LECTURE NOTES ON ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERINGERING Prepared By D.PARTHIBAN LECTURER IN CHEMISTRY PRATHYUSHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT ARANVOYALKUPPAM THIRUVALLUR PIN-602 025 pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN SYLLABUS CY 1201 ENIVRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 1. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES 10 Definition, Scope and Importance Need for Public Awareness Forest Resources: Use and Over Exploitation, Deforestation, Case Studies. Timber Extraction, Mining, Dams and their Ground water, Floods, Droughts, Conflicts Over Water, Dams Benefits and Problems Mineral Resources: Use Effects On Forests and Tribal People Water Resources: Used and Over-Utilization of Surface and Exploitation, Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources, Case Studies Food Resources: World Food Problems, Changes Caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing, Effects of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer Pesticide Problems, Water Logging, Salinity, Case Studies Energy Resources: Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources, Use of Alternate Energy Sources. Case Studies Land Resources: Land as a Resource, Land Degradation, Man Induced Landslides, Soil Erosion and Desertification Role of an Individual in Conservation of Natural Resources Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles.Field Study of Local Area to Document Environmental Assets River / Forest / Grassland / Hill / Mountain. 2. ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY 14 Concepts of an Ecosystem Structure and Function of an Ecosystem Producers, Consumers and Decomposers Energy Flow in the Ecosystem Ecological Succession Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids Introduction, Types, Characteristics Features, Structure and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem (B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds, Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries) Introduction to Biodiversity Definition: Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Diversity Biogeographically Classification of India Value of Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and Option Values Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels India as A Mega-Diversity Nation Hot-Spots of Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts Endangered and Endemic Species of India Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 8 Definition Causes, Effects and Control Measure of: (A) Air Pollution (B) Water Pollution (C) Soil Pollution (D) Marine Pollution (E) Noise Pollution (F) Thermal Pollution (G) Nuclear Hazards Soil Waste Management: Causes, Effect and Control Measures of Urban and Industrial Wastes Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution Pollution Case Studies Disaster Management: Floods, Earthquake, Cyclone and Landslides. Field Study of Local Polluted Site Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural. 4. SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 7 From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development Urban Problems Related to Energy Water Conservation, Rain Water Harvesting, Watershed Management Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People; Its Problems and Concerns, Case Studies Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions Climate Change, Global Studies Wasteland Reclamation Consumerism and Waste Products Environment Production Act Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act Wildlife Protection Act Forest Conservation Act 23ssues Involved in Enforcement of Environmental Legislation Public Awareness. 5. HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6 Population Growth, Variation Among Nations Population Explosion Family Welfare Programme Environment and Human Health Human Rights Value Education HIV / Aids Women and Child Welfare Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health Case Studies. TOTAL PERIOD = 45 TEXT BOOKS 1. Gilbert M.Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, Pearson Education Pvt., Ltd., Second Edition, Isbn 81-297-0277-0, 2004. 2. Miller T.G., Jr., Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co. 3. Townsend C., Harper J and Michael Begon, Essentials of Ecology, Blackwell Science. 4. Trivedi R.K. and P.K. Geol, Introduction to Air Pollution, Techno-Science Publication. REFERENCES 1. Bharucha Erach, The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad, India. 2. Trivedi R.K., Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules, Guidelines, Compliances and Standards, Vol. I and II, Environ Media. 3. Cunningham, W.P. Cooper, T.H. Gorhani, Environmental Encyclopedia, Jaico Publ., House, Mumbai, 2001. 4. Wager K.D., Environmental Management, W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, USA, 1998. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 3 3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN CHAPTER-I PROVIDES INFORMATION ON: E DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE E FOREST RESOURCES E WATER RESOURCES E MINERAL RESOURCES E FOOD RESOURCES E ENERGY RESOURCES E LAND RESOURCES 0NIT INTR0B0CTI0N T0 ENvIR0NNENTAL ST0BIES ANB NAT0RAL RES00RCES pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 4 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES NATURAL RESOURCES Natural resources are goods and services supplied by our environment. These include forest, water, mineral, food, energy, land (soil), Atmosphere (air), plants and animals. Some resources are get exhausted soon, whereas other resources would be lasting for a long period of time. Depending on this factor, these resources are divided into two categories. 1) Renewable Resources (Inexhaustible Resources): Inexhaustible resources have the ability to reappear or replenish themselves by recycling, reproduction or replacement. These renewable sources include O Sunlight, O Plants, O Animals, O Soil, O Water O Living organisms 2) Non-renewable Resources (Exhaustible Resources): The non- renewable resources are the earths materials. These renewable sources include O Minerals, O Fossil fuels, O Non-mineral resources NATURAL RESOURCES- AN OVERVIEW Resources are needed for the development of civilization. Natural resources are the materials provided by the nature that are required to sustain life and livelihood. They include air, water, land, food, timber, paper, medical plants, minerals, fuel, etc. Everything that human beings use is drawn from the nature. Due to increased standards of living results in excessive utilization of natural resources. However, the natural resources are limited. They should be properly and optimally used for a comfortable living. The entire living system will collapse when the utility exceeds the regeneration capacity. Forest Wealth Forests are valuable source of biodiversity from which we derive various benefits like medicines, domesticated plants, animals, etc. Forest reduces the impact of raindrop by covering There is enough for everyones need, but not enough for everyones greed - M.K.GANDHI pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 5 5 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN the surface of the land with litter and leaves. This results in reduction of soil erosion, in turn floods in rivers. It moderates climate. Forest provides livelihood for large sector of tribal people. It also fulfills timber, fuel-wood, fruits, fibre, recreation and other benefits. These are self managed ecosystems by way of managing and maintaining themselves in the absence of human interference. It maintains the natural ecological balance by providing habitat for various species of plants and animals. They provide shelter to large number of animals and birds. In fact tropical rain forests are the best sources of diversity of animals. These animals are not only aesthetically valuable but represent a tremendous store of genes. These genes have been evolving over millions of years, so when one species of animals or plant become extinct, a very valuable source of genetic information is lost. Our wheat, rice, ragi, sugar cane, etc., are also descendants of once wild grasses. Deforestation is thought to induce regional and global climate changes. Trees releases substantial amount of moisture into the air, and about 97% of water through roots absorb from the soil is evaporated directly into the atmosphere as transpiration. The moisture finds its way back to the earth in the hydrologic cycle. When large form is decimated, rainfall is likely to decline and drought may become more common in that region. The effective forest management includes restricting cutting tress, reforestation, control of forest fire, replacing and recycling of forest products. In India, 22% of the land is covered by forest i.e., around 60 million hectare. This works out to be 0.06 hectare/person which are far less than the worlds average of 0.64 hectare/capita. It is required to know the prime causes of deforestation which includes increased population and industrialization, mineral exploration, construction of dam, transportation, over grazing, agricultural operation, illegal human trade, etc. Mineral Resources Minerals are formed through geochemical process over a long span of period. India is rich in mineral reserves. Coal resource is the largest. India is the 5th largest producer of coal in the world with total reserve of coal estimated at 186044 million. India has the 5th largest deposit of bauxite in the world. 95% of Indias lead-zinc resources are located in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Limestone is found in all the states of India. The country is relatively poor in gold, base metals, platinum, diamond, nickel, and tungsten and rock phosphate. As population increases the demands on the mineral usage is also increasing rapidly. In the next 50 years most of our mineral resources will get exhausted. Therefore these non-renewable resources are to be consumed less and preventing wastage, recycling and reuse, choosing renewable alternative. The mining extraction, purifying, refining and processing operations are likely to cause the following effects, 1. Disturbing landscape, forest, wildlife, 2. Releasing of toxic pollutants 3. Water and air pollution pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 6 6 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN 4. Land degradation Water Resources Precipitation is the primary source of water which may be in the form of surface water and groundwater available for our use. Much of this will be known in the subsequent lectures. Energy Resources The power we use is mostly Hydel or thermal or nuclear origin. Alternate energy refers renewable energy sources (rather than burning the fossil fuels like petroleum and coal production) which will never exhaust viz.; wind energy, geothermal energy, biomass, solar energy, etc. The renewable energy is the need of the hour because fossil fuels are getting exhausted very fast. In India, for every year 300 million tons of agro residues produced to get biogas. The biomass programme propagates the protection of fast growing species of trees to meet fuel fodder and power requirements particularly rural areas. Wind energy produces electricity at a very lower cost with no emission and no big investment. Tidal and geothermal energy are yet to be exploited to economical scale. Food Resources Global food supply has improved enormously since 1960s. Agricultural production has increased and world food supplies are 18% higher than 30 years ago. Food security is the ability of all people at all time to access enough food for an active and healthy life. Food insecurity is not just a problem related to food production; it is closely linked to poverty and economic stagnation. Land Resources Land is a declinable area of the earths terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface including those of the near surface climate the soil and terrain forms the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, river, marshes and swamps), the near surface sedimentary layers and associated groundwater resource, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.). Conservation of Natural Resources As the human population increases, greater demands are placed upon the available resources. Large areas of earth are being converted for in exclusive use of human beings. This result in several changes does occur in various components of the biosphere such as pollution of seas, rivers and lakes, denudation of forest, degradation of land. The problem lies is what will happen to our future generation, if the natural resources are used injudiciously at a rapid rate. At present, world environment is suffering critical stress not only by our utilization of natural resources but the greater environmental change. For all these Sustainable Environmental Management System has to be adopted through individuals, value system and prevention of pollution. THE FOREST RESOURCES pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 7 7 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Forests are important renewable resources. A forest is a vast biotic community of trees, shrubs or any other woody vegetation. Forests contribute a lot to the economic development of a country. Some of the uses of forest are: + Fuel wood, + Timber + Wildlife habitat* + Pasture for livestock + Industrial forest products + Animal products + Recreation + Soil moisture retention + Climate regulation + Production of atmospheric oxygen + Source of new agricultural land + Grazing land *Habitat: The type of environment in which an organism or group of organisms lives or occurs The total forest area of India is 637,293 square kilometers, which is 19.39% of the total geo-graphical area of our country. ` Tropical dry deciduous forest = 38.7% ` Tropical moist deciduous forest = 30.9% ` Tropical thorn forest = 6.9% Nearly 96% of the forests are owned by the Government, 2.6% by corporate bodies and the rest are in private ownership. USES OF THE FORESTS: 1. Economical uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial products which include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, fibers, bamboo canes, animal food, medicine, drugs etc. 2. Ecological uses: Production of oxygen: The trees produce oxygen by photo synthesis. Oxygen is very vital for human life. Hence forests are called as earth's lungs. Reducing global warming: pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 8 8 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN The main green house gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus forest acts as a sink for CO2 thereby reducing global warming. Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and green plants. Nearly seven million species are found in the tropical forests alone. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like big sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the runoff. About 50-80 % of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from their transpiration which helps in bringing rains. It also helps in control of floods. Soil Conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They also absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise pollution. OVEREXPLOITATION: Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, recreation and for development of dams. Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and overgrazing have together lead to over-exploitation and degradation of the forests. DEFORESTATION The total forest area of the world in 1900 = 7,000 million hectares The total forest area of the world in 1975 = 2,890 million hectares The total forest area of the world in 2000= 2,300 million hectares CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION Shifting cultivation: More than 5 lakh hectares of forests are cleared for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this shifting cultivation in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Mathya Pradesh. Fuel requirements: There are great demands for fuel wood due to growing population. This situation increases the pressure on forests, In India, Fuel wood requirement in 1950s = 65 million tons Fuel wood requirement in 2000s = 300-500 million tons Raw materials for industries: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted a great pressure on forests. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 9 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Development projects: Due to development projects like hydroelectric power plants, dams construction, road construction, mining, a massive destruction of forests occurs. Growing food needs: To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands are expanded and new homes and avenues are created by clearing forests. Overgrazing: Overgrazing by the domestic animals like cattle leads to destruction of forests. EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION Soil erosion: the soil in slope area gets washed away with rain water, since soil become loose due to the absence of forests/trees. Expansions of deserts: barren land is getting converted into deserts due to the action of strong winds. Since there is no barrier to strong wind because of absence of trees. Decrease in rainfall: Forests bring rains due to high rate of transpiration and precipitation. In the absence of forests, rainfall declines considerably. Loss of fertile land: Less rainfall results into the loss of fertile land owing to less natural vegetation. Effect on climate: The climate of a region is mainly controlled by the rainfall, snowfall, etc. Deforestation causes decrease in rainfall, which in turn increases the climatic temperature. Lowering of water table: Decrease in rainfall results into a lowered water table due to lack of recharging of underground reservoirs. Economic losses: Deforestation will cause loss of industrial timber and non-timber products and loss of long-term productivity on the site. Loss of biodiversity: Loss of flora and fauna leads to disturbances in ecological balance worldwide. Certain species of flora and fauna are getting extinct. Loss of medicinal plants: There are many species of plants which have medicinal and other advantages, like Neem (Vempoo in Tamil) which has been used in India for centuries as insecticide, fungicide, in medicine and in bio-fertilizers. Such medicinal plants are destructed. Environmental changes: The air is purified by forests. So, deforestation will lead to increase in carbon dioxide and other air pollutants concentration. This will lead to global warming, In many places the lack of fuel wood due to deforestation challenges local/tribal people,(economically poor people cannot afford LPG gas for domestic cooking) Agriculture may be negatively impacted if deforestation causes soil loss or compaction, or sedimentation of irrigation systems. Indigenous people may be forced into a new way of life for which they are unprepared. Human life in the downstream of a river may be endangered by floods that may be intensified by clearing forests on upstream watersheds. MINING: pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 10 0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN B Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involves destruction of vast forest areas. B Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. B More than 80,000 ha of land of the country is presently under the stress of mining activities. B Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with underlying soil. This results in change and destruction of the landscape area. ILL-EFFECTS OF MINING The major effects of mining operations on forests and tribal people include: Degradation of lands. Loss of top soil due to deforestation. Pollution of surface and ground water resources due to the discharge of highly mineralized mine waters. Lowering of ground water table. Air pollution due to release of greenhouse gases and other toxic gases during mining, e.g. release of CH4 during coal mining. Deforestation including loss of flora and fauna. Ore transport hazards. Fire/explosive hazards. Subsidence above and near mine areas. Drying up of the perennial sources of water like springs and streams in hilly areas. Tribal people may be forced into a new way of life for which they are unprepared. Migration of tribal people from mining areas to other areas in search of land and food. DAMS: No of big dams in India = more than 1550 No of big dams in Maharashtra = more then 600 No of big dams in Gujarat = more then 250 No of big dams in Madhya Pradesh = more than 130 The highest dam is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal The largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in H.P. IMPACTS OF DAMS CONSTRUCTION Degradation of catchment areas. Reservoir induced seismicity. Deforestation and loss of fauna and flora including gene pool reserves due to submergence. Increased incidence of water-borne diseases like malaria, filaria, diaria, etc. Disturbance of the dam (or reservoir) site forest ecosystem may result in important changes in the neighboring and other ecosystems that may be separated by great distances. Scarcity of fuel wood and other forest products for tribal people. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 11 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Rivers were centre for many civilization Egypt was developed on the bank of the Nile; Babylon on the bank of the Tigris; North India on the bank of the Ganges; Europe on the bank of the Rhine, China on the bank of Yellow River. Rehabilitation and resettlement of tribal people affected. loss of vegetal cover submergence of large area of land(human settlement) soil erosion, Resettlement and rehabilitation problem of displaced people. variation in water table and Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water. Salts left behind by evaporation increase salinity of the river and make it unusable. Dams - Benefits - To concentrate the natural fall of a river at a given site; - To generate electricity; - To direct water from rivers into canals ,irrigation and water-supply systems; - To increase river depths for navigational purposes; - To control water flow during times of flood and drought; - To create artificial lakes for recreational use. CASE STUDIES # 1 The Sardar Sarovar dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread over three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and electricity to the three states. A total of 1,44,731 hectares of land will be submerged by the dam, out of which 56,547 hectares are forest land. A total of 573 villages are to be submerged by the Narmada Dam. Submergence area is very rich in wildlife e.g. .tigers, panthers, bears, wolves, pangolins, hyenas, jackals, flying squirrels, antelopes, black bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles, turtles etc. THE WATER RESOURCES @ Water is a vital natural resource which forms the basis of all life. It is an essential raw material in the process of photosynthesis of green plants. Aquaculture has come up as a very potent industry. Water is source for generation of Hydroelectric Power. Water is used as a raw material, solvent, chemical reactant, coolant, and cleaning agent. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 12 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN @ Water is very abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97% is salty water (marine) and only 3% is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us as most of it is locked up in polar ice caps and less than 1% is readily available to us in the form of groundwater and surface water. @ United Nations estimates (2002), at least 101 billion people do not even have access to safe drinking water and 2.4 billion do not have adequate sanitation facilities. @ Increasing population and expanding development would further increase the demands for wastes. It is estimated that by 2024, 2/3rd of the world population would be suffering from severe water shortage. Ground Water: # A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an aquifer. # Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not since they have low permeability. # Rain water move downward and get stopped when the water meets rock that has no porosity. # Groundwater is the source of about 90% countriess drinking water. In rural areas, groundwater is the only source for water # Groundwater is becoming contaminated with industrial effluents discharged on land and septic systems, as well as illegal and uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Once contaminated, groundwater is difficult to restore. WATER RESERVOIRS S.NO RESERVOIR VOLUME TOTAL WATER 1 Oceans 1,338,000 x 1000 km3 96.5 % 2 Ice and snow 24,364 x 1000 km3 1.76 % 3 Saline ground water 12,870 x 1000 km3 0.93 % 4 Fresh ground water 10,530 x 1000 km3 0.76 % 5 Fresh lakes 91 x 1000 km3 0.007 % 6 Saline lakes 85 x 1000 km3 0.006 % pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 13 3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN 7 Soil moisture 16.5 x 1000 km3 0.001 % 8 Atmosphere 12.9 x 1000 km3 0.001 % 9 Wetlands 11.5 x 1000 km3 0.001 % 10 Rivers &streams 2.12 x 1000 km3 0.0002 % 11 Living organisms 1.12 x 1000 km3 0.0001 % Total 1,386,000 x1000 km3 100 % Effects of Groundwater Usage o Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence. o Lowering of water table: Mining of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi-arid regions for irrigating crop fields. o Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish(salty)it raises the water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems. Surface Water: Surface waters are available as a result of natural precipitation. Precipitation that doesn't seep into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration is called surface water. It forms streams, ponds, ocean, lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water: | Population growth has created much demand of water due to increasing population and rapid industrialization| The amount of water used in one toilet flush = drinking requirements of an adult (IL/day) for about three weeks; | The water used for one load in washing machine = drinking for almost 6 months. | The water used to refine a tonne of petroleum = 200 loads in a washing machine. | Water required to grow a tonne of grain = manufacture a tonne of most industrial materials (e.g., metals or plastics, etc.). Thermal power stations, Jute, and domestic sewage of highly organic nature, Power stations; jute, textile mills; chemical, paint, varnishes, metal, steel, hydrogenated ion of Surface and Ground Water: Population growth has created much demand of water due to increasing population and rapid industrialization The amount of water used in one toilet flush = drinking requirements of an adult (IL/day) for about three weeks; The water used for one load in washing machine = drinking for almost 6 months. The water used to refine a tonne of petroleum = 200 loads in a washing machine. Water required to grow a tonne of grain = manufacture a tonne of most industrial e.g., metals or plastics, etc.). HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE Water moves from the ocean to air to land to ocean in a set cyclic pattern called hydrologic cycle. The factors which control the process of evaporation and transpiration include wind, temperature and humidity. SOURCES OF POLLUTION: Industries: Pulp, paper mills and steel industries, tanneries, distilleries, rayon mills, caustic soda mills, Fertilizer, fly ash from steel mills, Automobile workshops, chemical, metal and surgical industries; tanneries, textile mills, suspendedThermal power stations, Jute, and domestic sewage of highly organic nature, Power stations; jute, textile mills; chemical, paint, varnishes, metal, steel, hydrogenated P a g e : 1 14 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Population growth has created much demand of water due to increasing population and The amount of water used in one toilet flush = drinking requirements of an adult (IL/day) The water used for one load in washing machine = drinking for almost 6 months. The water used to refine a tonne of petroleum = 200 loads in a washing machine. Water required to grow a tonne of grain = manufacture a tonne of most industrial HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE Water moves from the ocean to air to land to ocean in a set cyclic pattern called hydrologic cycle. The factors which control the process of evaporation and transpiration include wind, Industries: Pulp, paper mills and steel industries, tanneries, distilleries, rayon mills, caustic soda mills, Fertilizer, fly ash from steel mills, Automobile workshops, chemical, metal and surgical industries; tanneries, textile mills, suspended coal, Thermal power stations, Jute, and domestic sewage of highly organic nature, Power stations; jute, textile mills; chemical, paint, varnishes, metal, steel, hydrogenated pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 15 5 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN vegetable oil, soap, match, shellac and polythene industries; yarn, tin and glycerin, industries, sulphur and sugar mills; cement industries. Floods: Floods occur when water from heavy rainfall, melting ice or snow or a combination of these, exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving river system. During the floods, the river carries fertile sediment and deposits it on the level land along its lower course, Such areas are called flood plains which are very fertile. Causes of Floods When it rains or snows, some of the water is retained by the soil, some is absorbed by vegetation, some evaporates, and the remainder, which reaches river channels, is called run-off. Floods occur when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water; water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels or retained in natural ponds and constructed reservoirs held behind dams. Effects of Floods ~ Rapid run-off causes soil erosion. The National Commission on floods has calculated that the land area prone to floods has doubled from 20 million hectares in 1971 to 40 million hectares in 1980. ~ Economical loss was Rs. 121 crore per year during the decade 1960-70, increasing to Rs. 739 crore per year during 197l- 78The worst suffering States are Assam, Bihar, Orissa, U.P. and West Bengal. So it is to be given serious thought to save further destruction of mankind. ~ Severe floods like that in 1970, 1988 and 1991 resulting from excessive Himalayan runoff and storms, had very disastrous consequences causing massive deaths and damages. ~ In 1970, about one million people were affected while 1, 40,000 people were died in 1991. Control of Floods The basic methods to control floods practiced since ancient times are reforestation and the construction of dams, reservoirs, and floodways (artificial channels that divert floodwater). The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) sends regular flood maps along with data obtained through Radar satellite/ microwave satellite for assessing the intensity of flood situation in various States. DROUGHTS pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 16 6 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN @ Definition: When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created. @ About 80 countries in the world lying in the arid and semi-arid regions that experience frequent spells of droughts. Causes for drought: Due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deforestation, mining etc. there is spreading of the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought affected areas. Consequences of Drought (a) Desertification: The processes by which an area becomes even more barren, less capable of retaining vegetation, and progresses towards becoming a desert. This is often a cause of long-term disasters. Remedies for water problems (i) Reclamation of sewage and waste water (ii) Development of ground water sources and surface storages (iii) Long range forecasting of rain; (iv) Rain making; (v) Transfer of surplus water; and (vi) Desalination of sea water. Conflicts over water Irrigation water-supply systems in North Vietnam were bombed by the US in the late 1960's. Dam's, desalination plants and water reservoir systems were targeted during the 1991 Gulf War. Jordan River Basin is a small river, its basin is shared by Israel, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon. During 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Israel occupied much of the headwaters of the Jordan River, ensuring for itself a more reliable water supply . 97% of Egypt's water comes from the Nile River. Greater than 95% of the Nile's runoff originates in 8 other nations of the Basin: Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire. The construction of the Farakka Barrage across the Ganga by India to divert water into the Hoogley River to protect the Calcutta port from problems of silting, has been the subject of dispute between India and Bangladesh. RIVER DISPUTES IN INDIA S.NO RIVER DISPUTES pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 17 7 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN 1 Yamuna Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and U.P. 2 Narmada Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. 3 Krishna Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu , Karnataka 4 Godavari Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh 5 Cauvery Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala INTERNATIONAL WATER DISPUTES: RIVER NATIONS TO DISPUTES Ganga India, Bangladesh and Nepal Brahmaputra India, Bangladesh Euphrates Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq and Iran Parana Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina Danube Hungary and Czechoslovakia (now Czech and Slovak Republics) Colorado US and Mexico Zambezi Zambia and Zimbabwe Han South Korea and North Korea THE MINERAL RESOURCES pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 18 8 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN @ Mineral: Any naturally occurring chemical element or compound that have been formed through inorganic processes. Minerals are exhaustible, non-renewable resources found in the earth's crust. @ More than 3,000 mineral species are known, most of which are characterized by definite chemical composition, crystalline structure, and physical properties. @ India has large reserves of iron, manganese, lime stone, dolomite, silica, and mica but has little reserves of copper, gold, silver, lead and phosphate. Uses of Minerals Metals are classified into various category ~ Precious metals: gold, silver, and the platinum group metals; ~ Steel industry metals: iron, nickel, cobalt, titanium, vanadium, chromium; ~ Base metals: copper, lead, tin, and zinc; magnesium and aluminium; ~ Nuclear metals: uranium, radium, and thorium; ~ Specialty metals: lithium, germanium, gallium, and arsenic. ~ Industrial minerals: quartz, salt, potash, asbestos, talc, feldspar, sulphur, phosphates. 2. Many minerals are essential for growth and functioning of the living organisms. 3. Number of minerals used in industries, production of consumer's goods, agriculture inputs, hospitals and defense and research equipments 4. Construction materials include sand, gravel, aggregates, brick clays and limestone, cement. Also included in this group are slate for roofing, and the polished stones, such as limestone, granite, travertine, and marble, collectively known as dimension stones. 5. Gemstones include diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds. METALS AND THEIR EXPECTED YEAR OF DEPLETION S.NO RESOURCES YEARS TO DEPLETION 1 Aluminium 31 2 Chromium 95 3 Copper 21 4 Iron 93 5 Lead 21 6 Manganese 46 7 Mercury 13 8 Molybdenum 34 pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 1 19 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN 9 Nickel 53 10 Silver 13 11 Tin 15 12 Tungsten 28 13 Zinc 18 Some Major Minerals of India Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer). Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P, Tamilnadu. Iron (haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, M.P, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Table . Major reserves and important uses of some of the major metals Metal Major World Reserves Major Uses Aluminium Australia, Guinea, Jamaica Packaging food items, transpor-tation, utensils, electronics Chromium CIS, South Africa For making high strength steel alloys, In textile/tanning industries Copper U.S.A., Canada, CIS, Chile, Zambia Electric and electronic goods, building, construction, vessels Iron CIS, South America, Canada, U.S.A. Heavy machinery, steel produc-tion transportation means Lead North America, U.S.A., CIS Leaded gasoline, Car batteries, paints, ammunition Manganese South Africa, CIS, Brazil, Gabon For making high strength, heat-resistant steel alloys Platinum group South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic converters, electronics, medical uses. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 20 0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Gold South Africa, CIS, Canada Ornaments, medical use, elec-tronic use, use in aerospace Silver Canada, South Africa, Mexico Photography, electronics jewellery Nickel CIS, Canada, New Caledonia Chemical industry, steel alloys Environmental Effects of Extraction and Using Mineral Resources ACID MINE DRAINAGE PROCESS 1. Exploration - Drilling, sampling. - Noise pollution, road damage, loss of vegetation. 2. Mining and Milling - Ore extraction, crushing /grinding of ore, chemical concentration of ore.-wind borne dust, acid generation from waste rock, heavy metal leaching from acid mine drainage 3. Smelting and Refining - processing of mineral concentrate by heat or electro-chemical processes.-use of toxic chemicals for processing, sulphur dioxide emissions contribute to acid rain, require high energy. 4. Mine Closure - waste dumps, dismantling of buildings - surface water contamination, re-vegetation failure, and wind pollution.At least six major mines need a mention here which are known for causing severe problems: E Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand-exposing local people to radioactive hazards. E Jharia coal mines, Jharkhandunderground fire leading to land subsidence and forced displacement of people. E Sukinda chromite mines, Orissaseeping of hexavalent chromium into river causes serious health hazard, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic. E Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnatakacausing river pollution and threat to biodiversity. E East coast Bauxite mine, OrissaLand encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled. E North-Eastern Coal Fields, AssamVery high sulphur- contamination of groundwater. Environmental Effects caused by mining activities are : De-vegetation /Loss of biodiversity Subsidence of land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipelines leading to serious disasters. Groundwater Pollution: Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby making the water pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 21 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards. Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby streams and lakes. The acidic water is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies near the mining areas is a common feature creating health hazards. Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore, smelting is done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby and has serious environmental health impacts. The suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot, arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. shoot up in the atmosphere near the smelters and the public suffers from several health problems. Occupational Health Hazards: Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances. Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc. THE FOOD RESOURCES 16th October is declared as the World Food Day. Food: It is a Organic matter taken to satisfy appetite. To meet physiological needs for growth, to supply energy, to do work, to maintain body temperature. Foods differ in the amount of the nutrients. Plants: Four crops-wheat, rice, corn, and potato make up most of the world's total food production than all other crops combined. Grains (mainly rice, wheat, and corn) provide about half the world's calories. Fruits &Vegetables are rich in vitamins, Minerals, Dietary fibre and complex carbohydrate. Livestock: Domesticated animals eg.Cattle, sheep,goat, camel,etc. People consume meat, eggs, milk, cheese, and other products of domesticated livestock. Aquaculture: Marine and fresh water food contribute to high quality protein In addition, one-third of the world's fish catch is converted into fish meal to feed livestock consumed by meat eaters. Fish and sea food contribute about 70 million metric tons of high quality protein to the worlds diet. One-third of the world's fish catch is converted into fish meal to feed livestock. Fish and sea food contribute to one fourth of the total dietary protein in Japan. WORLD FOOD PROBLEM pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 22 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN World food problems involve complex interactions among Food production, Population growth, Poverty, Environmental effects, Economic, Political systems, and Ethics. In 1996, the World Bank estimated that more than one billion of the world's people do not have enough food to lead healthy and productive lives. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about 840 million people remain hungry, though the number has been decreasing 2.5 million per year over the last eight years. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of United Nations estimated that on an average the minimum caloric intake on a global scale is 2,500 calories/day. Undernourishment: People receiving less than 90% of these minimum dietary calories are called undernourished and if it is less than 80% they are said to be seriously undernourished. As a result, the body begins to break down its own stored fats and proteins. Children in this category are suffer from permanently stunted growth , mental retardation, and other developmental disorders. Every year 40 million people (fifty percent of which are young children between 1 to 5 years) die of undernourishment and malnutrition. India is the third largest producer of staple crops; an estimated 300 million Indians are still undernourished. Malnutrition: The dietary condition caused by an insufficiency of one or more nutrients in the diet. The two most common forms of PEM, Marasmus and kwashiorkor Overnutrition: In richer countries, the most common dietary problem is too many calories. The average daily calorific intake in North America and Europe is above 3,500 calories. Overnutrition contributes to overweight ,high blood pressure,heart attack, and other cardiovascular diseases. Balanced Diet: A balanced diet includes a variety of foods from all 5 food groups.(Grains,Vegetables,Fruits, Meat & dairy products, Sugar & Fats). It should provide enough calories to ensure desirable weight and should include all the necessary daily nutrients. About 50% of your calories should come from complex carbohydrates. About 20% should come from proteins. About 30% should come from fats. KWASHIORKAR MARASMUS THE EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURE ON THE ENVIRONMENT pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 23 3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN A. Local Effects: These occur at or near the site of farming. It includes soil erosion and increase in sedimentation. It destroys aquatic life. B. Regional Effects: It includes deforestation, desertification, large scales pollution, fertility of the soil is also affected. C. Global Effects: These include climatic changes as well as potentially extensive changes in chemical cycles. Overgrazing: Livestock wealth plays a crucial role in the rural life of our country. The live stock grazing on a particular piece of grassland is called as Overgrazing. Impact of Overgrazing: Land Degradation, Soil Erosion, Loss of useful species, overgrazing vast areas in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are getting invaded by thorny bushes, weeds etc. of low fodder value. EFFECT OF MODERN AGRICULTURE: It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high-tech equipments and lots of energy subsidies , fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water.Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV): The uses of HYVs encourage monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast areas. In case of an attack by some pathogen, there is total devastation of the crop by the disease due to exactly uniform conditions, which help in rapid spread of the disease. Without the availability of proper toxicological information on the chemicals (fertilizer,pesticides) they are used extensively into the environment. Advantages AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION Disadvantages More food Destruction of wild life habitats from clearing forests and grasslands Supported a larger population Killing of wild animals feeding on grass and crops Longer life expectancy Fertile land turn into desert by live stock overgrazing Higher standard of living Soil eroded into lakes and streams Formation of villages ,towns and cities Towns and cities concentrated wastes and pollution pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 24 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Fertilizer pesticide Problems: Fertilisers are defined as materials having definite chemical composition that supply plant nutrients. Fertilzers are added to the soil to restore and enhance the soil fertility to improve the quality and quantity of plant growth. Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture have nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K) which are essential macronutrients. The excess fertilizers which are not taken up by the plants are leached out of the soil and contaminate the subsoil water sources. They pass through the different trophic levels of the food chain. Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water. High concentrations of nitrates consumed through drinking water and leafy vegetables are reduced to nitrites by bacterial action in the intestines. when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard. On reaching blood stream it becomes attached to haemoglobin forming a complex methaemoglobin which reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and produces a condition known as "Blue Baby Syndrome" or methaemoglobinemia in young babies. In adult humans, gastric cancer is caused in case these nitrates are further converted into amines and nitrosoamines. Large proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off and alongwith runoff water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes, a process known as Eutrophication (eu=more, trophic=nutrition). Due to eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. These algal species grow very fast by rapidly using up the nutrients. They are often toxic and badly affect the food chain. The algal species quickly complete their life cycle and die thereby adding a lot of dead organic matter. The fishes are also killed and there is a lot of dead matter that starts getting decomposed. Oxygen is consumed in the process of decomposition and very soon the water gets depleted of dissolved oxygen. This further affects aquatic fauna and ultimately anaerobic conditions are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can survive, thus, due to excessive use of fertilizers in the agricultural fields the lake ecosystem gets degraded. Pesticide Problems: The chemical compounds that are used for the control of pests are called Pesticides Pest: Any organism that causes an economic loss or damage to the physical well being of the plant is a pest. Classification # 1 S.NO TYPE OF PESTICIDE USED TO CONTROL 1 Insecticides insects 2 Weedicides/herbicides weeds 3 Fungicides fungi 4 Rodenticides Rodents 5 Molluscicides molluscs 6 Nematicides nematodes pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 25 5 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Classification # 2 1) Organochlorines DDT , heptachlor , dieldrin, aldrin, endrin 2) Organophosphates Parathion, Malathion and dimethoate. 3) Organocarbomates Phenyl carbamates , Thiocarbamates 4) Inorganic insecticides Arsenic and sulphur compounds. 1 pesticide is sprayed to agricultural field thro helicopter, tractor and hand spray Among the most effective herbicides are the compounds of 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid).Organochlorines like DDT , dieldrin, aldrin, are hazardous because of their persistent* nature. Their concentration increases as it moves along the food chain comprosing aquatic plants, fish, predatory birds/man. Dieldrin on bio-amplication in predatory birds affects the calcium metabolism and as a result the eggs laid by these birds have thin shells that are unable to bear the weight of the incubating birds resulting in reproductive failure. High concentration of DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl trichloroethane) in human beings is suspected to result in cerebral haemorrhage, hypertension, cancer, liver damage etc. Pesticides contribute to ecological imbalance by upsetting the predatory prey population. Prolonged use of pesticides produces pesticide resistant pests called Super pests". DDT and Fragile Eggshells : During 1960s, several predatory bird species including bald eagles, peregrine falcons, osprey and brown pelicans suddenly disappeared from territories in eastern North America. Studies carried out by biologists revealed that eggs laid down by these predatory birds had thin, fragile shells that broke before hatching. PERSISTENT ORGANIC INSECTICIDES ALDRIN Insecticide used on corn, potatoes, cotton and for termite control CLORDANE Insecticide used on vegetables, small grains, maize, sugarcane, fruits, nuts and cotton DIELDRIN Insecticide used on cotton, corn, potatoes and for termite control DDT Insecticide-primarily used for disease vector control ENDTRIN Insecticide used on cotton, grains and also used as Rodenticides pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 26 6 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN HEXACHLOROBENZENE Fungicide used for the treatment of seeds and also used as industrial chemical HEPTACHLOR Insecticide used against soil insects, termites and grasshoppers MIREX Insecticide used to kill ants, termites and also used as fire retardant THE ENERGY RESOURCES E Energy: Energy is the physical quantity, which can manifest itself as heat, as mechanical work, as motion and in the binding of matter by nuclear or chemical forces. E The two laws of thermodynamics describe the behavior of energy: E First law: states that energy may be transformed from one form to the other, but cannot be created or destroyed: E Second law states that because some energy is always dispersed into unavailable heat energy, no spontaneous transformation of energy from one to other form (light to protoplasm, for example) is 100 per cent efficient. Classification of energy sources Renewable Energy Resources Non-Renewable Energy Resources RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES Renewable energy are such sources as the sun, wind, water, agricultural residue, firewood, and animal dung which do not exhaust. Measurement of Energy / Units of Energy Abbreviation Name WORLDWIDE COMMERCIAL ENERGY PRODUCTIONCoal, 26%Oil, 36%Wood,peat,charcoal,manure, 6%Nuclear,solarwind,hydro, 9%Gas, 23% pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 27 7 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN 1) J Joule Standard SI Unit of Energy 2) BTU British Thermal Unit 3) Cal Calories 4) erg Erg 5) KWh Kilowatt/hour 6) MWd Megawatt/day WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION I.SOLAR ENERGY: E Sun is an inexhaustible and pollution free source of energy. Solar equipments have been developed to harness sun-rays to heat water, cook meals, and light our houses. E The solar energy originates from the thermonuclear fusion reaction taking place in the Sun. E It is one of the important non-conventional energy sources. E Solar energy being non- polluting and non-deplets is considered as renewable energy and thus fills into the principle of sustainability. E But only 0.25 to 0.5 % of the solar energy reaching the earth is utilized for photosynthesis. E Utilization of solar energy is to gain popularity among the masses due to expensive nature. E In India, solar photovoltaic systems are being installed by Department of Non- Conventional energy resources for lighting, running of TV sets, water pumping etc. E Solar cells are used to convert the impinging solar radiation into electricity E The reliability of the operation is extraordinarily high. E Even under severe space conditions a maintenance free life span of ten or more years has been achieved. Only disadvantage is that, its cost is very high. E For a solar power station with a capacity of 1000 Mw, a land of surface of about 12 km2 is required. E Solar energy is currently being used to generate electricity using three technologies: 3%WIND13%COAL19%OIL22%NATURAL GAS7%HYDRO POWER7%NUCLEAR17%BOIMASS12%SOLAR pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA E Direct Heating method Plate collectors, solar panels, reflectors, concentrators etc asolar energy. Solar energy increases the temperature. This technology is being used in solar cookers, solar ovens, solar dryers, solar water heaters, solar distillation etc. E Solar Photo-voltaic Cells (SPVC) method Solar photovoltaic technology is used for direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity using solar cells. SPVC are thin wafers of silicon,(semi conductors ), gallium, arsenide or cadmium telluride. When light falls over the semi conductor surface a part of this light is absorbed and a voltage is generated. This is only 0.5 volts. Therefore, a large number of photovoltaic cells are connected both in parallel and in series to form PV model. Solar cells are usedomestic lighting, community lighting, small power plans and operation of railway signals. E Solar thermal process methodSolar energy is converted into solar thermal energy. There are several methods to convert solar einto thermal energy, the common one is to use a member of heliostats or mirrors and to focus them over a absorber some devices based upon solar thermal energy are water heaters, solar air heaters, solar green hoAdvantages of solar energy 1. Solar energy is free and it is available locally in abundance.2. Solar energy is pollution free.3. Systems are easy to install, generate and maintain.4. System can be specifically designed according to 5. Supply of hot water is instant and un interrupted6. Recurring fuel costs are zero7. Heating 100 liters of water to 60o c by solar system results in an energy saving of 1200units (kilowatts hours) of electricity per year.II.HYDRO ELECTRICAL ENERGY - Direct Heating process, - Solar photo-voltaic cells, - Solar thermal process. Plate collectors, solar panels, reflectors, concentrators etc are used to collect and concentrate solar energy. Solar energy increases the temperature. This technology is being used in solar cookers, solar ovens, solar dryers, solar water heaters, solar distillation etc. Cells (SPVC) method Solar photovoltaic technology is used for direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity using solar cells. SPVC are thin wafers of silicon,(semi conductors ), gallium, arsenide or cadmium telluride. the semi conductor surface a part of this light is absorbed and a voltage is generated. This is only 0.5 volts. Therefore, a large number of photovoltaic cells are connected both in parallel and in series to form PV model. Solar cells are used in street lighting, domestic lighting, community lighting, small power plans and operation of railway signals. fig-solar celSolar thermal process method Solar energy is converted into solar thermal energy. There are several methods to convert solar einto thermal energy, the common one is to use a member of heliostats or mirrors and to focus them over a absorber some devices based upon solar thermal energy are - solar cookers, solar water heaters, solar air heaters, solar green houses, solar huts etc. Solar energy is free and it is available locally in abundance. Solar energy is pollution free. Systems are easy to install, generate and maintain. System can be specifically designed according to individual requirements. Supply of hot water is instant and un interrupted Recurring fuel costs are zero Heating 100 liters of water to 60o c by solar system results in an energy saving of 1200units (kilowatts hours) of electricity per year. P a g e : 2 28 8 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN re used to collect and concentrate solar energy. Solar energy increases the temperature. This technology is being used in solar Solar photovoltaic technology is used for direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity using solar cells. SPVC are thin wafers of silicon,(semi conductors ), gallium, arsenide or cadmium telluride. the semi conductor surface a part of this light is absorbed and a voltage is generated. This is only 0.5 volts. Therefore, a large number of photovoltaic cells are d in street lighting, domestic lighting, community lighting, small power plans and operation of railway signals. solar cel Solar energy is converted into solar thermal energy. There are several methods to convert solar energy into thermal energy, the common one is to use a member of heliostats or mirrors and to focus solar cookers, solar Heating 100 liters of water to 60o c by solar system results in an energy saving of 1200-1500 pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 2 29 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Electricity produces from waterpower is known as hydroelectric energy. The potential energy of falling water captured and converted to mechanical energy by water wheel powered the start of industrial revolution. Large Scale Hydro power: in this case a high dam is built across a large river to create a reservoir, water is allowed to flow to through huge pipes laid along the steep hill slopes (falling) at controlled rates, thus spinning turbines ( prime movers) and in turn generators producing electricity. Small hydropower: In this case a low dam with no reservoir (or only a small one) is built across a small stream and the water used to spin turbine to produce electricity. Pumped Storage hydropower: In this case the surplus electricity conventional power plant is used to lift water from a lake or tail race to another reservoir at a higher elevator, water in the upper reservoir is released to spin the turbine for generating electricity = Hydropower is an economical, renewable and non-polluting source of energy. It includes construction of dams to produce the waterfalls that fall on power turbines. UTILIZATION OF HYDRO POWER* 7% of the worlds total commercial energy, 20% of the worlds electricity. 99% of the electricity in Norway, 75% of the electricity in New Zealand 43% of the electricity in india. 50% of the electricity in developing countries 25% of the electricity in China. *data based on survey conducted in the year-2001 = India decided to give importance for the generation of hydro electricity in 1st Five Year plan. = India was able to generate 6.9 thousand MW of hydro electricity, contributing 42% of the total power generation capacity at the end of 4th plan. = But, the amount of hydropower generation decreased to 25% by the end of Eighth plan due to increase in demand. = The hydropower potential of India is estimated to be 4 X 10 11 k w /hours. = Hydropower in tropical countries is a major emitter of green house gases. This occurs because reservoirs that power the dams can trap rotting vegetation, which can emit green house gases such as Carbon dioxide and Methane. (According to a study by world commission on Dams) Advantages of and disadvantages of hydropower generation ADVANTAGES HYDRO POWER GENERATION DISADVANTAGES Moderate to high net energy High construction cost High efficiency (80%) Coverts land habitat to lake habitat Low cost electricity Floods natural areas. pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA Provides water for yearirrigation Long life span No carbon dioxide emission Reservoir is useful for fishing and recreation. May provide flood control = Hydel power has several advantages such as: A. It is a clean source of energy. B. It provides irrigation facilities. C. It provides drinking III.GEO-THERMAL ENERGY: E The availability of geothermal energy depends on geographical regions. The earth contains large amounts of geothermal energy with temperature as high as 4400C.This energy comes from magma, molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth or from radioactive decay of thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed throughout the earth's interior. E In some regions of the earth this molten material sometimes breaks through the earth's crust and produces volcanoes. In other regions, ththe earth's surface to heat the underground water trapped by impermeable rock and form steam. Geysers and hot springs are natural areas where hot water and steam come to the surface. In such areas geosteam. At present, geothermal energy is only practical in areas where the molten mass is Provides water for year-round High carbon dioxide emission from biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoir High environmental impact No carbon dioxide emission Danger of collapse Reservoir is useful for fishing and recreation. Decreases fish harvest below dam May provide flood control Uproots People. Hydel power has several advantages such as: It is a clean source of energy. It provides irrigation facilities. It provides drinking water to people living in desert areaTHERMAL ENERGY: The availability of geothermal energy depends on geographical regions. The earth contains large amounts of geothermal energy with temperature as high as 4400C.This energy comes from magma, molten rock material beneath the surface of the or from radioactive decay of thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed throughout the earth's interior. In some regions of the earth this molten material sometimes breaks through the earth's crust and produces volcanoes. In other regions, the hot material is close enough to the earth's surface to heat the underground water trapped by impermeable rock and form steam. Geysers and hot springs are natural areas where hot water and steam come to the surface. In such areas geothermal energy is tapped by drilling wells to obtain steam. At present, geothermal energy is only practical in areas where the molten mass is P a g e : 3 30 0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN High carbon dioxide emission from biomass decay in shallow Decreases fish harvest below water to people living in desert area The availability of geothermal energy depends on geographical regions. The earth contains large amounts of geothermal energy with temperature as high as 4400C.This energy comes from magma, molten rock material beneath the surface of the or from radioactive decay of thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed In some regions of the earth this molten material sometimes breaks through the earth's e hot material is close enough to the earth's surface to heat the underground water trapped by impermeable rock and form steam. Geysers and hot springs are natural areas where hot water and steam thermal energy is tapped by drilling wells to obtain steam. At present, geothermal energy is only practical in areas where the molten mass is pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA near the surface. IV.WIND POWER: E High-speed winds (kinetic energy) have a great capacity to generate power (electrical energy). Wind energy is inexhaustible, cost effective, and ecoand freely available source of energy all over the day and night. The instharnessing wind power is called wind mill. E Small windmills are in use in rural areas for power generation, pumping water and other domestic purposes, particularly in the rural areas, such as threshing, winnowing, cutting wooden logs, grindingbattery charging to run generators. E To generate electricity, the speed of wind should be from 10available on coast, mountain, certain valleys and plains. Twheel, which is connected to a generator or turbine for generation of electricity. It is a Fast growing technology. E Denmark, Spain, Germany USA and India are the leaders in wind energy development and more cover than 80 per cent of world capacity. E World Watch Institute (The Washington, USA) ranked India as a Wind Superpower. Wind power development in India has been rapid at selected sites. Muppandal (Tamil Nadu), has the highest concentration (400 MW) of wind farms in Asia and the third highest in tworld. speed winds (kinetic energy) have a great capacity to generate power (electrical energy). Wind energy is inexhaustible, cost effective, and eco-friendly, nonand freely available source of energy all over the day and night. The instharnessing wind power is called wind mill. Small windmills are in use in rural areas for power generation, pumping water and other domestic purposes, particularly in the rural areas, such as threshing, winnowing, cutting wooden logs, grinding grains and pump water etc. Wind energy can also be used for battery charging to run generators. To generate electricity, the speed of wind should be from 10-20 km/hour, which is available on coast, mountain, certain valleys and plains. The force of wind rotates the wheel, which is connected to a generator or turbine for generation of electricity. It is a Fast growing technology. Denmark, Spain, Germany USA and India are the leaders in wind energy d more cover than 80 per cent of world capacity. World Watch Institute (The Washington, USA) ranked India as a Wind Superpower. Wind power development in India has been rapid at selected sites. Muppandal (Tamil Nadu), has the highest concentration (400 MW) of wind farms in Asia and the third highest in tP a g e : 3 31 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN speed winds (kinetic energy) have a great capacity to generate power (electrical friendly, non-polluting and freely available source of energy all over the day and night. The instrument for Small windmills are in use in rural areas for power generation, pumping water and other domestic purposes, particularly in the rural areas, such as threshing, winnowing, cutting Wind energy can also be used for 20 km/hour, which is he force of wind rotates the wheel, which is connected to a generator or turbine for generation of electricity. It is Denmark, Spain, Germany USA and India are the leaders in wind energy World Watch Institute (The Washington, USA) ranked India as a Wind Superpower. Wind power development in India has been rapid at selected sites. Muppandal (Tamil Nadu), has the highest concentration (400 MW) of wind farms in Asia and the third highest in the pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA E Tamil Nadu State is one of the windiest regions of the world accounting for about 10% of the total installed global wind energy capacity and over 70 per cent of the country's total installed capacity. The estimated cost of setting up wind farm45 million per MW. E Disadvantage of wind generators are i) Noise Pollution ii) Blades may interfere with television reception or with microwave communication Tamil Nadu State is one of the windiest regions of the world accounting for about 10% of the total installed global wind energy capacity and over 70 per cent of the country's total installed capacity. The estimated cost of setting up wind farm project comes to Rs. 35 to 45 million per MW. Disadvantage of wind generators are i) Noise Pollution ii) Blades may interfere with television reception or with microwave communication P a g e : 3 32 2 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN Tamil Nadu State is one of the windiest regions of the world accounting for about 10% of the total installed global wind energy capacity and over 70 per cent of the country's total project comes to Rs. 35 to Disadvantage of wind generators are i) Noise Pollution ii) Blades may interfere with pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA V.TIDEL ENERGY E The tidal movement of water has vast potential of energy. It is estimated by the National oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (US) the tidal potential at global level is 30,00,000 MW. The tides are daily movement of large bodies of watergravitational attractions between the sun, earth and moon. E In India, the tidal power potential of Ganga delta of Sunderbans (1,000 MW), Gulf of Cambay (7,000 MW) and Gulf of Kutch (1,000 MW) has been identified and has around 9,000 MW tidal power potential. VI.BIOMASS ENERGY E This is the energy from garbage. The garbage of houses contains waste paper, plastics and several other waste materials. It can be used to produce electricity. Biomass energy can The tidal movement of water has vast potential of energy. It is estimated by the National oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (US) the tidal potential at global level is 30,00,000 MW. The tides are daily movement of large bodies of watergravitational attractions between the sun, earth and moon. In India, the tidal power potential of Ganga delta of Sunderbans (1,000 MW), Gulf of Cambay (7,000 MW) and Gulf of Kutch (1,000 MW) has been identified and has around 9,000 MW tidal power potential. This is the energy from garbage. The garbage of houses contains waste paper, plastics and several other waste materials. It can be used to produce electricity. Biomass energy can P a g e : 3 33 3 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN The tidal movement of water has vast potential of energy. It is estimated by the National oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (US) the tidal potential at global level is 30,00,000 MW. The tides are daily movement of large bodies of water driven by In India, the tidal power potential of Ganga delta of Sunderbans (1,000 MW), Gulf of Cambay (7,000 MW) and Gulf of Kutch (1,000 MW) has been identified and India This is the energy from garbage. The garbage of houses contains waste paper, plastics and several other waste materials. It can be used to produce electricity. Biomass energy can pdf Machi ne - i s a pdf w r i t er t hat pr oduces qual i t y PDF f i l es w i t h ease! Get your s now ! Thank you very much! I can use Acrobat Dist iller or t he Acrobat PDFWrit er but I consider your product a lot easier t o use and much preferable t o Adobe' s" A. Sarras - USA P a g e : 3 34 4 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING // D.PARTHIBAN play important and vital role to meet energy crisis of the world. Biomass can be used as renewable source of energy. E Plants traps solar energy and store through the process of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide and water are transformed and form energy rich compounds. Biomass conversion is done by using non biological and biological process. Plants are the major source of biomass. E Biomass is the term used to describe the organic matter produced by photo synthesis that exists on the Earths surface. E The source of all energy in biomass is the Sun, the biomass acting as a kind of chemical energy store. E Traditionally the extraction of energy from biomass is split into three distinct categories: Solid biomass: The use of trees, crop residues animal and human waste, house hold or industrial residues for direct combustion to provide heat. Biogas: it is obtained an aerobically (without air) digesting the organic material to produce ethane. Animal waste and municipal waste are two common feed stocks for anaerobic digestion. Liquid bio-fuels: They are obtained by subjecting