorized as providing information and

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

commenting on textual aspects .Explaining and defining vocabulary.

During every small-group read-aloud ses­sion, the author asked about the meaningsof specific words . On some occasions, thechildren asked about word meanings. Forexample, Jose asked, "What frown?," andRyan was quite perplexed by "lily pad." Hequeried, "What are lily pads? For when youplay hockey?"

Safari (Bateman, 1998) includes a pho­tograph of Bateman drawing an orphancheetah. The following is a typical answerto the author's query, "What does it meanif the cheetah is an orphan?"

Changwei: That means it doesn't have amom or dad.

Ethan: That it doesn't have a home.Phillip: It's all alone.

In Willy the Dreamer (Browne, 1997), thetext reads "Sometimes Willy dreams thathe's a beggar or a king." The children wereasked what "beggar" meant? Peter replied,"It might mean that you're poor and stuff,like you're from an orphanage and youwant to beg for something like food." Whenasked about the meaning of the word "em­peror" in The Empty Pot (Demi, 1990), Tomstated, "It's a guy you respect a lot and lis­ten to." Philip added, "Sort of like a king."In the story, Ping transferred his seed whenit would not grow. Ivan explained the word"transferred" to his group: "It means ifyoutake it out of one, it's like it lives in oneplace and then you move it to another."

One of the words talked about in Snow­flake Bentley (Martin, 1998) was "micro­scope." Several groups thought a microscopewas a microphone or a telescope. The fol­lowing excerpt illustrates one group work­ing out the meaning ofthe word microscope:

S: (Reads from text) When his mother gothim an old microscope. Now, what's amicroscope?

Melissa: It's something that you sing within a band.

Brianna: No, that's a microphone. Likethis (points to the external microphone

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on the table).Sam: Oh, I know! It's something that you

listen to your heart.S: Actually that's called a stethoscope. It

ends the same way though with 'scope.'Melissa: I know. (Shows us with her hands)

It's like this and at nighttime you lookthrough it and you can see stars andplanets.

Brianna: That's a telescope.Peter: A microscope is a thing that you look

at bacteria.S: Yes, look at this picture of a microscope

[in the book]. Scientists use these whenthey're doing research.

Sam: Oh , I know. And you take somethingthat's really little, a little square thingand you can see what's inside. It makesit bigger. Chris has one at home.

S: That's right. You can put whatever youare looking at on a glass slide and themicroscope enlarges it and you can seethe detail.

Providing information, commenting ontextual aspects. During every read-aloudsession, the students accessed their life ex­periences and literary histories and pro­vided "additional" information orcommentary about textual and illustrativeaspects. They reported that every snow­flake was different and had six sides (Snow­flake Bentley), that snapping turtles ''havea tongue that is like this little worm and itattracts fish and then when the fish try toget the worm, the turtle chomps on the fish "(Tuesday) , that "sometimes spiders crawlinto slits in the floor " (Something FromNothing) , and that "when a giraffe is hav­ing lunch and if a predator comes along, itcan easily stay in one spot and camouflageinto the trees with its long neck becauseit's like a branch" (Safari ).

The students were very knowledgeableabout cheetahs. While looking at the end­papers of Safari (Bateman, 1998), Ali iden­tified the cheetahs and explained that, "Acheetah is a cat." Chris elaborated statingthat, "A cheetah, lions, and tigers are allcats, and they're cousins, too ." In anothergroup, Sam asked, "Did you know that it's

very rare for a person to see a cheetah withcubs?" Nathan used his hands to show howa cheetah attacks its prey: "Here's the chee­tah and here's the prey. It goes up to theprey close enough and then jumps all overhim ." Another group talked about thecheetah's speed.

Jeremy: They're the fastest land animal.Gurjit: They go faster than a car on the

highway.Peter: Or a motorcycle or a train.

In The Empty Pot (Demi, 1990), the seedPing received from the Emperor would notgrow. The students articulated several rea­sons to explain the seed's lack of growth.Robert stated, "It can't grow because it'sunder a tree and the tree makes shade andthe plant needs sun." Nathan remarked,"You have to water it so it will grow." AndKathy noted that "He [Ping] didn't putworms in it or anything and worms helpflowers and stuff grow."

The frontispiece in Shortcut (Macaulay,1995) provides readers with an introduc­tion to the book's characters. The children'sdiscussion of the "mug shot" of one charac­ter demonstrated their knowledge aboutthis particular type of photograph.

S: Now why do you think that there aretwo pictures of Sybil like this? She's gotnumbers under her name.

Kathy: She might be a stealer.Jose: She might be a bad person.Nathan: Cause she's a criminal.S: Right.Shamah: Yeah, she's been arrested.Jose: She's a bad one.Kathy: She's going to jail.Nathan: I think she stole the bird.S: Have you ever seen photographs like this

before?Shamah: On T.V. I've seen them before.

DiscussionFor this particular class of Grade 1 stu­dents, the children accessed their knowl­edge of other "texts" (intertextual andintertextual connections) and their own

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personal experiences (autobiographical con­nections) to an approximately equal extentwhen transacting with the picture books.Furthermore, this group of students'intertextual, intratextual, and autobio­graphical connections served several pur­poses: hermeneutic (to interpret the storyand to make generalizations), aesthetic (toenter the book ), agential (to co-author thetext), personal (to tell about oneself), heu­ristic (to extend understanding), informa­tive (to communicate something for theinformation of others), and communal (tocreate a common knowledge base). As evi­dent from the transcript excerpts, many ofthe children's textual connections servedmultiple purposes simultaneously.

Resonating with past research onintertextuality (Bloome & Egan-Robertson,1993; Cairney, 1992), the Grade 1 students'textual connections contributed to the de­velopment of a classroom community, re­flecting the social nature ofintertextuality.During the small-group and whole-classread-aloud sessions, the author encouraged,promoted, and valued the children makingtextual connections with other texts (includ­ing the current text) and with their ownexperiences. The peer and adult exchangesafforded the students with opportunities forscaffolding interpretations, extending un­derstandings, exploring significances, andconstructing storylines . Both Vygotsky(1960/1981) and Bakhtin (Holquist, 1990)have written about the role of oral languageand social experience in cognitive develop­ment. The types of interactions occurringduring the read-aloud sessions influencedthe students' repertoires ofliterary and lifeexperiences (Rosenblatt, 1981); theirintertextual histories were constantlychanging as they listened to, talked about,and wrote about each picture book . Thechanges in individual functioning subse­quently influenced the next small-groupand whole-class read-aloud sessions, andagain these social experiences shaped indi­vidual thinking. Thus, students mutuallyaffected each other and the group as awhole, and the group affected the indi­vidual; individual and collective identities

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

were constantly changing, adapting, andemerging (i.e., social constructivism). Ahumorous example that illustrates the lat­ter, as well as the social nature ofintertextuality, occurred a few days afterreading The Three Pigs (Wiesner, 2001). Onone page in the book, a pig enters the"reader 's space" when he peers out at thereader and states, "[ think ... someone's outthere," indicating awareness that someoneis reading the book. The students wereabsolutely astonished by the pig's state­ment! When the book was reread during thewhole-class read-aloud session, all of thechildren started talking at this point, re­marking that the pig was looking at them,or at the person sitting beside them or theirfriends. Interestingly, a few days laterwhen pairs of students were presentingpuppet plays to their classmates, one girlhad her puppet turn to the audience andsay, "Hey, I think someone's out there." Thechildren burst into laughter as they com­pletely understood and appreciated thisintertextual connection.

As noted above , the nature of the class­room interpretive community (Fish, 1980)affects the interactions that occur duringteacher read-aloud sessions, and these in­teractions subsequently influence children'sresponses to, and understandings of, litera­ture. As the most influential member oftheinterpretive community, a teacher must becognizant of and reflective about her actionsand articulations. When cultivating "anenvironment rich in high-quality talk abouttext" (Duke & Pearson, 2002, p. 208), teach­ers should provide interactive reading ses­sions, encourage students to createconnections between texts and their lives,and build links within and between texts.Additionally, as Oyler and Barry (1996)noted, time should be allowed for studentsto follow up on their intertextual initiations.Research on exemplary teachers has foundthat, "in these classrooms, teachers and stu­dents were more likely to make connectionsacross texts and across conversations"(Allington, 2001, p. 96). Furthermore,teachers must model these behaviors, anddiscuss how they use textual connections

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to construct meaning and to enr ich anddeepen their reading experiences.

Individuals extend their repertoires oflit­erary and life experiences by reading andlistening to stories . They can access theserepertoires when listening to or readingother stories; viewing movies, shows, ordramatic productions; engaging in con­versations; or writing. Through multipleexperiences with s t or ies, readers con­struct schemata or cognitive representa­tions of various story elements and genres.Schematic processing affects comprehen­sion (Pressley, 2000), and research indi­cates that proficient readers "dr aw from ,compare, and int egrate their prior knowl­edge with material in the text" (Duke &Pearson, 2002, p. 206 ). Therefore, childrenneed to be read to and with, provided withaccess to a wide variety of reading materi­als , given time to read at school and at home,and provided with opportunities to talk aboutthe material they read and listen to.

The complex and synergist ic relationshipamong text, reader, and context must beconsidered when researching students'intertextual (including links to genres ,themes, discourse styles ), intratextual, andautobiographical connections. Research ontextual connections at the elementary levelcould further explore how various indi­vidual (e.g., age, gender, culture), textual(e.g., forms, genres , specific text se ts), andcontextual factors (e .g., the nature of theclassroom interpretive community, theclassroom teacher) influence student ar­ticulation of textual connections . Addi­tional research could examine howstudents' textual connections contribute totheir comprehension and interpretation.Finally, creating and recognizing textualconnections may affect students' writing asthey develop their understanding of howliterature works.

ReferencesAllen, G. (2000). Intertextuality. New York:

Routledge .Allington, R (2001). What really matters for

struggling readers: Designing research-based

programs. New York: Addi son-Wesley.Barrentine, S. J . (1996). Engaging with read­

ing through interact ive read-alouds . TheReading Teacher, 50(1) , 36-43.

Barthes, R (1975). The pleasure of the text .London: Jonathan Cape.

Barthes, R. (1977). lmage-music-text. London :Fontana.

Beach, R, Appleman, D., & Dorsey, S. (1990).Adolescents' use of intertextual links to un­derstand literature . In R Beach & S. Hynds(Eds.), Developing discourse practices in ado­lescence and adulthood (p p . 224-245 ).Norwood, NJ: Albex.

Bloome, D., & Egan-Robertson, A. (1993). Thesocial construction ofintertextuality in class­room reading and writing lessons. ReadingResearch Quarterly , 28(4),305-332 .

Cairney, T. (1990). Intertextuality: Infectiousechoes from the past. The Reading Teacher ,43(7),478-484.

Cairney, T. (1992). Fostering and building stu­dents ' intertextual histories. Language Arts ,69(7), 502-507 .

Cud don, J . A. (1999) . The Pen guin dict io­nary of literary terms and l iterary theory(4t h ed .). New York: Penguin Books.

Doonan, J . (1993). Looking at picture books inpicture books. Stroud, Glos:The Thimble Press.

Duke , N., & Pearson, D. P. (2002). Effective prac­tices for developing reading comprehension. InA E. Farstrup & S. J . Samuels (Eds.), What re­search has to say about reading instruction (2nded., pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: InternationalReading Association.

Fairclough, N. (1992). Intertextuality in criti­cal discourse. Linguistics and Education , 4 ,269-293 .

Fish, S. (1980). Interpreting the Variorum. In J .'Ibmpkins (Ed.),Reader-response criticism:Fromformalism to post-structuralism (pp. 164-184).Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Guralnik, D. (E d .), (1976). Webster's new worlddictionary of the American language (2nd ed.).New York: William Collins and World Publish­ing Co.

Hartman, D. K. (1995). Eight readers reading:Th e intertextual links of proficient readersre ading multiple passages. Reading ResearchQuarterly, 30 (3),520-561.

Holquist, M. (1990). Dialogism: Bakhtin andhis world. New York: Routledge.

Keep , C., McLaughlin, T., & Parmar, R (2002,May 15) . In tertex tuality . Retrieved fromwww.iath.virginia .edu / elab / hfZ0278.html

Kiefer, B. (1993). Children's responses to pic-

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ture books : A developmental perspective. InK. Holland, R. Hungerford, & S. Ernst (Eds.),Journeying: Children responding to literature(pp.267-283). Portsmouth, NH : Heinem ann.

Kristeva , J . (1980) . Desire in language: Asemiotic approach to literature an d art. NewYork: Columbia University Press.

Lancia, P. (1997). Literary borrowing: The ef­fects of literature on children's wri t ing. Th eReading Teacher , 50(6), 470-475.

Lemke, J. L. (1992). Intertextuality and edu­cational research . Lingu istics and Educati on ,4, 575-586.

Lemke, J. L. (2002). Important theories for re­search topics on th is website. Retrieved June5,2002, from http://academic.brooklyn .cuny.edu / education /jlemke / theories.htm

ManY,J., &Anderson, D. (1992). Theeffectofgradea nd s t a nce on readers' intertextual andautiobiographica1 responses to literature. Read­ing Research and Instruction, 31(4), 60-69.

McGee, L. (1992). An exploration of meaningconstruction in first graders' grand conversa­tions. In C. K. Kinzer & D. J . Leu (Eds .), Lit­eracy research, theory and practice: V leW S frommany perspectives: Forty-first yearbook of theNational Reading Conference (pp. 177-186 ).Chicago: National Reading Conference.

Morrow, L. M., & Gambrell , L. (2000). Litera­ture-based reading in struction. In M. Kamil,P. Mosenthal , P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.),Handbook of reading research: Volum e III (pp.563-586). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Nikolajeva, M., &Scott, C. (20Gl). Howpicturebookswork . New York: Garland Publishing.

Nod elman , P. (1996 ). The plea sures ofch ildren's literature (2nd ed.), New York:Longm an Publishers.

Oyler, C., & Barry, A. (1996). Intertextual con­nections in read -alouds of information books.Langu age Arts , 73(5),324-329 .

Pantaleo, S. (2002). Grade 1 stude nts meetDavid Wiesner 's three pigs. J ournal ofChi ldren's Literature, 28(2), 72-84.

Pressley, M. (2000). Wh at should compreh en ­sion in struction be the in struction of? In M.Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson , & R. Barr(Eds .), Handbook of reading research: VolumeIII (3 r d ed. , pp . 545-561). Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

Rosenblatt, L. (1981). Th e r eader's contribu­ti on in the literary experience. The Engli shQuarterly, 14(1), 3-12 .

Sinclair, J. , & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards ananalysis of discourse:The English used by teach­ers and pupils. London: Oxford University.

STUDENTS' TEXTUAL CONNECTIONS

Sipe, L. (2000a) . The construction of literaryunderstanding by first and second graders inoral response to picture storybook re ad-alouds.Reading Research Quarterly , 35(2), 252-275.

Sipe, L. (2000b). "Those two gingerbread boysco u ld be brothers": H ow children u s eintertextual con ne ctions during storybookread alouds. Chi ld ren 's Literature in Educa­tion , 31( 2), 73-90.

Sipe, L. (2001). A palimpsest of stories: Youngchildren 's construction of intertextual linksamong fairytal e variants. Reading Researchand Instruction , 40 (4), 333-35l.

Still, J ., & Worton, M. (1990). Introduction. InM. Worton & J. Still (Eds .), Intertextuality:Th eories and practices (pp. 1-44). Manches­ter, UK: Manchester University Press.

Worton , M., & Still , J . (Eds .). (1990) .Intertextual ity : Theories and prac t ices.Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1981). The genes is of higher men­tal fun ctions. In J. Wertsch (Ed. & Trans.), Theconcept ofactivity in So viet psychology (pp. 144­188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. (Original workpublish ed 1960).

Children's Literature ReferencesBateman, R. (1998). Safari. Toronto: Penguin

Studio.The book features Bateman's paintings ofAfri­can animals, informational text boxes abouteach creature, and narrat ives about Bateman'sencounters with several of the animals .

Browne, A. (1997 ). Willy the dreamer. Cam­bridge, MA: Ca ndlewick Press.Willy, a zoomorphic charact er, dreams of manythin gs , including fame, adventure, heroism,destitution, the past, and the future. The bookis filled with visual intertextualities.

Browne, A. (1998) . Voices in the park. London:Picture Corgi Books.Th e book is divided into four voices; ea ch zoo­morphic character tells his or her version ofthe even ts that occurred in a park one daywhen the four characters met.

Demi. (1990). The empty pot. New York: HenryHolt and Company.In this Ch inese folktale, a n Emperor an­nounces that the next heir to the throne willbe the child who grows the best flowers fromthe seeds distributed by the Emperor. Ping isgr eatly disappointed when his seed does notsprout and he must go to the Emperor withan empty pot.

Gilman, P. (1992). S omething from noth ing .Richmond Hill, ON: Scholastic Canada.

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An adaptation of a traditional Jewish tale, thebook tells the story of Joseph's growth as hewears out the items his grandfather makesfor him. A second parallel narrative, told en­tirely through illustrations, tells the story ofthe mice who live under the floorboards of theGrandfather's house.

Macaulay, D. (1995). Shortcut . Boston, MA:Houghton Mifllin.Organized into nine chapters and an epilogue, thefirst chapter relates the story ofAlbert, the melonfarmer, andJune, his horse. The remainingchap­ters tell about the consequences of actions com­mitted by June and Albert on their weekly trip tothe market.

Martin, J . B. (1998). Snowflake Bentley. Bos­ton, MA: Houghton Mifllin.A biography of William Bentley, a self-taught

scientist who wanted to capture the beauty ofsnowflakes, tells how he learned to photographindividual snowflakes in order to study theirintricate and unique formations.

Wiesner, D. (1991). Tuesday, New York: ClarionBooks.A wordless picture book that depicts th e adven­tures of a group of frogs that becomes airbornewhen their lily pads mysteriously become minia­ture flying carpets.

Wiesner, D. (2001). The three pigs. New York:Clarion Books.Once the three pigs exit the traditional tale,they construct a flying airplane, explore otherstoryboards, and deconstruct other stories. Fi­nally, the porcines return "home" from theiradventures, but the original tale is foreverchanged.

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