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Evaluation of a microskills programme with field-basedcounsellors: Effects on core attitudes and counsellingskillsMary S. Gallagher a & Owen D. W. Hargie aa Department of Communication , University of Ulster , Jordanstown, Northern Ireland BT37OQB, United KingdomPublished online: 27 Sep 2007.

To cite this article: Mary S. Gallagher & Owen D. W. Hargie (1989) Evaluation of a microskills programme with field-based counsellors: Effects on core attitudes and counselling skills, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 2:4, 405-418, DOI:10.1080/09515078908256692

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Counselling Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1989, pp. 405-417

RESEARCH REPORT

Evaluation of a Microskills Programme with Field-based Counsellors: effects on core attitudes and counselling skills

MARY S. GALLAGHER 81 OWEN D. W. HARGIE Department of Communication, University of Ulster, Jordanstown, Northern Ireland BT37 OQB, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT Two issues relevant to the role of microtraining in counsellor training are examined. Firstly, due to the increasing use of the microcounselling framework for training counsellors, either directly or indirectly, in the Rogerian attitudes, the effects of such a programme on counsellor attitudes was investigated. Secondly, although microskills training has been generally found to improve and increase trainee’s helping skills usage and effective- ness, its effects on field-based counsellors have rarely been evalulated. Thus the second objective of the study was to examine this issue. The subjects were 12 counsellors ji-om a number of counselling agencies. Six of these counsellors participated in a microcounselling programme which taught the skills of nonverbal communication, questioning, reflecting, listening, self- disclosure, reinforcement, opening and closing. The data base for the study consisted of videorecordings of each subject ’s participation in two extended interactions-one involving an individual discussing a real concern, and the other involving an individual discussing a simulated concern. Various measures of counsellor attitudes, effectiveness, skills, and actual behaviours were obtained. Comparison of rhe expm‘mental and control groups indicated that the microcounselling programme had little effect on any of the aspects of counsellorperfi- ance examined. It is concluded that, although aspects of the design may have influenced the results, an integrated microcounselling approach may be more effective in developing attitudes. In addition, it appears thar the characteristics of a professional population, such as counsellors, may differ ji-om those of novices, such that problems in effecting change in skilled performance will occur with the f i e r group. Introduction

With the innovation of microcounselling as a technique for training in counselling skills, the focus of counsellor training programmes has shifted from counsellor attitudes to counsellor behaviours (Barker, 1983). A recent review of interpersonal helping skills training research literature (Kurtz et al., 1985) concluded that: “An examination of the skill labels and, when provided, their operational definitions reveal a trend away from learner-centred to skill-centred training. Programs are less

Correspondence to: Dr Owen Hargie.

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406 Mary S. Gallagher &Y Owen D. W. Hargie

concerned about developing learner attitudes and qualities and more concerned with teaching discrete measurable behaviours.”

However, they noted that the majority of skills training programmes, either explicitly or implicitly, included one or more of the client-centred conditions as target skills in their programmes. This development has led to a debate over the nature of Rogers’s core conditions, and whether these attitudes can be developed appropriately within the framework of microtraining.

Microcounselling is the application of the more global concept of microtraining to the training of counsellors. It assumes that the process of relating interpersonally can be broken down into behaviours or skills, and that these skills are learned and so can be taught (Hargie, 1986). It is thus concerned with identifying the various elements of a successful counselling encounter, in terms of both verbal and nonverbal behaviours. Trainees may then acquire these skills through a structured and systematic form of training. This skills approach to counselling grew partially from Rogers’ delineation of what, he claimed, were the core conditions for effective counselling. The subsequent operationalisation of these conditions of acceptance, empathy and genuineness, in terms of actual behaviours (e.g. Authier, 1986), in an attempt to make for more specific and systematic training, has been subject to various criticisms.

For instance, Mahon & Altmann (1974) argue that: “Rogers was observing that these qualities were present in helping relationships which were generally effective; but he was not saying that these qualities were specific behaviours, that they could be reduced to a skill level, or that they could be acquired in short training programs” (p. 46). This view is supported by Patterson (1984) who asserts that client-centred counselling is more than a collection of techniques, such as reflection of feeling and content, clarification, and restatement. Doubts have been expressed as to whether training in sequences of behaviours will result in the counsellor becoming more empathic or warmer (Plum, 1981). Finally, a skills approach to acquiring empathy may lead to the counsellor concentrating on ways in which to appear to be understanding, rather than entering into the personal process of counselling (Smail, 1978). Thus several theorists have reservations regarding the appropriateness of employing the microtraining framework as a method of develop- ing counsellor acceptance , empathy and genuineness.

Most evaluations of the effects of microcounselling are understandably based on trainee acquisition of specific target skills. In this respect, it is generally accepted that microcounselling does improve and increase helpers’ skills usage. However, the influence of microcounselling on counsellor attitudes has received less attention. Research studies in this area have typically examined the effects of microcounsel- ling, in terms of the relationship between training in the skill of reflection and the development of the dimension of empathy.

Toukmanian and Rennie (1975) conducted a comparative study of human relations training and microtraining, in an attempt to examine the effects of both methods on trainee skills and level of empathy. Analyses of pre- and postaudiotaped interviews indicated that whilst both experimental groups were superior to the control groups, the group which received microtraining scored significantly higher

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Microskills Programme 407

on empathy. A further study by Toukmanian et al. (1978) found that human relations training and microtraining were equally effective, and a comparison of the effects of microtraining as opposed to mental practice only on trainee empathy revealed a similar finding (Baker er al., 1984).

However, not all investigations have produced evidence to encourage optimism about the use of microcounselling as a training technique for the core conditions. Lomis & Baker (1985) found that there was no significant increase in trainee empathy following microcounselling, even though frequencies of behaviours, such as reflections, increased. Stone & Kelly (1983) carried out two studies of the impact of skills learning on counselling attitudes. Since the skill of reflection emerged from the Rogerian concept of empathy, they proposed that a group trained in the use of this skill would understand and value a client more than a group trained in the skill of interpretation. However, they found no significant difference with regard to the groups expressed attitudes towards potential counsellees. Stone & Kelly’s (1983) second study produced comparable findings. Although trainees had acquired the skills taught through microcounselling, their attitudes did not appear to alter significantly.

Thus the research investigations have produced conflicting results. The pres- ence of several methodological problems in the majority of these studies may have contributed to the nature of results obtained. First, findings have been based on trainee performance in role plays, a method of assessment which has yet to have its ecological validity established (Kolotin & Wielkiewicz, 1984). Secondly, the dura- tion of the counselling interactions examined may have been too brief to yield accurate judgements of a dimension such as empathy (Lockhart, 1984). Finally, as auditotape was used as the assessment medium in several studies, nonverbal empathy cues were not taken into consideration by judges (Lambert et al., 1978).

The present study was designed in an attempt to investigate the effects of microcounselling on the counsellor’s client-centred attitudes. I t was hoped that the use of a design which attempted to overcome methodological problems of previous investigations, and the examination of a much wider range of skills and attitudes might lead to more reliable findings. Much empirical evidence has been produced concerning the effects of skills training on novice populations, the effects of this training on practising counsellors’ skills and effectiveness are less clear. Indeed, it has been suggested that this issue needs to be explored so that the utility of microcounselling for field-based counsellors may be evaluated (Kurtz er al., 1985).

Thus the present study has two major objectives. Firstly, evaluating the effects of a microcounselling programme on counsellor levels of empathy, acceptance and genineness, to determine the appropriateness of the microtraining framework for developing counsellor attitudes. Secondly, an examination of the effects of a microcounselling programme on practising counsellors’ skills and effectiveness.

It was hypothesised that an experimental group, following participation in a microskills training programme, would score significantly higher than a control group on all variables, except for negative aspects of slull.

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408 Mary S. Gallagher & Owen D. W. Hargie

Design and Procedures

The experimental design chosen was the post-test only control group design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963), due to the quantity of data and ensuing intensive analyses of data.

Subjects

Given previous criticisms, it was imperative that experienced, practising counsellors be recruited. This proved to be a difficult task for several reasons. Most of the counsellors were volunteers, and had full-time jobs, thereby reducing the time available for involvement in the study. Furthermore, some counselling agencies did not wish to participate in the research. Eventually, however, 12 counsellors, from a variety of counselling agencies were recruited: five women and seven men, aged between 31 and 56 years. Subjects were informed that they would be assigned to one of two groups, one of which would receive a programme in microskills. All counsellors would subsequently be required to participate in both a role play and a real counselling interaction. Three men and three women counsellors were then randomly assigned to the experimental group.

Micro training

The programme, representative of current microcounselling approaches, included the target skills of nonverbal communication, questioning, reflecting, reinforcement, listening, self-disclosure, opening and closing (see Hargie er al., 1987). The method of training employed all four phases of the microtraining approach-lecture, modelling, practice and feedback.

Lecrure. Each session began with a lecture which outlined the theory, functions and behavioural components of the relevant skill, and which presented research evidence concerning its efficacy.

Modelling. Model videotapes were then presented. These demonstrated both positve and negative examples of the use of the skill under focus at that time.

Pracn’ce. Each subject took part in role play counselling encounters which were videotaped.

Feedback. Performance was then analysed with a tutor, employing observation schedules which detailed the main facets of the relevant skill.

On completion of the microcounselling programme, the counsellors in the experimental group had received a total of 40 hours training in eight pertinent counselling skills.

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Minoskills Programme 409

Data Collection

Both the experimental and control groups were then required to participate in two counselling encounters.

Students in their first year of a two year Diploma in Guidance and Counselling course, at the University of Ulster were recruited as clients for the counselling encounters. They were informed that they would be required to participate in: (i) a real counselling interaction by presenting a counsellor with a real problem they were currently experiencing; and (ii) in a role play in which they would present a counsellor with a simulated problem, both of which would be videotaped.

These recordings took place over a period of 3 weeks in the Social Skills Centre at the University of Ulster. Use of the closed circuit television facilities therein meant that the recording equipment was operated from adjoining room, the camera was unobtrusively placed behind a glass panel in a high comer of the room, and the microphone suspended from the ceiling.

The counsellors and the clients were blind as to the specific aims of the investigation. They were informed that their encounters would be videotaped and that they could withdraw from participation at any time. Assurances concerning confidentiality were given, and clients were told that if they desired further counselling, arrangements would be made.

Format of Counselling Encounters

Real encounter. The counsellor was given instructions which informed him/her that a person, who had volunteered to discuss a problem which he/she was experiencing, would enter the recording room. The counsellor was asked to act as normal within the counselling role, and to limit the interaction to no longer than one hour’s duration. The client was requested to discuss a problem that heishe was experiencing.

Role play encounter. The counsellor was given similar instructions as above, but told that in this instance the individual was role playing. The client was asked to devise a problem which bore no relationship to anything they were experiencing and to role play this situation. The client was informed that the counsellor would believe the situation to be real, but would be debriefed at a later stage. This simple deception was employed to facilitate client ratings of counsellor performance, so that any differences in ratings between conditions could not be attributed to the fact that one client was evaluating the counsellor on role play performance, and the other on real performance.

Ratings

Following participation in each counselling interaction, both counsellor and client evaluated counsellor performance in terms of perceived acceptance , empathy and

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410 Mary S. Gallagher 63 &en D. W. Hargie

genuineness. Clients also evaluated counsellor effectiveness. Ratings were made on a 9-point scale and were based on descriptions of each dimension (Rogers, 1957). Four lecturers from the Guidance and Counselling Department acted as indepen- dent judges, employing Carkhuff s (1969) “Scales for Assessment of Interpersonal Functioning”. These judges were trained in the use of the scales until they reached agreement (Altmann, 1973). Each judge subsequently rated three counsellors’ performance on the dimensions of acceptance, empathy, genuineness and also on overall effectiveness.

Thus the present study employed three methods for assessing counsellor attitudes and two methods for assessing counsellor effectiveness since it has been recommended that differing perceptions of counsellor performance should be taken into account (Gurman, 1977).

Measurement of Skills

Measures of the eight skills under examination were obtained from observation of the 24 videotaped interactions. As both molar and molecular measures of skill were required, rating scales were employed to assess the former, and frequency counts, category systems or time sampling procedures employed to assess the latter.

Subjective ratings of each skill were made on a 9-point scale which ranged from poor use of the skill to appropriate use. Objective measures of each of 29 skill components were obtained through the use of observation schedules, revised and extended from those developed by Dickson (1981) and Mullan (1986). Each skill was measured by one schedule comprising of a number of components representing the behavioural referents of the skill. Both intra-observer and inter-observer reliability measures were obtained for each skill variable.

Intra-observer reliability and inter-observer reliability scores were obtained for all measures. Intra-observer reliability scores ranged from 0.69 to 1.00, and inter- observer reliability scores from 0.67 to 1.00.

Results

It was hypothesised that the experimental group would score significantly higher than the control group on all variables, except for the negative skill component measures, where it was predicted that the experimental group would score signifi- cantly lower. The Mann-Whitnty independent samples test was employed to test the hypotheses, as a nonparametric tesr was considered to be appropriate for the nature of the data obtained (Sprent, 1981). Comparisons were made between the control group’s scores and the experimental group’s scores on attitude ratings, effectiveness ratings, subjective skill ratings and skill component measures.

Table I lists the group mean scores for each type of evaluation of counsellor acceptance, empathy and genuineness. Only one significant difference was found. Independent judges rated counsellor genuineness significantly higher for the control group within the real condition ( ~ ( 0 . 0 5 ) .

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Microskills Programme 4 1 1

The results summarised in Table I1 show that the control group was again rated significantly higher than the experimental group, with regard to judged effectiveness within the role play condition (pt0.05).

An examination of the group means for the subjective skill ratings presented in Table I11 reveals that the control group was judged as significantly more skilled in listening than the experimental group, in the real condition (ptO.05). All the above significant results occurred in the opposite direction to that predicted.

Group means for the 29 component measures of the skills under investigation are listed in Table JV. The experimental group scored significantly higher on forward leans ( ~ ( 0 . 0 5 ) and summarisations of fact/feeling (pt0.05). The control group scored significantly higher on open questions ( ~ ( 0 . 0 5 ) and actual pauses (p<0.05) , and significantly lower on interpretations/inaccurate reflections (pt0.01) which was a negative skill component.

TABLE I. Comparison of attitude ratings between the control and experimental groups (using Mann- Whhey independent samples rest)

Group means Group means Role play Real episode

Exp. Control Exp. Control Attitude ratings gP gP gP gP

Empathy-client rating 6.50 7.33 7.12 7.33

Acceptance-counsellor rating 6.00 7.50 6.67 7.33

Empathy-counsellor rating 5.50 6.67 6.83 7.67

Empathy-judge rating 3.00 3.83 2.83 3.83

Acceptance-client rating 6.50 6.67 7.83 7.12 Acceptance-judge rating 2.67 3.50 2.83 3.50

Genuineness-counsellor rating 5.50 6.50 6.83 7.50 Genuineness-client rating 7.83 7.67 7.67 7.50 Genuineness-judge rating 3.00 3.67 2.67* 4.00*

Note: *p<0.05.

TABLE 11. Comparison of effectiveness ratings between the control and experimental groups (using Mann- whimey independent samples test)

Group means Group means Role play Real episode

Exp. Control Exp. Control gP gP gP gP

Effectiveness-client rating 6.50 7.33 6.83 7.33 Effectiveness-judge rating 2.50* 3.83* 2.67 3.50

Note: *p<0.05.

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412 Mary S. Gallagher & Owen D. W. Hargie

Discussion

Limitations

A number of limitations need to be borne in mind when interpreting the results of the present study. These limitations stem from the attempt to obtain samples of real counselling interactions. Such reseach may be ‘messier’ to carry out, in that a variety of practical difficulties may be encountered (Goldman, 1976). However, until a valid analogue strategy is developed, it is generally accepted that the findings of research in actual counselling situations may be more applicable to counselling practice and counsellor training (Krumboltz & Mitchell, 1979).

Several aspects of the design of the present study may be problematic. First,

TABLE 111. Comparison of subjective skill ratings between the control and experimental groups (using Mann- Whimqt independent samples test)

Group means Group means Role play Real episode

Subjective skill ratings

Exp. Control Exp. Control gP gP gP gP

Non verbal communication 5.50 5.00 5.50 5.00 Questioning 4.33 5.67 3.83 5.33 Self-disclosure 4.17 4.83 4.50 5.00 Listening 4.50 6.00 4.17* 6.50* Reinforcement 5.50 6.33 5.83 6.33 Reflecting 4.67 5.17 6.00 5.83 opening 3.50 2.40 3.50 2.67 Closing 6.67 6.00 6.17 5.83

Note: *p<0.05.

the duration of the microskills training programme may have been too brief to effect changes in the trainees’ performance. However, skill acquisition has been demon- strated in shorter programmes (Stone & Kelly, 1983; Lomis & Baker, 1985).

A second limitation may be the use of the post-test only control group experimental design. This design was chosen due to the large amount of data generated by the examination of full-length counselling sessions, and in the light of the assertion that pretesting is unnecessary if randomisation is employed (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). However, it could still be argued that differences between groups were due to pretraining levels of ability and attitudes in trainees.

Thirdly, it could be argued that the nature of the ‘real counselling encounters’ was not representative of in vim behaviour. Nevertheless, the procedure followed was considered to be as close to real counselling as could be achieved, taking practical and ethical considerations into account (Gelso, 1979).

A fourth limitation may be that the counsellors interacted with, and were evaluated by different clients who may have responded differently. However, this

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Microskills Programme 41 3

TABLE IV. Comparison of skill component measures between the control and experimental groups (using Mann- Whim y independent samples test)

~~

Group means Group means Role play Real episode

Skill component Exp. Control Exp. Control measures gP gP gP gP

Proximity /orientation Head nods Functional gestures Self-manipulative gestures Open posture Forward leans Breaks in eye contact Touch Smiles

Opening

Closing

Open questions Closed questions Leading questions Multiple questions Affective questions

Actual pauses Potential pauses Interruptions References to past statement

Verbal acknowledgements Encouragementhupport

Paraphrases Reflections of feeling

(explicit) Reflections of feeling

(implicit) Interpretations/inaccurate

reflections Summarisation of factlfeeling

Self-disclosures (own

Self-disclosures (here and experience)

now)

5.00 67.33 37.33 23.00 43.17 42.00 8.67 0.00 5.33

2.67

7.17

6.67 20.00

3.00 3.67 8.33

5.17 19.17 3.17 1.33

138.83 2.33

10.5

2.00

6.83

3.50 5 .00

0.5

3.17

5.17 72.00 41.17 29.67 80.00 25.00

7.00 0.33 4.00

1.50

7.00

9.83 14.83 1.33 4.00 8.00

11.00 13.50 1.50 1.50

113.33 3.50

9.50

1.17

4.17

1.50 4.33

0.33

2.83

5.67 72.33 41.67 25.66 66.67 43.t7* 6.67 0.17 9.67

2.67

7.00

4.17* 12.17 3.33 3 .00 4.67

3.67* 15.00 3.50 1.33

126.33 3.83

9.83

1.50

7.83

4.00ff 5.83*

0.67

2.33

5.00 69.16 37.33 3 1.66 84.67

5.33* 10.33 1.83 9.67

1.83

6.67

8.67* 14.83 0.67 2.00 7.67

9.83f 13.17 1.33 2.17

105.17 3.17

9.83

1.17

6.50

0.67** 2.50*

1.17

3.33

Note: *p<0.05; **p<O.Ol.

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41 4 May S. Gallagher & Owen D. W. Hargie

procedure had been used in previous studies (Toukmanian et al., 1978). Further- more, had the same client been employed for all encounters, problems of realism and practice effects would have been prevalent.

Fifthly, given the intensive nature of this study it was only possible to use a small sample size. The use of 12 subjects may therefore limit the generalisability of the results.

Finally, due to time constraints, the linear rating scores employed by the counsellors and clients to evaluate attitudes, may have been too global. A similar problem may have occurred with regard to the assessment of effectiveness. This would seem to be an important area for future research as it is generally recognised that, as yet, no acceptable method of evaluating counsellor effectiveness has been developed (Fuqua et al., 1986).

The results of the present investigation will now be discussed taking these limitations into consideration.

Counsellor Attitudes

The experimental group, which underwent skills training, were not perceived as offering higher levels of the core conditions than the control group, in either the role play or real counselling interactions. This finding lends support to studies which indicated that skills training may not be appropriate for effecting attitude change (Stone & Kelly, 1983; Lomis & Baker, 1985). It is also possible, however, that the results may have been a consequence of the ‘ceiling effect’, which may be defined in this instance as the tendency for experienced counsellors to cluster towards the upper end of a continuum, thus making it difficult for treatment to effect an increase. Thus, it could be argued that, since all subjects were experienced counsel- lors, they may have been so highly accepting, empathic and genuine before training, that little improvement could be achieved. Unfortunately, there are no baseline measures to test this hypotheses.

The findings of the present study nevertheless appear to offer tentative support to the viewpoint that microcounselling may not be effective in developing counsel- lor attitudes of acceptance, empathy and genuineness. Client-centred or humanistic theorists would argue that a training procedure, which concentrates on counsellor behaviour, will not affect these dimensions since they are attitudes. As such they may be more readily developed through training which emphasises personal growth (Naar, 1974). Against this, some microcounselling theorists have claimed that their approach was initiatied partially due to the inadequacy of the global descriptions of the concepts of acceptance, empathy and genuineness for counsellor training (Ivey & Authier, 1978). Thus it was necessary to identify behavioural expressions of these attitudes so that trainee counsellors could learn systematically how to display empathy, acceptance and genuineness within the counselling interview. In this sense, microcounselling does not profess to teach these core attitudes, but rather to facihtate their expression.

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Minoskills Programme 4 15

Perhaps a more integrated microcounselhg approach might achieve more success in enhancing the development and communication of counsellor attitudes. Mahon & Altmann (1974), for example, have proposed that skill training incorpor- ate the examination of ‘personal’ qualities into the approach. This type of training was investigated by Levene (1980), who found that microcounselling and personal growth exercises were more effective than microcounselling alone in increasing subjects’ awareness of feelings, expression of feelings and desires for deeper relationships. This is an area which future research might investigate-if a trainer wants trainees to become more accepting, empathic, and genuine, then by what method can this be best achieved?

Future research might also examine the effects of skills training on counsellor genuineness. The present study found that genuineness, as perceived by indepen- dent judges, was significantly lower for the experimental group. This finding occurred with regard to only one type of rater’s judgement and in one condition, so firm conclusions cannot be reached. However, as it has been suggested that skills training might mitigate against counsellor genuineness (Smail, 1978; Yalom, 1980), further investigation of this issue is warranted. It is also interesting to note that differences emerged in relation to role play measures of genuineness in that clients actually rated the role-playing counsellors higher in this attitude, thereby suggesting that it may well be possible to fool clients with ‘fake’ genuineness! (see Table I).

Counsellor Eflectiveness and Skills

The findings of the present study indicate that skills training had little effect on practising counsellors’ use of skills and overall effectiveness. These results do not support previous research which is generally quite favourable to the efficacy of microcounselling in increasing ratings of trainee skill and effectiveness, and affect- ing the frequency with which trainees employ skill components (Moreland et al., 1970; Danish et al., 1976). As the majority of previous studies have been concerned with trainee counsellors or undergraduates, it may be that microcounselling was not effective due to its use with practising counsellors.

Alternatively, the number of skills or skill components which are taught on programmes might influence behaviour change. For instance, it may be easier to effect changes if trainees are trained in three or four behaviours as some previous studies have done, than if they are trained in 29 behaviours, as was the case in the present study. This may be an important determinant in the ability of microcoun- selling to change trainee behaviour. It may be more difficult even for experienced counsellors to identify, learn, assimilate and implement a number of counselling behaviours as opposed to a specific focus on three or four behaviours. Investigation of this issue may have important implications for the design of microcounselling programmes.

The present study was initiated partly to determine whether a microskills training programme would have similar favourable results for practising counsellors as has been reported with novices. The findings indicate that it might not be so effective with the former population.

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416 Mary S. Gallagher & Owen D. W. Hargie

Support for this proposition may come from the findings of a study carried out by Auther & Gustafson (1975) to examine the effects of supervised versus nonsupervised microcounselling. Twelve paraprofessional counsellors were ran- domly assigned to one group or the other. Analysis of pre- and postrecorded interviews by the subjects revealed that neither group showed a significant increase in six positive skill components nor a significant decrease in six negative skill components.

There are at least two possible explanations which may account for the results obtained by Authier & Gustafson (1975) and the results of the present study. First, counsellor skills may not increase due to the fact that they are being employed at a peak level before training. Secondly, the characteristics of ‘counsellors’ as a trainee population may differ from those of typical participants in microcounselling pro- grammes, such as undergraduate students.

The idea that skill acquisition might be more difficult to effect within ‘professional’ populations than within ‘novice’ populations has recently been dis- cussed in relation to the training of teachers in counselling skills (Hargie, 1988). Skill acquisition, he suggests, may be easier to effect within novice populations as they only have to acquire skills and develop a behavioural style, whereas profes- sional populations: ”. . . will also have to unlearn old skills and abandon an already developed style” (Hargie, 1988, p. 78).

This proposition is supported by Hargie’s (1984) investigation into the effects of a microcounselling programme on teachers’ behaviour. Following training, teach- ers still employed a high frequency of closed questions, a behaviour which is more characteristic of teaching than of counselling. It may not be surprising then that skill acquisition may be more difficult to effect within counsellor groups, who have probably developed a style of interacting over a long period of time, than with student groups who may have had little experience in the counselling role. Feedback received from the counsellors who participated in the microcounselling programme in the present study would tend to substantiate this proposition, in that most of them reported difficulties in employing certain behaviours during training, pointing out that: “I wouldn’t do this during counselling.”

The findings of the present study then, would seem to support Kurtz et al.’s (1985) call for future research to examine: “. . . the differences between experienced counsellors (adult learners) and college students’ styles of learning” (p. 256). As Hargie ( 1988) has suggested, more extensive and intensive training programmes may be required for professionals, if old styles of behaviour have to be unlearned before new styles can be acquired.

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