ENVIRONMENTAL RISKASSESSMENT AND

MANAGEMENT FROMA LANDSCAPEPERSPECTIVE

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKASSESSMENT AND

MANAGEMENT FROM ALANDSCAPE PERSPECTIVE

Edited by

Lawrence A. KapustkaWayne G. Landis

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Cover art is “Yellow River: Memphis Delta Suite,” bySusan L. Kristoferson, 1980; photographed by Kenneth L. Froese.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Kapustka, Lawrence.Environmental risk assessment and management from a landscape perspective / Lawrence A.

Kapustka, Wayne G. Landis.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-470-08997-2 (cloth)

1. Environmental risk assessment. 2. Ecological assessment (Biology) 3. Environmentalmanagement. 4. Landscape protection. I. Landis, Wayne G. II. Title.

GE145.K376 2010333.71′4–dc22

2009037584

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

PREFACE vii

CONTRIBUTORS ix

PROLOGUE xi

1 INTRODUCTION 1Lawrence A. Kapustka and Wayne G. Landis

2 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT TOWARD A LANDSCAPEPERSPECTIVE 11Lawrence A. Kapustka

3 POPULATIONS, HABITAT, AND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS:ELUSIVE BUT ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS FORA LANDSCAPE PERSPECTIVE 33Lawrence A. Kapustka

4 RELEVANCE OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SCALES TOECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 55Alan R. Johnson and Sandra J. Turner

5 QUANTITATIVE MEASURES AND ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY 75G. Darrel Jenerette and Jianguo Wu

6 BAYESIAN MODELS IN ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 97S. Jannicke Moe

7 LINKING REGIONAL AND LOCAL RISK ASSESSMENT 121Rosana Moraes and Sverker Molander

8 INTEGRATING HEALTH IN ENVIRONMENTAL RISKASSESSMENTS 143Kenneth L. Froese and Marla Orenstein

9 VALUING WILDLANDS 157Rebecca A. Efroymson, Henriette I. Jager, and William W. Hargrove

vi CONTENTS

10 PREDICTING CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS TO RIPARIANECOSYSTEMS IN ARID WATERSHEDS: THE UPPERSAN PEDRO AS A CASE STUDY 187Hector Galbraith, Mark D. Dixon, Juliet C. Stromberg,and Jeff T. Price

11 INVASIVE SPECIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT 203Greg Linder and Edward Little

12 LANDSCAPE NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES RISK ASSESSMENT:ASIAN OYSTER AND NUN MOTH CASE STUDIES 245Wayne G. Landis, Valerie C. Chen, Audrey M. Colnar, LaurelKaminski, Goro Kushima, and Ananda Seebach

13 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF THE INVASIVESARGASSUM MUTICUM FOR THE CHERRY POINT REACH,WASHINGTON 279Ananda Seebach, Audrey M. Colnar, and Wayne G. Landis

14 INTEGRATED LABORATORY AND FIELD INVESTIGATIONS:ASSESSING CONTAMINANT RISK TO AMERICAN BADGERS 303Dale J. Hoff, Deborah A. Goeldner, and Michael J. Hooper

15 ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF PHARMACEUTICALS 329Joanne Parrott, Alison McLaughlin, David Lapen, and Edward Topp

16 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ECOLOGICAL GOODS AND SERVICES 347Ronald J. McCormick, James Pittman, and Timothy F. H. Allen

17 ECOSYSTEM SERVICE VALUATION CONCEPTS AND METHODS 361James Pittman and Ronald J. McCormick

18 METRICS AND INDICES FOR SUSTAINABLESOCIAL–ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPES 381Ronald J. McCormick

EPILOGUE 391

INDEX 393

PREFACE

With the rapid changes in today’s world of publishing, we find this production havingaspects of traditional and modern outlets. The printed version of this book will lookand feel like any other technical, dare we say scholarly, book. One exception is theexistence of an ftp site which contains supplemental materials, including color graphicsand some models not included in the book. These related materials can be found atftp://ftp.wiley.com/public/sci_tech_med/environmental_risk.

Terminology in the general field of risk assessment can at times be confusing, inparticular because there are identical terms that have different meaning among juris-dictions and across disciplines. We have attempted to establish consistency throughoutthe book, but we accept that we may not have succeeded in all cases. One prominentitem relates to nuanced distinctions regarding Ecological Risk Assessment (EcoRA)versus Environmental Risk Assessment (EnRA).

As the EcoRA framework was being developed in the United States in the late1980s, there were clear separations between ecological risks and human health con-siderations. Much of the environmental legislation in the United States and elsewhereincluded some variation of the theme “to protect human health and the environment.”With this enabling language, environment became synonymous with ecology in manycircles. The field becomes more confusing with the often used definition of ecologybeing some aspect of “organisms interacting with their abiotic and biotic environment.”Indeed, as chemical or physical parameters were correlated with nominal conditionsand within protective boundaries for valued aquatic and terrestrial species, and to theextent that engineering disciplines came to dominate much of environmental manage-ment, connections to ecological entities were often forgotten—at least not explicitlyidentified. In some international arenas, EnRA was interpreted to be the coordinatedof human health and ecological assessment of risks. Adding to the confusion, systemsecologists tend to view the abiotic parameters (what many others refer to as environ-ment) and biotic parameters [plants, animals (including humans)] as being under theumbrella of ecology.

In this book, we have opted to use EcoRA and EnRA in lieu of another commonlyused acronym, ERA. Throughout the chapters, we have attempted to hold to the terms

viii PREFACE

introduced by the authors. However, we urge readers not to fret too much over theseparticular word choices, because in the end these may be largely distinctions withoutdifferences.

Lawrence A. KapustkaWayne G. Landis

Calgary, Alberta, CanadaBellingham, WashingtonMarch 2010

CONTRIBUTORS

Timothy F. H. Allen, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

Valerie C. Chen, Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington

Audrey M. Colnar, Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington

Mark D. Dixon, University of South Dakota Vermillion, South Dakota

Rebecca A. Efroymson, Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Kenneth Froese, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Hector Galbraith, Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences, Manomet,Massachusetts

Deborah A. Goeldner, Golden Geospatial Inc., Golden, Colorado

William W. Hargrove, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, North Carolina

Dale J. Hoff, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota

Michael J. Hooper, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas

Henriette I. Jager, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee

G. Darrel Jenerette, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California

Alan R. Johnson, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina

Laurel Kaminski, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington

Lawrence A. Kapustka, LK Consultancy, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Goro Kushima, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington

Wayne G. Landis, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington

David Lapen, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Greg Linder, USGS/BRD/CERC, Brooks, Oregon

Edward Little, USGS/BRD/CERC, Columbia, Missouri

Ronald J. McCormick, Sokio Systems, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Alison McLaughlin, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

S. Jannicke Moe, NIVA (Norwegian Institute for Water Research), Oslo, Norway

Sverker Molander, Chalmers University, Goteborg, Sweden

Rosana Moraes, Golder Associates Sarl, Lyon, France

Marla Orenstein, Habitat Health Impact Consulting Corp., Calgary, Alberta, Canada

x CONTRIBUTORS

Joanne Parrott, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada

James Pittman, Earth Economics, Seattle, Washington

Jeff T. Price, World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC

Ananda Seebach, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington

Juliet C. Stromberg, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

Edward Topp, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, London, Ontario, Canada

Sandra J. Turner, Paz Y Pasitos, Clemson, South Carolina

Jianguo Wu, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona

PROLOGUE

Every great advance in natural knowledge has involved the absolute rejection ofauthority.

Thomas H. Huxley

Facts do not cease to exist just because they are ignored.

Aldous Huxley

Since the very early 1990s, we two have been discussing how ecology interacts withenvironmental toxicology, risk assessment, and environmental management. Our per-spective piece “Ecology: the science versus the myth” (Kapustka and Landis 1998)was one of our early attempts to put our discussions and thoughts to paper.

We were struck at that time on the number of myths that had worked themselvesinto acceptable usage. Ideas such as ecosystem health, equilibrium, and recovery toan original state were being used as the basis of research agendas, environmentalmanagement, and policy-making. Our paper was designed to demonstrate just howdated these ideas were and to provide alternative approaches that would be appropriatefor managing ecological systems. One of the keys to that paper was the incorporationof the ideas of Wu and Loucks (1995) and the hierarchical patch dynamics paradigm(HPDP) as an alternative to the standard models of ecological structure being usedin the early 1990s. The HPDP is an approach that inherently integrates spatial andtemporal interactions, even at large scales, so taking a regional or landscape approachwas an easy next step.

In the intervening 11 years, we and many of our colleagues have been investi-gating sites or phenomena that can be thousands of square kilometers in size. Thisbook is our attempt to create a coherent picture of how to approach risk assessmentat a regional scale using a landscape perspective. Perhaps the beginnings of a usefulparadigm for evaluating risks and making management decisions will be an outcomeof our current effort. The fun thing about paradigms is that they are there to be broken,spurring other researchers on to a better understanding of how to estimate risks andmanage ecological structures at these scales.

xii PROLOGUE

As the reader will notice, this book is not just about chemicals. Risk assessmenthas been trapped by its original focus on contaminants and pesticides and is often seenas an extension of toxicology. Risk analysis is used in many other arenas: transporta-tion, terrorism, human health, financial forecasts, and engineering. The use in eachfield follows a similar framework, but with specific considerations depending uponits application. In this book other ecological topics, especially invasive species, areused to demonstrate the broad applicability of the environmental risk assessment pro-cess. It would be satisfying to see risk assessment being adopted as a general analysisframework for environmental management.

So that you do not have to read the epilogue first to see how it all turns out,the answer is yes, it is possible to do risk assessments at very large scales for avariety of environmental, ecological, and human health goals. While there are certainlychallenges, there is no conceptual barrier to using risk assessment (or more properlyrisk analysis) as a tool for managing broad and varied landscapes over varied timehorizons. The book takes a building block approach to demonstrating this thesis.

The first block provides the foundations—that is, the theory behind risk assess-ment, ecology, and scale. In Chapter 1, Introduction, we provide a regulatory andhistorical background for the beginnings of risk assessment and its use at regionaland landscape scales. Particularly noteworthy is the far-reaching intent of the found-ing legislation in contrast to the state of the environmental sciences in the 1970s.In the next chapter, Ecological Risk Assessment Toward a Landscape Perspective,Kapustka outlines the components of the risk assessment process. Particularly note-worthy is the blending of social science and biophysical science in the process. Thechapter explicitly denotes the importance of stakeholders in the risk assessment pro-cess, a role that is often usurped by regulators and many, if not most, risk assessmentexperts. Chapter 3, also by Kapustka, discusses the challenges and vagueness of threeprominent aspects of contemporary risk assessments, namely, population, habitat, andecological systems.

The next two chapters set the stage for thinking at the scale that this book hasas its target. In Chapter 4, Relevance of Spatial and Temporal Scales to EcologicalRisk Assessment, Alan R. Johnson and Sandra J. Turner discuss the importance ofintrinsic scale and the pitfalls in extrapolating across scales in risk assessment. G. Dar-rel Jenerette and Jianguo Wu in Chapter 5, Quantitative Measures and EcologicalHierarchy, detail quantitative approaches in examining the organization of ecologicalsystems based upon ideas of scaling and the analysis of patterns. One of the key ideasis that relatively small changes at the system level may lead to catastrophic changesto individuals.

Jannicke Moe introduces the application of Bayes Theorem in risk assessmentin Chapter 6, Bayesian Models in Assessment and Management. This chapter is oneof the best introductions to a variety of applications including Bayesian interference,Bayesian networks, influence diagrams, and hierarchical Bayesian networks. Examplesof the use of Bayesian tools at large spatial scales are also provided.

In Chapter 7, Linking Regional and Local Risk Assessment, Rosana Moraes andSverker Molander introduce the use of the Procedure for Ecological Tiered Assessment

PROLOGUE xiii

of Risks (PETAR) in integrating local and regional risks. The PETAR approach incor-porates cause–effect chains into conceptual models, assists in the selection of sitesfor exposure and effects analysis, and incorporates a weight of evidence approach.

Kenneth L. Froese and Marla Orenstein in Chapter 8, Integrating Health in Envi-ronmental Risk Assessments, refute the common misconception that ecological riskassessment and human health risk assessment are separate entities. The authors demon-strate that this misconception is in part due to a narrow definition of health that is notreflective of current international practice. They posit that at regional scales, humanhealth as defined by well-being is straightforwardly incorporated as part of the riskassessment process.

Wildlands are important to large numbers of stakeholders, yet mechanisms ofmeasuring the value of these systems are very controversial. In Chapter 9, RebeccaEfroymson et al. review the method for evaluating total economic and other val-ues of these common aspects of landscapes. A number of approaches are evaluated:Multimetric tools, habitat metrics, and complex models are some of the examples.

Climate change is one of the dominant social issues of this time. Chapter 10,Predicting Climate Change Risks to Riparian Ecosystems in Arid Watersheds: TheUpper San Pedro as a Case Study, demonstrates that risk assessment can be used toevaluate risks due to current and upcoming alterations to climate. Hector Galbraithet al. use a series of temperature scenarios and evaluate risks to riparian endpointsunder each. Supplemental figures to Chapter 10 can be found on the ftp site.

The next series of chapters form the interface between the methods and the casestudy segments of this book. In Chapter 11, Invasive Species and Environmental RiskAssessment, Greg Linder and Edward Little present a landmark review and synthesispaper. Linder and Little provide an encyclopedic summary of the application of riskassessment for the evaluation of invasive species. The review covers topics such asuncertainty analysis, management tools, and a series of important recommendationsfor furthering the field. The book now transitions to a series of case studies, with thefirst two being the application of risk assessment to invasive species.

Chapter 12, Landscape Nonindigenous Species Risk Assessment: Asian Oysterand Nun Moth Case Studies, covers marine and terrestrial cases based in the EastCoast of the United States. Wayne G. Landis et al. demonstrate the applicability ofthe Hierarchical Invasive Risk Model (HIRM) to each of these scenarios. The nunmoth is an insect pest that has not yet arrived to the United States from Europe. Asianoyster has been suggested as a species to be introduced to the Chesapeake Bay as ameans of reestablishing the shellfish industry.

Chapter 13, Ecological Risk Assessment of the Invasive Sargassum muticum forthe Cherry Point Reach, Washington, again demonstrates the applicability of the HIRMapproach in a very different circumstance. Sargassum, although an invasive, provideshabitat for a number of valued species along the coast of the Northwest United States.Ananda Seebach et al. calculated that for some endpoints, negative risk or benefitresults from the invasive.

Chapter 14, Integrated Laboratory and Field Investigations: Assessing Contam-inant Risk to American Badgers, takes the study of regional risk to the field. DaleJ. Hoff et al. demonstrate the utility of having site-specific data on home range size,

xiv PROLOGUE

prey type, uptake, and the presence of other stressors for the assessment species.Many of the previous chapters in this book discuss the importance of quantifyingand then reducing uncertainty in regional risk assessments, this is the chapter thatdescribes how to reduce that uncertainty with site-specific data collection and analysis.Supplementary material to Chapter 14 can be found on the ftp site.

Human and veterinary pharmaceuticals can be found originating from both pointand nonpoint sources. Chapter 15, Environmental Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuti-cals, focuses on this important issue. Joanne Parrott et al. list the issues with conductingrisk assessments for this topic that covers a number of chemical classes, modes ofaction, and numerous routes of exposures. The authors also take into account theseveral regulatory environments being used to evaluate the environmental release ofthese biological active materials.

The third and last block ties society and regional risk together into a knot ofvaluation and sustainability. Chapter 16 by Ronald J. McCormick, James Pittman,and Timothy F. H. Allen analyzes the limitations of classical economic paradigms andargue for a transition to economic ecology, a perspective that embraces the dynamicsof ecological systems. In Chapter 17 James Pittman and Ronald J. McCormick covereconomic analyses and ecosystem valuation, and McCormick concludes in Chapter18 with a brief discussion of metrics of sustainability within social and ecologicallandscapes. This section ties the human landscape to the ecological, demonstratingthe deep connections between the two.

Finally, we present an Epilogue. The book demonstrates that regional risk assess-ment by its nature incorporates more than simply chemical toxicity. Social and ecolog-ical landscapes need to be considered. Although perhaps daunting in scope, regionalrisk assessment is possible to accomplish in a manner that informs long-term envi-ronmental management decision-making.

Have fun in reading this book and let us know what you think.

REFERENCES

Kapustka LA, Landis WG. 1998. Ecology: The science versus the myth. Human Ecol RiskAssessment 4:829–838.

Wu J, Loucks, OL. 1995. From balance of nature to hierarchical patch dynamics: A paradigmshift in ecology. Q Rev Biol 70:439–466.