experimental investigations of local scour around mahanadi ... · major universal reasons of bridge...

International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 14, Number 13, 2019 (Special Issue) © Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com

Experimental Investigations of Local Scour around

Mahanadi Bridge Piers Using HEC-RAS 5.0.0

Sriparna Paul1

1Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

Bhubaneswar Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.

ABSTRACT

Engineering is typically concerning avoiding failures and investigation why failures occur and ways that

to repair the matter. There is a desire to know the conditions giving rise to past failures and ways that

to avoid such failures in order that loss of life will be reduced. The hydraulic structures are crucial

structures that necessitates a significant asset to build and serves a vital risk in monetary growth. Thus,

the hydraulic bridges must be protected from the breakdown by non-stop supervising, safeguarding and

suggesting a few mandatory refurbish works. For this reason, this research is on the subject of the

major universal reasons of bridge collapse which is the local scour. In this research, Hydrologic

Engineering Centre River Analysis System (HECRAS) Program was adapted in order to estimate local

scour around the bridge piers. For this research to go smoothly, one of the major bridge was well

thought out i.e. Mahanadi bridge. The Mahanadi Bridge was built up over the Mahanadi River. This

bridge is one of the oldest structure in Odisha state and therefore, their impacts should be pre-

meditated and evaluated. The collision of the bridge construction are estimated from the bed analysis

during different periods including the latest hydrographical survey for the river Mahanadi in the middle

of the Odisha. This paper investigates the behavior and the failure mechanism of the bridge both of the

time using HECRAS Model. To be aware of the characteristics of bridge failures under scour conditions

and supply helpful information for scour step. This paper describes the failure causes and suggests

engineering lessons to be learned and also compares well between the computed scour depth from the

HECRAS Program and the observed value.

Keywords: Bridge Collapse, Bridge Piers, HEC-RAS, Hydrographical survey, Local Scour, Local scour depth,

Mahanadi Bridge, Mahanadi River.

Page 61 of 77


I. INTRODUCTION

The bridge failures result in excessive repairs, loss

of accessibility, or even death (Chiew, 1995).The

potential cost including human toll and monetary

cost of bridge failure due to scour damage has

highlighted the need for scour protection/reduction

methods. A large depth of foundation is required

for bridge piers to overcome the effect of scour

which is a costly proportion. Therefore, for safe and

economical design, scour around the bridge piers is

required to be controlled. The bridge piers require

deep and expensive pier embedment in rivers. To

reduce this depth of embedment, efforts have been

made by armoring devices like the riprap around

the pier (Brice et. al., 1978; Croad, 1993;

Parola,1993; Yoon et. al., 1995; Worman 1989,

(Lim and Chiew, 1996 and 1997); Lim, 1998;

Chiew and Lim, 2000; Lim and Chiew, 2001) and

by flow altering devices like an array of piles in

front of the pier (Chabert and Engeldinger, 1956

and Melville and Hadfield,1999), a collar around

the pier (Schneible, 1951; Thomas 1967; Tanaka

and Yano 1967; Ettema 1980; Chiew, 1992; kumar

et. al., 1999, Zarrati et. al., 2004, Zarrati et. al.,

2006), submerged vanes (Odgard and Wang 1987),

a delta-wing-like fin in front of the pier (Gupta and

Gangadharaiah, 1992), a slot through the pier

(Chiew, 1992; Kumar et. al., 1999) and partial pier-

groups (Vittal et. al., 1994).

II. FLOW PATTERN AND MECHANISM OF

SCOURING

The vortex system and down-flow are the principal

causes of local scour. At the upstream face of the

pier, the approach flow velocity goes to zero. This

causes an increase in pressure. Due to this

phenomenon the water surface level in front of pier

increases. As the flow velocity decreases from the

surface to the bed, the dynamic pressure on the pier

face also decreases downwards. The downflow digs

a hole in front of the base of the pier, rolls up and

by interaction with the coming flow forms a

complex vortex system (Fig.1.)

Figure 1: Diagrammatic flow pattern at a

cylindrical pier

Flow altering devices can be more economical,

especially when the riprap material in required

amount is not available near the bridge site or is

expensive. However, there are certain limitations on

the use of these flow altering devices to reduce the

scour depth at piers. A slot may be blocked by

floating debris. In addition to this, its construction

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is difficult. Sacrificial piles may become ineffective

when the flow approaching the piers changes its

direction. A thin collar plate skirting around bridge

piers (Fig. 2) at or below the bed level which

diverts the down flow and shields the streambed

from its direct impact is therefore, a very effective

mean of protection against scour.

Figure 2: Collar around round nosed rectangular pier.

III. SITE DESCRIPTION

The Mahanadi is a major river in East

Central India. It drains an area of around 141,600

square kilometres (54,700 sq mi) and has a total

course of 858 kilometres (533 mi) Mahanadi is also

known for the Hirakud Dam.[1] The river flows

through the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha.

Mahanadi Bridge, Cuttack is connecting Kiakata

and Boudh. This bridge over river Mahanadi is

felicitating communication between Sambalpur,

Rairakhol, Kadligarh, Bimaharajpur and Subalaya

with Boudh town. It is the second biggest bridge in

Odisha. The work on this bridge was started on

22.04.1998 and completed on 31.12.2002.

Page 63 of 77

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirakud_Dam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahanadi#cite_note-1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Boudh

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Mahanadi-river

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Sambalpur

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Rairakhol

https://www.revolvy.com/page/Odisha


Salient Features of Mahanadi Bridge :

Length of Bridge 1830 Meters & 8.40 Meters

wide

Superstructure : Simply supported 45.75

Meters PSC box spans (40 Nos.)

Approach Road & Retaining Wall : 2100

Meters Surajgarh side & 1420 Meters

Nadigaon side.

Foundation - Pile Foundations (1200 mm dia)-

Piers 39 Piers x 4 nos x 16 M (Avg.) = 2496

Meters, - Abutments 2 nos x 9 x 20 M (Avg.) =

360 Meters, Total = 2856 Meters.

Expansion Joint - Strip Seal type (345 Rmtrs.).

Various minor structures were also executed

on approach Roads.

IV. FIELD DATA MEASUREMENTS

The field work are bed material sampling and the

collected geometric data for the bridge. The bed

material sampling was done by taking three

samples from the bed material of the section near

piers, at the location of 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75. The

width of the river in the cross section in order to

conduct the grain size analysis. These samples

finally mixed well to reduce the error of

measurement and get a homogenous sample.

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The cross section data are obtained from

Bhubaneswar Water Resources Directorate

(BWRD).

V. SCOUR MONITORING USING DEPTH-

MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION

Given the importance of the scour problem, a range

of instrumentation has been developed to monitor

scour hole development. These instruments can be

broadly categorized as follows: single use devices,

pulse or radar devices, buried or driven rod

systems, sound-wave devices, fiber-Bragg grating

devices and electrical conductivity devices. They

are described separately in the following sub-

sections.

5.1 Single-use devices :

Single-use devices consist of float-out devices and

tethered buried switches (NCHRP, 2009; Briaud et

al., 2011) that can detect scour at their locations of

installation. These devices are installed vertically in

the riverbed, near a pier or abutment of scour of

interest, and work on the principle that when the

depth of scour reaches the installation depth of the

device, they simply float out of the soil. Although

these are very simple mechanical devices, they have

a number of distinct disadvantages. They require

expensive installation, and have only a single use

before they must be re-installed and can only

indicate that the scour depth has reached the

position of the device. As a result, they give no

Page 65 of 77


further information on the maximum scour depth

reached. Tethered buried switches must also be

directly hard-wired to a data acquisition system and

as such are susceptible to debris damage. Float out

devices have a finite amount of stored power,

which means they have to be replaced eventually as

part of normal maintenance procedures.

5.2 Pulse or radar devices

Pulse or radar devices utilize radar signals or

electromagnetic pulses to determine changes in the

material properties that occur when a signal is

propagated through a changing physical medium

(Forde et al., 1999). This typically occurs at a water

sediment interface and thus this type of device can

detect a depth of scour at a particular location.

Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) is a method that

uses changes in the dielectric permittivity constants

between materials to determine a depth of scour at a

particular location (Yu and Yu, 2009). This method

was originally developed by electrical engineers

who were interested in detecting discontinuities

along power and communication lines (Yankielun

and Zabilansky, 1999).

5.3 Fiber-Bragg grating

Fiber-Bragg grating sensors are a form of piezo-

electric device (Sohn et al., 2004). These types of

sensors operate based on the concept of measuring

strain along embedded cantilever rods to generate

electrical signals, which can indicate the

progression of scour along the rod. It has been

found that the shift of the Bragg wavelength has a

linear relationship with the applied strain in the

axial direction (Lin et al., 2006). An embedded rod

that becomes partially exposed due to scour will be

subjected to hydrodynamic forces from the flow of

water that induce bending in the exposed rod. This

bending allows the strain sensors to detect that the

rod is free. If a number of strain gauges are

positioned along the rod, the progression of scour

may be monitored. These devices perform

particularly well in monitoring the change in scour

depth with time at their installed location and are

relatively cheap to fabricate.

5.4 Driven or buried rod devices

Buried or driven rod systems include such systems

as the magnetic sliding collar, the “Scubamouse”,

the Wallingford “Tell- Tail” device and mercury tip

switches. These instruments work on the principle

of a manual or automated gravity-based physical

probe that rests on the streambed and moves

downward as scour develops. The gravity sensor is

usually positioned around a buried or driven rod

system in the streambed. It must be sufficiently

large to prevent penetrating into the streambed

while in a static state. A remote sensing element is

typically used to detect the change in depth of the

gravity sensor. This device provides a relatively

straightforward method to monitor scour depth

progression; however, there are a number of

disadvantages.

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5.5 Sound wave devices

A number of devices have been developed that use

sound waves to monitor the progression of scour

holes. They work on the same principle as devices

that use electromagnetic waves, in that waves are

reflected from materials of different densities thus

establishing the location of the watere sediment

interface. This device typically employs a coupled

acoustic source transducer and receiver transducer

that are placed immediately below the water

surface. As the system is towed manually across the

water surface, the source transducer produces short

period pulsed acoustic signals at regular time or

distance intervals. The high frequency seismic

pulse propagates through the water column and into

the subterranean sediments below. This device can

build up profiles of the streambed as some of the

acoustic energy is reflected back to the receiver

when the water sediment interface is encountered.

By combining the signals from multiple locations

and using estimated seismic interval velocities, the

time depth profile can be converted into a depth

profile. Some disadvantages of the system include:

(1) noise with variable streambeds leads to the

crossing-over of signals, (2) both the source and

receiver need to be submerged, meaning that data

cannot be obtained continuously over sand bars,

and (3) the device also requires significant manual

input, which may make it unsuitable as a viable

monitoring regime in a lot of cases. If used

correctly, however, it can provide a very accurate

map of the channel sub-features. Echo sounders

work in a very similar manner to reflection seismic

profilers and can be used to determine scour hole

depths (Anderson et al., 2007). The only major

difference is that they emit higher frequency

acoustic source pulses and due to the rapid

attenuation of the high frequency pulsed acoustic

energy, relatively little signal is transmitted or

reflected within the sub-bottom sediment.

VI. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

A series of experiments was conducted at round

nosed rectangular bridge piers models with and

without collar plate skirted around the pier in

uniform cohesionless sediment in steady stated

uniform flow clear water conditions at flow

intensity of 0.95.

Experiments were conducted in a glass sided

rectangular re-circulating tilting flume, 11.0 m

long, 0.756 m wide and 0.55 m deep. Water was

supplied to the flume from an overhead tank, which

got its supply from the laboratory water supply

system. The scour depth at the piers was measured

with a 3 mm diameter point gauge mounted on the

mobile carriage that traversed the flume. The scour

depths could be measured to within 0.1 mm using

point gauge.

At the end of each experiment the water supply to

the flume was gradually stopped and the water was

drained off the flume with extreme care so that the

scour hole and scour patterns developed by the flow

around the model piers, were not disturbed.

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The sediment and mean flow parameters used in

this investigation are listed in table 1.

Since in present study clear-water experiments were

conducted using uniform coarse sediment of 0.95

mm median diameter, duration of 6 hours was

considered adequate. In the case of experiments

with collar, test duration was more.

The mean flow parameters used in this

investigation

Properties of sediment used

Depth of flow, Y0 (m) = 0.14

d84.1 (mm) = 1.03

Mean velocity, U0 (m/s) = 0.391 d15.9 (mm) = 0.73

Threshold velocity, Uc (m/s) = 0.4127 Median Size, d50 (mm) = 0.95

Critical shear velocity, U*c (m/s) = 0.029 Geometric Mean Size, dg (mm) = 0.867

Froude Number, Fr = 0.3328 Geometric Standard, G (mm) = 1.187

Average energy slope, S0 = 0.001 Specific Gravity, Ss = 2.65

Fall Velocity of Sediment, W0 (m/s) = 0.1

Shape Factor, Ψ = 1

Angle of Repose, = 32o

Table 1: The mean flow parameters and Properties of sediment used in present study.

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The dimensions of pier and collar are shown in

Fig.3.

Figure 3: Round nosed rectangular pier without and with collar at 0o angle of attack respectively.

6.1 Collection of Data and Analysis

Detailed measurements of the scoured area around

the model piers were made with the help of point

gauge and finally photographs were taken as shown

in Fig 6. . .

6.2 Experimental data

The data on scour depth variation along and across

the flow direction at round nose rectangular pier

with and without collars were collected from the

experiments. The observed scour profiles along

flow direction at 0° and 15° angles of attack are

shown in figure 4 and Fig.5 respectively. Similar

profiles were drawn for other cases considered in

present study.

Figure 4: Experimental data observed at round nosed rectangular pier without and with collar at 0o angle of attack.

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Figure 5: Experimental data observed at round nosed rectangular pier without and with collar at 0o angle of attack.

Figure 6: Photographs showing placement of collars around pier and scour pattern formed after the

experiment.

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VII. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The analysis of results obtained from present

experimental study was made for the following

cases:

Round nosed rectangular pier without collar.

Round nosed rectangular pier with one collar.

Round nosed rectangular pier with two collars

The percent reduction in scour depth, length of

scour hole and width of scour hole at round nose

rectangular pier with and without collar at 0°and

15° angles of attack are shown in table 2.

Table 2: Maximum Scour Depth, Length of scour

hole and width of Scour hole observed at round

nose rectangular pier without and with collar.

Observed Maximum Scour Depth at round nose

rectangular pier without and with collar (cm)

Angle of Attack Without Collar With one Collar

0° 7.9 0.0

15° 9.1 6.65

Angle of Attack Without Collar With two Collars

0° 7.9 0.0

15° 9.1 2.75

Observed Length of Scour Hole at round nose

rectangular pier without and with collar (cm)


0° 60 0.0

15° 60 65


0° 60 0.0

15° 60 19

Table Observed Width of Scour Hole at round

nose rectangular pier without and with collar

(cm)


0° 25 0.0

15° 30 22.5


0° 25 0.0

15° 30 8.0

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VIII. CONCLUSIONS

The reduction in scour depth, length of scour

hole and width of scour hole with one collar

and two collars with respect to the pier without

collar at 0° angle is found to be 100.0 %.

Scour reduction at the pier with one collar at

15° angle of attack is observed as 26.92 %.

Scour reduction at the pier with two collars at

15° angle of attack is observed as 69.78 %.

As compared to pier without collar, the length

of scour hole with one collar at 15° angle of

attack increases by 7.69% while the width of

scour hole at 15° angle of attack reduces by

25%.

As compared to pier without collar, the length

of scour hole with one collar at 15° angle of

attack reduces by 68.33% and the width of

scour hole at 15° angle of attack reduces by

73.33%.

REFERENCES

[1] Brice, J. C., Bloggett, J.C. and others

(1978).” Countermeasures for Hydraulic

Problems at Bridge piers”, Vol. 1 and

2,FHWA-78-162 & 163, Federal Highway

Administration, U.S. Department of

transportation, Washington, D.C.

[2] Breusers, N.H.C. and Raudkivi,

A.J.(1991).“Scouring”, 2nd Hydraulic

Structures Design Manual, IAHR, A.A.

BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM, The

Netherlands.

[3] Chiew Y.M. (1984),’ local scour at bridge

piers,’ Rep. No. 335, School of Engrg.,

Univ. of Auckland, Auckland, New

Zeeland.

[4] Chiew Y.M. (1995),’ Mechanics of riprap

failure at bridge piers’, j. of Hydraulic

Engineering, ASCE, vol. 121,No. 9, pp.

635-643.

[5] Chiew, Y.M. and Melville, B.W. (1987),

‘Local Scour at bridge piers,’ J. Hydr. Res.,

25(1),15-26.

[6] Chiew, Y.M.(1992), Scour Protection at

Bridge Piers”, J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

118(9), 1260-1269.

[7] Chiew Y.M. and Lim, F. H. (2000), ‘Failure

Behavior of riprap layer at bridge piers

under live-bed conditions,” J. Hydr. Engrg.,

ASCE, 126(1),43-55.

[8] Croad, R.N. (1993), ‘ bridge pier scour

protection using riprap,’ central laboratories

report no. PR3-0071, works consultancy

services, N.Z.

[9] Maynord, S.T. (1995),’ Gabion mattress

channel protection design’, J. of Hydraulic

Engineering, ASCE, vol. 121, No. 7, pp.

519-522.

[10] Graf, W.H. and ISTIARTO, (2002), ’Flow

pattern in the scour hole around a cylinder’,

Page 72 of 77


journal of hydraulic research, vol. 40, No v.

1, pp. 13-20.

[11] Ettema, R., Mostafa, E.A., Melville, B.W.

and Yassin, A.A.(1998),”Local Scour at

Skewed Piers,“ J. Hydr. Engrg.,ASCE,

124(7), 756-759.

[12] Kumar, V, Ranga Raju, K.G. and Vittal,

N.(1999).”Reduction of Local Scour around

Bridge Piers Using Slot and Collar”,

Technical Note, J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

125(12), 1302-1305.

[13] Lagasse, P.F., Thompson, P.L. and Sabol.,

S.A. (1995).”Guarding Against Scour”,

Civil Engrg. ASCE, June.

[14] Lim, F.H. and Chiew, Y.M. (1997),’ Failure

behavior of riprap layer around bridge

piers,’ proc., 27th conf. of IAHR, Managing

water, coping with scaracity and abundance,

184-189.

[15] Melville, B.W. and Raudkivi, A.J.(1997).”

Flow characteristics in Local Scour at

Bridge Piers”, J. Hydr. Research IAHR, 15,

373-380.

[16] Parola, A.C.(1993),”Stability of riprap at

bridge piers”, J. Hydr. Engrg. ASCE, 119,

1080-1093.

[17] Posey, C.J. (1974),’tests of scour protection

for bridge piers,’ J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

100(12),1773-1783.

[18] Richardson, E.V., Harrison, L.J., and Davis,

S.R.(1993).’ Evaluating scour at bridge

piers.’ Rep. No. FHWA-IP-90-017 HEC 18,

Federal highway Administration,

Washington, DC.

[19] Raudkivi, A.J. (1991).”Loose Boundary

Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Pergamon Pess.

[20] Raudkivi, A.J. (1991).’ Scour at bridge

piers.’ In Scouring, Ed. H. Breusers and A.J.

Raudkivi, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. NL.

[21] Raudkivi, A.J. and Ettema, R.(1997).”

Effect of Sediment gradation on Clear

Water Scour”, J. Hydr. Div ASCE,

103(HY10), 1209-1213.

[22] Raudkivi, A.J. and Ettema, R.(1983).” Clear

Water Scour around Cylindrical Piers”, J.

Hydr. Engrg. ASCE, 109(3), 338-350.

[23] Worman, A. (1989),” Riprap Protection

Without Filter Layers”, ”, J. Hydr. Engrg.

ASCE, 115(12), 1615-1629.

[24] Yoon, T.H., Yoon, S.B. and Yoon, K.S.

(1995).” Design of riprap for Scour

Protection around Bridge Piers”, 26th IAHR

Congress, U.K., Vol. 1., pp. 105- 110.

[25] Lim F.H.and Chiew, Y.M.(1996),stability of

riprap layer under live-bed conditions’ proc.,

Ist Inter. Conf. On new/emerging concepts

for rivers, RiverTech’96, Vol.2, 830-837.





184-189.

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[27] Lim, F.H. (1998),’Riprap protection and its

failure mechanisms’, Athesis submitted to

the School of civil and structural

enginerring, nanyang technological

university,sigapore in fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of doctor of

philosophy.

[28] Johnson, P.A. and Dock, D.A. (1996). “

Prababilistic Bridge Scour Estimates”, J.

Hydr. Engrg., ASCE, 124(7), 750-754.

[29] Koopaei, K.B. and E.M. Valentine, 2003.

Bridge pier sdcour in self formed laboratory

channels. technical report, university of

Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K.

[30] Research Design Standards Organization,

Lucknow (1972), Scour around piers,

Bridges and Floods Report No. RBF-10.

[31] Ahmed, F., and Rajaratnam N. (1998). ‘

Flow around bridge Piers’, Am. Soc. Civ.

Engrg., J. Hydr. Engrg., 124(3),288-300.

[32] Brice, J. C., Bloggett, J.C. and others

(1978).” Countermeasures for Hydraulic

Problems at Bridge piers”, Vol. 1 and

2,FHWA-78-162 & 163, Federal Highway


transportation, Washington, D.C.

[33] Breusers, N.H.C. and Raudkivi, A.J.(1991).

“Scouring”, 2nd Hydraulic Structures

Design Manual, IAHR, A.A.

BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM, The

Netherlands.

[34] Chiew Y.M. (1984),’ local scour at bridge

piers,’ Rep. No. 335, School of Engrg.,

Univ. of Auckland, Auckland, New

Zeeland.

[35] Chiew Y.M. (1995),’ Mechanics of riprap

failure at bridge piers’, j. of Hydraulic

Engineering, ASCE, vol. 121,No. 9, pp.

635-643.

[36] Chiew, Y.M. and Melville, B.W. (1987),

‘Local Scour at bridge piers,’ J. Hydr. Res.,

25(1),15-26.

[37] Chiew, Y.M.(1992), Scour Protection at

Bridge Piers”, J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

118(9), 1260-1269.

[38] Chiew Y.M. and Lim, F. H. (2000), ‘Failure

Behavior of riprap layer at bridge piers

under live-bed conditions,” J. Hydr. Engrg.,

ASCE, 126(1),43-55.

[39] Croad, R.N. (1993), ‘ bridge pier scour

protection using riprap,’ central laboratories

report no. PR3-0071, works consultancy

services, N.Z.

[40] Maynord, S.T. (1995),’ Gabion mattress

channel protection design’, J. of Hydraulic

Engineering, ASCE, vol. 121, No. 7, pp.

519-522.

[41] Graf, W.H. and ISTIARTO, (2002), ’Flow

pattern in the scour hole around a cylinder’,

journal of hydraulic research, vol. 40, No v .

1, pp. 13-20.

[42] Ettema, R., Mostafa, E.A., Melville, B.W.

and Yassin, A.A.(1998),”Local Scour at

Page 74 of 77


Skewed Piers,“ J. Hydr. Engrg.,ASCE,

124(7), 756-759.

[43] Kumar, V, Ranga Raju, K.G. and Vittal,

N.(1999).”Reduction of Local Scour around

Bridge Piers Using Slot and Collar”,

Technical Note, J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

125(12), 1302-1305.

[44] Lagasse, P.F., Thompson, P.L. and Sabol.,

S.A. (1995).”Guarding Against Scour”,

Civil Engrg. ASCE, June.





184-189.

[46] Melville, B.W. and Raudkivi, A.J.(1997).”

Flow characteristics in Local Scour at

Bridge Piers”, J. Hydr. Research IAHR, 15,

373-380.

[47] Parola, A.C.(1993),”Stability of riprap at

bridge piers”, J. Hydr. Engrg. ASCE, 119,

1080-1093.

[48] Posey, C.J. (1974),’tests of scour protection

for bridge piers,’ J. Hydr. Engrg., ASCE,

100(12),1773-1783.

[49] Richardson, E.V., Harrison, L.J., and Davis,

S.R.(1993).’ Evaluating scour at bridge

piers.’ Rep. No. FHWA-IP-90-017 HEC 18,

Federal highway Administration,

Washington, DC.

[50] Raudkivi, A.J. (1991).”Loose Boundary

Hydraulics, 3rd Edition, Pergamon Pess.

[51] Raudkivi, A.J. (1991).’ Scour at bridge

piers.’ In Scouring, Ed. H. Breusers and A.J.

Raudkivi, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. NL.

[52] Raudkivi, A.J. and Ettema, R.(1997).”

Effect of Sediment gradation on Clear

Water Scour”, J. Hydr. Div ASCE,

103(HY10), 1209-1213.

[53] Raudkivi, A.J. and Ettema, R.(1983).” Clear

Water Scour around Cylindrical Piers”, J.

Hydr. Engrg. ASCE, 109(3), 338-350.

[54] Worman, A. (1989),” Riprap Protection

Without Filter Layers”, ”, J. Hydr. Engrg.

ASCE, 115(12), 1615-1629.


(1995).” Design of riprap for Scour

Protection around Bridge Piers”, 26th IAHR

Congress, U.K., Vol. 1., pp. 105- 110.

[56] Lim F.H.and Chiew, Y.M.(1996),stability of

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