Ethics—The Basicsby John Mizzoni

CHAPTER TWO: VIRTUE ETHICS

Ethics—The BasicsVIRTUE ETHICS

• Road rage—What causes it?• Differences between

feelings/emotions and behavior/actions.• Virtue Ethics (sometimes called

Character Ethics) relates our feelings to our behavior…

Ethics—The BasicsVIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics is an ethical tradition that focuses on:• How emotions relate to actions• How human beings are able to

control their emotions• How human beings are able to gain

happiness for themselves

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Before Socrates, the earliest known Greek moral philosopher, there was virtue ethics.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• Important Pre-Socratics—Pythagoras, Democritus, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras

• Important Sophists—Protagoras, Thrasymachus, Callicles, Hippias

• The 3 most well-known Greek philosophers agreed that answers to questions about ethics depend on answers to questions about human nature:• Socrates—founder of ethical studies• Plato—author of many ethical dialogues• Aristotle—author of Nicomachean Ethics

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics has continued from the ancient world to our own:• School and Community Programs

—The Boy Scout Law—Character Counts!—The Virtues Project

• Church-sponsored Programs—School of Virtue (Kids for Jesus)

• Employment Programs—The Josephson Institute

• Popular Culture—Adventures from the Book of Virtues

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Virtue ethics addresses all four of the ethical problems we are considering. However:• WHAT IS A VIRTUE?• WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF

VIRTUES?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Examples of Virtues include:

ToleranceGenerosityIntegrityHonestyKindnessCourage/FortitudeWisdom ClevernessCourtesy

LoyaltyPrudenceJusticeTemperanceResponsibilityRespectfulnessContinency/Self-controlChastityCompassion/Caring

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• A virtue is a trait of character of a person that is good for that person to have. (Aristotle, 337 BCE)• A moral virtue is a mean between two

extremes. (Aristotle, 337 BCE)• This is Aristotle’s Principle of The

Golden Mean

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

The Principle of The Golden Mean A moral virtue is a mean between two extreme vices— (the vice of excess and the vice of deficiency).

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

For example, courage is the mean

between cowardice (deficiency) and rashness (excess).

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Aristotle was not alone in this idea:• In ancient China, Confucius called

one of his important teachings “The Doctrine of the Mean”• In ancient India, the Buddha

called his philosophy of life “The Middle Way”

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• Moral excellence—a moral virtue—consists in a mean state.• “By virtue I mean virtue of character…

it is concerned with feelings and actions….” (Aristotle, 337 BCE)• “Virtue, then, is a mean, in so far as it

aims at what is intermediate.” (Aristotle, 337 BCE)

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

According to Aristotle, two things are important in achieving happiness (eudaemonia) in our lives: •how we handle our feelings• the rational judgment we use

in developing our virtues

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

In Aristotle’s thinking, every human being has a rational soul:• The rational soul (reason) can

help us to control our feelings.• If feelings are well-controlled,

virtues develop; if they are not well-controlled, vices develop.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

For example, temperance is a mean that focuses on our desires:• If we let our desires control us, we are

intemperate• If we deny our desires entirely, we repress

our humanity• Controlling our desires to the correct

degree leads to excellence

QUESTIONS?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

The Golden Mean is Not Mathematical• It is like hitting the bulls-eye in archery

The Golden Mean is Not Precise• It is a mean that is relative to us, perhaps even to each

of us• Like hitting the sweet spot on a baseball bat

For Aristotle, ethics is not a precise science, it is about living the good life.

WHAT IS THE “GOOD LIFE”?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

The “Good Life” is a life that leads to eudaemonia: • happiness• flourishing• excellence• well-being • self-realization (Abraham Maslow)

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

“Human Nature” for Aristotle:• Humans are rational animals• Humans are unique animals because of their

reason

• Humans are social/political animals• Humans flourish in groups• Humans have social origins• Humans succeed in social pursuits

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

A “moral virtue”, for Aristotle, is a trait of character:• A trait that is not “natural” to us• A trait that develops through habit

—A habit is a repeated action—“Practice makes perfect”

Potential → Repeated actions → Habit formation → Character

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Thus, Aristotle’s model of human nature is a developmental model:• Humans are born with rational minds (potential)

—Human develop awareness of self —Humans develop awareness of choice

• There is a time in our lives to “train” ourselves (input phase)

• There is a time in our lives when our character flows easily in action (output phase)

Potential → Repeated actions → Habit formation → Character

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Old Testament Scripture supports this developmental model:

“Train up a child in the way he should go[input], and when he is old he will not depart from it[output]” (Proverbs 22:5).

Potential → Repeated actions → Habit formation → Character

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

In Aristotle’s development model, the idea of a role model is very important:• One of the natural ways we learn is by copying

others• Some role models of virtuous lives:

—Jesus (WWJD = What Would Jesus Do?)—Saints (Francis of Assisi, Maria Goretti, Dominic Savio)—Others (Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• Virtues are good for the individual who practices them• Virtues are good for those who

have social contact with the virtuous person

Many of the virtues have to do with our dealings with others

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

There are two kinds of virtues:• Intellectual virtues can be taught.•Moral virtues can only be learned

through habitual practice.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• Example of an intellectual virtue:• Knowledge

• Examples of moral virtues:• Prudence• Justice• Fortitude• Temperance

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

The Instruction of Ptahhotep, written 4000 years ago, long before Aristotle, recommends the following virtues to everyone:

Self-control, moderation, kindness, generosity, justice, truthfulness, and discretion

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

In New Testament Scripture, Paul’s letters support virtue ethics:• Practice virtues (e.g. Galatians 5:22):

Love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, self-control

• Don’t practice vices (e.g. Galatians 5:19):Fornication, impurity, licentiousness, idolatry, sorcery,

enmity, strife, jealousy, anger, selfishness, dissension, party spirit, envy, drunkenness, carousing

• Follow an exemplary model of character (Galatians 2:20):

“…it is no longer I who live, but Christ who lives in me.”

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Universalist virtue ethics:• Admits that different cultures

emphasize different virtues • BUT states that some virtues are

universally important

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Relativist virtue ethics:

• Admits that different cultures emphasize different virtues

• AND states there are NO universally important virtues

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• To interpret different inventories of virtues from different cultures and times (cultural relativism) as proof of ethical relativism is to commit the fallacy of hasty generalization.• Ethical relativism is an exaggeration

of cultural relativism.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

What, then, is the nature of man?• According to Aristotle, we are

essentially rational in nature.•Mizzoni adds that we are also

emotional, social, and political in nature, and Aristotle notes this.

WHAT ABOUT SPIRITUAL?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

What is the good life, according to Aristotle?• Everything in nature has a purpose• The purpose of man is to exercise his

reason in a life of virtue, or moderation, to achieve happiness

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

• Some scholars view Aristotle’s model as leading to a life of contemplation rather than to a life of action.• Other scholars view this model of

human development as leading to a life of action (courage and justice), with a retirement to contemplation.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Ethics and LiteratureThe virtues and vices that are important in developing a literary character are an essential part of the plot.

CAN YOU THINK OF ANY VIRTUOUS LITERARY CHARACTERS…?

…ANY VICIOUS ONES?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Advantages of Virtue Ethics• It provides a reasonable account of

moral motivation• It is flexible• It focuses on the whole person• It fits well with common sense• It accounts for the fact that partiality,

not impartiality, is a part of life

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Disadvantages of Virtue Ethics• Virtue ethics is anthropocentric• Virtue ethics is individually focused• Virtue ethics is incomplete•Why is one trait better than another?•How do we resolve moral conflict?•What about people with disabilities?

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Conclusion: Origins of Virtue Ethics• Ethical standards come from a

combination of human nature and society. (Societal standards that contradict human nature would not lead to human happiness.)

• Ethical standards do not come from God or religion

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Conclusion: Relativism v. Universalism• Cultural relativism may be true, because we

observe ethical diversity among cultures, but ethical relativism could not be true, because some virtues are important in any culture.• Aristotle, then, is a ethical universalist who

accepts cultural relativism

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Conclusion: Human Nature• Aristotle argues for a universal human nature,

observing that all human beings are striving after happiness.• Aristotle observes that human beings are

rational animals (who can control their actions and feelings, and choose what habits they will develop), and social/political animals.

Ethics—The Basics VIRTUE ETHICS

Conclusion: What Makes Something Right or Wrong?• Virtue ethics answers such questions as:

—How one should live a life?—What is a life lived well?—What kind of person I should become in terms of virtues and universal

human nature?

• A trait is virtuous if it is a product of our developed natural potential and if it contributes to our happiness, well-being, and flourishing. DOES ALL THIS INFORMATION HELP YOU CHOOSE THE RIGHT THING TO DO?