environmental management assignment no: 2 assignment...

CVEN9888

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

ASSIGNMENT No: 2

ASSIGNMENT NAME: ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIAL ACCOUNTING TOOLS

STUDENT NAMES & ID NUMBERS:

Carla Isabel Guilcapi Duran z3402968

Solange Kamanzi z3402599

Jenani Paramarajah z3400773

PHONE: 0487651504

0478843925

0449572893

EMAIL: [email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

DATE SUBMITTED: 14/05/2013

PLACE SUBMITTTED: Room 308 Civil Engineering, submission box

Table of Contents

1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Phosphorus and Carbon in GMR Sydney ........................................................................................ 1

2.1 System Boundaries for P and C in Metapolis ................................................................................ 2

2.1.1 System Boundary of Phosphorus in Metapolis ....................................................................... 2

2.1.2 System Boundary of Carbon in Metapolis ............................................................................. 3

3. Design Development and Associated Infrastructure for Metapolis Suburb in terms of Phosphorus

and Carbon ........................................................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Proposal for Phosphorus Sustainability in Metapolis Suburb ................................................... 3

3.2 Commerce Sector ....................................................................................................................... 3

3.3 Houselhold ................................................................................................................................. 4

3.4 Agriculture Sector ...................................................................................................................... 4

3.5 Reducing P flow from sewage system plants to the oceans ..................................................... 5

4. Design Development and Associated Infrastructure for Metapolis Suburb in terms of C .......... 6

4. 1 Domestic sector .................................................................................................................... 6

4.2 Commercial Sector ............................................................................................................... 8

4.3 Transport Sector .................................................................................................................... 9

4.4 Other considerations ............................................................................................................... 11

5. Conclusion and Recommendations ................................................................................................ 12

Reference ........................................................................................................................................... 13

Appendix A: Sources associated with Phosphorus and Carbon and MFA ........................................ 15

Appendix B: Process contributing to the inflow of P across GMR ................................................... 19

Appendix C: Process contributing to the outflow of P from GMR Sydney ...................................... 19

Appendix D: Main carbon flows in the GRM of Sydney .................................................................. 20

Appendix E: Calculations of the population, density and total area of Metapolis suburb ................ 21

Appendix F: Phosphorus MFA in Metapolis no change and change scenarios ................................ 28

Appendix I: Remaining world Phosphate rock in 2009 ..................................................................... 31

Appendix J: Sustainable scenario for meeting long term future phosphorus demand through

phosphorus use efficiency and recovery ............................................................................................ 31

Appendix K: Material used for house construction ........................................................................... 32

Appendix L: Insulated concrete slab. ................................................................................................ 32

Appendix M: Single glazed aluminium windows ............................................................................. 32

Appendix N: Solar pergola window .................................................................................................. 33

Appendix O: PV Roofs ...................................................................................................................... 33

Appendix P: Matrix of Density per Household According to Accessibility to Public Transportation

and Local Facilities ............................................................................................................................ 34

Appendix Q:Mixed-use development to encourage social interaction in the commuting to different

services by walking and cycling. Taken from ................................................................................... 35

Appendix R: Characteristics of a walking suburb ............................................................................. 36

Appendix S: Comparative summary of emissions between petrol and electric cars ......................... 37

Appendix T: Typical length of car journeys in Australia .................................................................. 37

Appendix U: GHG emissions according to transport means ............................................................. 38

Appendix V: Relationship between vehicle speed and emissions level ............................................ 38

Appendix W:Minimum design requirements for cycleways ............................................................. 39

Appendix X: Integration of landscape and city ................................................................................ 39

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1. Introduction

On the basis of a hypothetical relocation of Sydney Airport to Badgery's Creek, a study has been

requested to the consultants Guilcapi, Paramarajah and Kamanzi in order to assist the town

planners and architects to redevelop the site that was occupied by the airport, and as far as possible

its vicinity into townhouses and apartments of medium to high density, as well as business parks

uses. According to the current consumption patterns, and in particular of such products as

phosphorus and carbon, some constraints are essential in order to reach a sustainable consumption

minimizing on the long-term environmental impacts. Aiming at developing a "low phosphorus and

carbon" city, Metapolis, this report is addressed to the Minister of Environment and Infrastructure

and contains some suggestions on the conceptual development of the aforementioned city as well as

its infrastructures. This was made possible by the close analysis of phosphorus and carbon flows in

the "GMR" of Sydney which was taken as reference.

2. Phosphorus and Carbon in GMR Sydney

Based on the first results from the study in current development by the University of New South

Wales about Phosphorus and Carbon within the system boundary of Greater Metropolitan Region

of Sydney (GMR) in the financial period of 2007-08, there has been identified major inflows and

outflows of these materials. It is important to mention that in the GMR Sydney's system boundary

the amount of some P and C flows have not been identified yet and it might change the final

figures. However, as a previous results, they can be used to identify what are the processes that

require attention to build a low carbon Metapolis. In the case of phosphorus, the main outflow

occurs from the commerce sector to the sewage system and treatment (3454 t/a) and from this one

to the ocean (2664 t/a). In addition, there has been identified high inflows to the commerce sector

which comes from the importation of phosphorus goods contained in animal feed (1545 t/a), food

products (2090 t/a) and detergent (1244 t/a). On the other hand, for carbon, the main outflow occurs

by the exportation of carbon from the mining sector as export coal (13,200,000 t/a) and as coking

coal (4,640,000 t/a) and from power station to air (12,000,000 t/a) (taken only the correspondent

proportion inside GMR Sydney's system boundary) as CO2 emissions. Furthermore, also important

output flows as CO2 to air comes from transport (4,220,000 t/a), mining (3,080,000 t/a) and

industrial and commercial (2,780,000t/a) sectors. Finally, a considerable output flow occurs from

mining to power stations (5,400,000 t/a), but this flow is exported outside the GMR Sydney's

system boundary. In regards to the inflows of carbon to the system, it was identified high carbon

flows from outside the system boundary to refinery (5,520,000 t/a) and to the industrial and

commercial sector (5,110,000 t/a). In addition, a significant inflow takes place from the industrial

and commercial sector to the transport sector (5,270,000 t/a). Further explanation about the flow of

P and C are given in Appendix A.

After carrying out the MFA of phosphorus and carbon (Appendix A), it seems that the sectors that

use more P are commerce sector, through the importation of Food product, animal feed and

detergent, and Households (Appendix B), whereas the sectors with the higher outflow of P are

sewage from households and the discharge from sewage to ocean outfall (Appendix C). On the

other hand, the processes that appear as major consumers of fossil-fuel carbon sources are power

stations, and industrial and commercial, refinery and transport (Appendix D), while the processes

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that generate more GHG emissions in terms of CO2 are power station, transport, and industrial and

commercial sectors.

It is essential to emphasize that the processes identified above use significant amounts of P and C,

respectively, but their origin comes from the demand of consumers. As a result, consumers indirectly

are the ones who determine the rate of use and disposal of those materials. Further explanation will be

given at the sections of defining the system boundary and the design development and associated

infrastructure for Metapolis.

2.1 System Boundaries for P and C in Metapolis

In order to define the system boundaries of Metapolis in terms of P and C, it was first estimated the

MFA of Metapolis for P and for C under no change scenario conditions making a relationship of

proportion between the population in GMR Sydney and Metapolis. The population of Metapolis in 2023

was estimated to be 41,154 persons. The total area was estimated to be 1534 ha with a surrounding area

(buffer zone) of 634 ha which gives a population density equivalent to 26.83 persons/ha. From the total

area of Metapolis, 50 % will be allocated to green spaces.

The system boundary for Phosphorus in Metapolis was the same that for GMR Sydney; however, for

the system boundary of carbon in Metapolis, only were considered inside of the system transport,

domestic and commercial sectors because those are present in Metapolis; nevertheless, it has also been

considered the transboundary impacts of the system in the major sources of use of carbon.

The assumptions and calculations about population, total area, population density and buffer zone of

Metapolis are shown in Appendix E.

2.1.1 System Boundary of Phosphorus in Metapolis

According to the phosphorus (P) flow in Sydney, P is mainly used in food production at the rate of

2090tons per year. Animal feed is the second most contributor to the P flow at about 1545t/year. Apart

from these major contributors, detergent, fertilizer and other products also contribute to the P flow

across the GMR in the amount of 1244ton/year, 420 ton/year and 693 ton/year respectively. The biggest

flow of P goes to ocean as waste water (2664 ton/ yr) which is out of the boundary for this analysis.

From these totals we calculate that the total inflow of P is 5992 ton/ year and the outflow of P is 2911

ton/year and significant amount of P, around 3000 tons, is accumulated within the Sydney region.

Phosphorus plays a dual role in terms of crop production and as a pollutant to the environment.

Analysis of the amounts of phosphorus entering city boundaries through human activity sheds light into

the environmental impacts of such vast flows MFA is used to analyse the P flow in the new suburb

called Metapolis. The given data about the P flow across the GMR was used to find the P flow across

Metapolis. Since our boundary has been defined as Sydney airport and the surrounded area, our

challenge is to identify the P flow across our boundary. Since the redevelopment of Metapolis, the

suburb now mainly consists of residential town houses, apartments and business parks;production and

application of fertilizer can be excluded from the boundary. However phosphate fertilizer is essential

for the food production, therefore fertilizers used in agriculture sector indirectly influence the P flow

across the boundary. Since there is not enough research done within the Sydney region, research in

other areas was considered to explain the identified phosphorus flow. The MFA of Metapolis in terms

of P is shown in Appendix F.

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2.1.2 System Boundary of Carbon in Metapolis

In order to define the Metapolis's system boundary, the sectors that has been considered are

domestic, transport, and commercial. However, due to the new design of development and

associated infrastructure at Metapolis, the transboundary’ impacts of these changes at the power

stations, mining, refinery and landfill sectors, placed outside the system boundary, will also be

considered to achieve a sustainable suburb (Obernosterer et al., 1998). Metapolis system boundary

consider the proposal of design development and associated infrastructure described in the next

section. The MFA of Metapolis in terms of C is shown in Appendix G.

3. Design Development and Associated Infrastructure for Metapolis Suburb in terms of

Phosphorus and Carbon

A design development and associated infrastructure has been proposed in order to make Metapolis

more sustainable in terms of phosphorus and carbon. The proposal not only takes into account

physical infrastructure considerations, but also prescribe covenants and constraints which helped

the new suburb to be sustainable in terms of P use and to be “low carbon” living.

3.1 Proposal for Phosphorus Sustainability in Metapolis Suburb

3.2 Commerce Sector

In order to reduce the importation of P in commerce sector (animal feed, food product, , detergent ,

fertiliser), the following measures are proposed:

Supermarkets: sell detergents free of P. Detergents that combine citric acid together with zeolites

that perform equally or better than detergents containing P (Commission, 2003) will be sold in the

supermarkets.

Periodically training: Past studies on meat in the diet show that in developed countries, 50% of the

total P consumption is from the meat sector (Smith et al., 2009). Most of the land is used to produce

meat and dairy products rather than plant-based products. As a result, periodically training intends

to modifying the diet patterns of people. Media campaigns to promote the health aspects of

vegetables compared to meat can be highly effective in deterring people from eating large amounts

of meat and thus, the over intake of P.

Policies: There will be stated policies for all the residents in Metapolis that restrict their pattern of

consumption of P product, in particular, meat.

Campains: campaigns will be carry out in Metapolis each tree months to promote the reduction of

wasting food in households. The suggested topic are: how to avoid waste food, depletion of P can

cause wars (appendix H),

Fines: A strictly control will be carry out of the garbage produced in households. If it is found that

1/3 of the total garbage produced is food, residents will be fined.

Taxation of meat: in Metapolis all and other phosphorous-intensive food can result in higher prices

and lower demand.

Promote vegetarian food: promote vegetarian diet and only allow vegetarian restaurants (or at least

restrict the number of non-vegetarian restaurants.

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Covenant

Trainings: Residents will attend the trainings about the wise use of phosphorous, their efficiency

and recovery (appendix I ), and how to reduce phosphorus in their diets, how to waste less food.

Meat to purchase:

Worldwide, large amount P fertilizers are used in cultivation of cereal and soy bean, of which more

than 30% of the cereal is used to feed the cattle. Residents will not but meat of animals fed with

human food. Residents will buy meat with low contain of fat, such as meat of kangaroo.

Taxation: People will have to pay the respective fine if they more than 1/3 of the total garbage

produced is food.

Policies: Resident will comply the policies stated in Metapolis.

Composting: All the food wasted at home will be used as compost to use as fertiliser of the lands in

Metapolis.

Constraint

Fish bones: The bones from the selling of fishes will be collected for in the "Source" for the

production of animal food.

Vegetarian and non vegetarian restaurants: within Metapolis system boundaries the number of

non-vegetarian restaurants will be limited. Vegetarian food will be cheaper than food old in non-

vegetarian restaurants,

Type of meat sold in supermarkets: Supermarkets will not sell meat of animals fed with human

food, such as meat from cattle fed with corn.

Collection of food at facilities: restaurants and other food facility will collect the food that has not

been sold or than has been waste for the elaboration of composting to be used as fertiliser of land in

Metapolis.

Commerce sector: It is banned the selling of detergents with P.

3.3 Houselhold

P accumulation in land fill cannot be recovered and the landfill area cannot be used for agricultural

purpose

Metapolis council should also implement a separate food waste bin system.

Covenant

Composting: resident will be in charge of compost all the organic wastes from their lands.

Constraint

Purchase of detergents: residents of Metapolis are not allowed to buy detergents with P.

Fertiliser: Waste food will serve to prepare compost which will help as fertiliser of the lands.

3.4 Agriculture Sector

As it was mentioned that 50% of Metapolis will be green space which will be used to cultivate

mainly fruit trees and vegetables. By doing this, the importation of P food products into Metapolis

system boundary will be reduced significantly around 70%.

Collection bin: separate bin to recover waste food and organic material will be allocated in strategic

places in Metapolis.

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Phosphorus recovery: P will be recovered using acid dissolution and alkali precipitation method

proved that significant amount P can be recovered from chicken manure ashes, acid leaching of

ashes from co-combustion of sewage sludge and wood and two-step acid–base leaching of the

sewage sludge ash in the percentage of 92%, 60% and 70% respectively (Kalmykova and Karlfeldt

Fedje, 2013). The recovered P can be used in Agriculture as fertilizer. In addition, incineration of

solid waste cannot reduce the usage of fertilized, but still uncontaminated phosphorus can be

recovered in the incineration process of municipal waste.(Kalmykova et al., 2012).

Reducing surface runoff and storm water: Action can be taken to prevent urban runoff by making

ponds to treat the water. Stormwater catchment ponds are a widely used technique to intercept

storm water. Pollutants and Phosphorus in the stormwater precipitate in the pond; sediments can be

used as organic manure after composting. Rain water harvesting has become popular recently due

to the scarcity of water, which also reduce the surface runoff and recover some P. These

innovations can be implemented in Metapolis.

Recovery of P from run off: Agriculture, dairy farm runoff and leachate from manure contains

significant amount of phosphorus. Engineered wetland is more favourable and sustainable method

to treat runoff which - efficiency between 50-70% (Chalmers, 1993)- which contains free water

surface and two post wetland systems. It consists of vegetative filters and phosphorus adsorption

filters. Steel furnace slag is used in the phosphorus filters to absorb the phosphorus(Joy et al.,

2001).Council should adapt the engineered wet land for agriculture runoff to recover phosphorus

and reduce the P that goes to surface water.

Improve intake of P by plants: Markers can be used to reproduce beneficial genetic traits to

improve the efficiency of P uptake in plants. Since roots play a major role in the uptake of P, a

strategy of breeding efficient root systems has been found to be effective, especially in soybean

crops. When there is insufficient variation in genetic traits within one species, alien genes can be

transferred to increase PE. By studying and identifying the genes of plants adapted to low P levels,

these genes can be introduced into crops by transgenic modification to improve PE (Tian et al.,

2012). Simply improving PE levels is not enough but effort must be made to reduce the levels of P

in soil as well. An optimal balance between preventing P deficiency in plants and environmental

damage due to higher use of P must be found. The balance between demand and supply of P can be

greatly improved by placing the fertilizer close to the root system of plants thus avoiding wastage

(rhizosphere-based P management)(Tian et al., 2012).

Constraint

It is forbidden in Metapolis the use of chemical fertilizers. Only manure as well as the compost

product from the use of organic waste and waste food.

3.5 Reducing P flow from sewage system plants to the oceans

Collection of urine: Sewage coming from the urban areas contains large amount of P in the form of

urine and faeces. Urine contains 60-70% of phosphorus found in human excreta and 30-40% occurs

in faeces. Urine diverting double-flushed toilets combined with Aquatrons for faecal separation can

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be used in Metapolis. Separated urine is transported to the collection tank and from there it is sent

to the agricultural farms. Urine-separating toilets are a solution to increase phosphorous recovery.

This system should be employed in the Metapolis to recover phosphorus in urine and faeces

efficiently and to save the flush water. P availability for plants by urine is superior to chemical

fertilizer. Availably of phosphorus in Faecesis equivalent to chemical fertilizer because phosphorus

is mainly bound to calcium in faeces. Urine diverting toilets can be used to separate dry faecal

material from urine thus creating two easier fractions to handle. Separated flush water can be

treated in the sewage treatment plant and the solid can be sent to biological treatments such as

composting.

P recovery using zirconium ferrite adsorbent: A high level of P recovery (up to 83.8%) from

organic effluent was achieved by using zirconium ferrite adsorbent. This material can be used to

recover P from large-scale waste water treatment plant(Ishiwata et al., 2010) send it to fertilise

agriculture lands.

Eutrophication reduction: Recovering phosphorus in the waste water flow not only reduces the use

of phosphorus fertilizer, it also helps to reduce number of other environmental problems, and

mainly eutrophication.

4. Design Development and Associated Infrastructure for Metapolis Suburb in terms of C

4. 1 Domestic sector

The domestic sector at GMR Sydney generates indirectly a huge amount of GHG emissions mainly

due to the use of electricity base on fossil fuel carbon sources. By the following proposal about zero

carbon houses and buildings is intended to totally eliminate the dependency on non-renewable

resources.

a) Zero Energy Houses and Buildings Design

Zero energy houses and buildings will be design for Metapolis which do not require electricity

from fossil fuel, heating and cooling systems. The space energy to be achieve may be 5MJ/m2/year.

Among the requirements to be considered are (Bambrook et al., 2011):

Material of walls and roofs: structural insulated panels (SIP) (Appendix K) with R 5.2 and

R 6.5 insulation, respectively. If SIP is not feasible to be implemented, evaluate the use of

timber for being a renewable resource (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009), but it should be

produced in Australia.

Floor material: insulated concrete slab to provide thermal comfort (appendix L).

Type of windows: single glazed with frames of aluminium, double glazed with wood frames

(appendix M), and double glazed with low emissivity. Windows facing the east, west and

south will have external vertical shading devices, whereas for the north window a solar

pergola vertical shade (appendix N) will be installed to avoid internal uncomfortably

temperatures in summer, but to allow almost total sun penetration in the colder months in

Sydney. Use windows of low U-values. A proportion of least 1:6 between the surface area

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of the window that faces the north and the surface area of the thermal mass in contact with

the inside air should also be considered.

Ventilation: summer night ventilation may be used to purge the heat from the thermal mass.

Material and power of photovoltaics panels on roof: monocristalline silicon with multilayer

structures to attain efficiencies over 30% (Randall, 2002). To achieve zero carbon houses, at

least 2.4kWp photovoltaic system should be considered. Consider the distance from house

to house to avoid overshadows (Appendix O). Negative energy impact occurs at average

obstruction angles greater than 30 degrees/200 dwelling/ha (Randall, 2002).

Facilities for charging of electric vehicles (Australian Sustainable Built Environment

Council, 2010).

Zero carbon software: Use specialized software, such as AccuRate (Department of Climate

Change and Energy Efficiency, 2010) to integrate all the requirements and achieve a zero

carbon house in Australian conditions.

In addition (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009):

Housing density: Use the matrix guideline provided in Appendix P to determine the density

per household which will vary according to the proximity to public transportation and local

facilities.

Storeys and lifts: Consider five storeys per household as an ideal number for urban and

central sites. One lift will be implemented in each house.

Suburb development: A mixed-use development will be promoted in Metapolis to

encourage social interaction in the commuting to different services by walking and cycling

Appendix Q.

Density ranges for central, urban and suburban sites: based on access level to public

transportation and local facilities (Appendix R).

Water recycling: From PV surfaces, the rainwater runoff may be collected underground in

tanks to be used in toilet flushing, washing machines and yard irrigation.

b) Covenants

Electric equipment: All electric equipment will be endorsed with the ENERGY STAR® logo to

save energy (Pipkorn, 2010) and reduce CO2 emissions even in standby mode.

Lamps and bulb lights: Lamps of fluorescent or compact fluorescent (Pipkorn, 2010) will be used

to save energy and minimize CO2 emissions .

Yards: People will sow different kind of products in their yards, such as fruit trees, and vegetables

to promote local sourcing of food, reduce the use of transportation outside the suburb and therefore,

minimize CO2 emissions.

Carpooling: Share cars with people who work at same places to reduce CO2 emissions, promote

social interaction an reduce travel cost.

Entertainment: Participate on weekend of the sport activities organized by volunteers.

c) Constrains

Lifts: Lifts at houses will be used only for incapable people and for moving furniture.

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Subsidies: Wealth people will subsidized the expensive apartments of the poor people that will live

in Metapolis.

Mowing: Done by hand or with electric mowings to eliminate emissions from fuel mowers.

Plastic bags: banned. Purchase will be done with cloth bags.

4.2 Commercial Sector

Small appliances - Other occupant driven equipment – Commercial ovens or refrigeration, special

equipments such as MRI, X-ray etc. and controls outside of common areas and light fittings.

Central services infrastructure – Escalators and elevators, centralized HVAC equipment, Water

heating system, controls outside the common areas and lighting fittings (Skarbek and McDonald,

2010).

GHG emission can be reduced by use green energy (solar), reduce energy demand, and exploit

waste heat through ground source heat pumps.

Since Metapolis is newly develop suburb these reduction plans can be utilized easily. In buildings

level of insulation can be increased, air leakage through windows and doors need to be checked. All

the electrical appliances should be energy efficiency. Solar panels should be installed. Commercial

buildings should adapt the vegetarian green roof to reduce building energy demand.

Source of the electricity generation also should consider in order to reduce the GHG emission.

Hydro and wind plants should be implemented for the newly develop Metapolis.

a) Covenants

ENERGY STAR labeled appliance should be used in Metapolis, which can save 10 to 50%

of energy compared to the normal products. Government should allow to produce or import

only the ENERGY STAR labeled appliances, and cancel the license of who are not

producing ES labeled appliances.

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) must be used and available in shops. It consumes one

quarter the electricity of normal standard bulbs to produce the same amount of light.

Government should imply laws or banns the incandescent bulbs.

Introducing the green roofs to the commercial buildings will significantly reduce the energy

demand in summer. Vegetarian roofs save 5% of the annual energy needed for cooling.

Planting as much as trees provide shading and reduce wind speed in cities, which is reduce

the annual energy demand for heating and cooling 5-10%

Solar panels need to be installed in the commercial building; solar water heating and air

heating reduce energy demand significantly 25 -50%.

The use of ground source heat pumps saves energy 30 – 70% in heating mode and 20 to

50% in cooling mode compared to the conventional ones.

Implementing the building codes or standards and new buildings should build according to

the energy efficiency building codes.

Introduce the LED bulbs and replace all the other bulbs with LED bulbs. Its energy

efficiency is very high, LED bulbs save the 90% energy compared to incandescent bulbs

and saves 60% compared to CFL.

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Aquifer thermal energy storage is used in some of the countries. Most of the apartments in

Toronto use ATES, which saves 25% in heating energy and 70% in cooling energy.

(Sugar and Kennedy, 2013).

4.3 Transport Sector

In terms of transport emissions reduction, there are generally different suggestions; economic,

energy and/or spatial, aiming mostly at discouraging dependence on private car for non-

commuting or commuting travels. The common ones include the carbon tax, increased fuel taxes,

both of which have been considered to be the ideal measures at the European Conference of

Ministers of Transport (2007), improved fuel and vehicle technologies, change of transport mode

(use of public transport, cycling or walking), setting the maximum age of vehicles, higher parking

fees and many others.

However, in order to achieve a low-carbon Metapolis with regard to transport, this will primarily be

done through behaviour change aiming at reducing to the maximum extent possible the number of

cars and where this is not possible the use of zero carbon vehicles that do not require the use of fuel

along with planning for adequate infrastructures. As far as Metapolis is a new suburb and that

living there will be by choice as explained previously, some covenants will apply in order to reach

those low-carbon transport objectives. These are presented below:

“No car” agreement: In order to be accepted to Metapolis residential area/apartments, priority

will be given to persons who do not own/have any vehicle regardless of their social category,

exception being for people with disabilities. Therefore walking, cycling and use of public

transport will be the main mode of transport.

Working place distance: Similarly, priority will be given to persons working closer to their

residential place so as to encourage walking, cycling or public transport use.

Characteristics of allowed car: Where the car use will be allowed, other restrictions will apply.

Considering the known relationship between fuel consumption and CO2 emissions with factors

such as vehicle fuel and engine type, speed, vehicle mileage, style of driving and others

(Environmental Change Institute, 2006), only “electric cars” (EV) will be allowed in

Metapolis. These will totally exclude fossil fuel consumption and the emissions to air

attributable to residential transport due to the electric motor proven efficiency as well as energy

saving systems such as the “regenerative braking” (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009). The required

recharging energy will need to be obtained from a solar energy system so as not to impact on

increased demand on the electricity grid (power station) with further emissions (appendix S).

Advantage shall therefore be taken on the installed PV panels for recharge needs but sufficient

green smart charging infrastructure will need to be installed around Metapolis. Normally, EV

energy consumption varies between 20 to 30 kWh/100 km depending on the size and make

(Ritchie and Thomas, 2009).

Mandatory tyre pressure monitoring: maintaining adequately inflated tyres through tyre

pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) such as “VisiTyre” (local brand) can reduce by up to 3%

the emissions from small cars and by the same time can save up to 10% fuel consumption

(ETV, 2011). Therefore, TPMS in cars will be mandatory.

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Commercial delivery cars or trucks: priority will be given to suppliers of goods that will

commit using vehicles run by biofuels. In fact, shifting from diesel to biodiesel can reduce by

more than 67.7% net CO2 emissions (Biofuels Association of Australia, 2013).

As suggested previously, “behavior change” is one of the strategies that can better apply to the

target of having a carbon neutral Metapolis with particular focus on eliminating car dependence.

Following are some suggestions:

Walking promotion: people that will be living in Metapolis need to be encouraged to regularly

walk taking advantage on Metapolis nature with parks and trees that provide shadow. By doing

this, not only will they be living healthier lifestyle but also it will result into significant

emissions cut-off particularly for such short trips (<5km) where the use of vehicle is

unnecessary (appendix T). Therefore efforts need to be made to make Metapolis the most

walkable.

Cycling promotion: similarly, awareness has to be raised on the benefits of adopting cycling as

one form of transport suitable for all age groups. This needs to start with the younger ones and

may result into moving away from unhealthy long hours in front of television or electronic

games. Equally, community cycling or tours can be promoted. Several benefits apart from being

zero-emission, are fuel demand reduction, decreased traffic congestion as well as healthier

lifestyle (CPF, 2008). Consequently, suitable cycling environment needs to be planned ahead.

Use of public transport (bus, train): where long distances are involved for cycling to become

practicable, the use of public transport such as bus or train will be another good option of

reducing carbon emissions. In that context, switching from self transport to public transport can

reduce emissions from 0.32 kg of GHG per person per km (self driver) to 0.003kg of GHG per

person per km (appendix U). However, for this behavioural change to be effective, a regular

(improved timetable) and diversified service compared to the existing one is required along

with adequate infrastructures.

Driving speed: as mentioned earlier, driving at suitable speed (not too low or too high) with less

acceleration and deceleration intensity and frequency can help reducing emissions. That

suitable speed range that result into sensible emissions reduction is suggested by Barth and

Boriboonsomsin (2009) to be 40-60 miles per hour (MPH) equivalent to 64-96 km per hour

after conversion (appendix V). Therefore the “car allowed” drivers in Metapolis will need to

take it into consideration.

Limited use of air conditioners: the use of air conditioners in cars may be avoided as much as

possible and take advantage of natural air to be provided by the numerous trees that will be

planted in Metapolis. In fact, according to Farrington and Rugh (2000), the required power to

run the compressor of an air-conditioner can be higher than the required power to move at

regular speed of about 56 km/h a mid-sized car.

Furthermore, physical infrastructures need to be adapted to provide the maximum incentive for

other forms of transport apart from the use of personal cars. The following need therefore to be

taken into consideration.

Cycleway and parking: an “exclusive cycleway” (separate from the pedestrians or vehicles

lanes), as much as possible, needs to be developed where not yet in place and be joined with the

11

existing ones such as Cooks river cycleway. This aims at providing a maximum uninterrupted

movement for users. The design has to consider an adequate width, grade, drainage, provisions

for handrails, road reflective lights, appropriate signposting and others. Besides, minimum

design standards have to be respected. One summarized example is provided by Mackay City

Council (2008). It can be found in appendix W.

In addition, sufficient bicycle parking areas shall be provided particularly in common areas to

encourage the cycling activity beyond the sole need of exercising. Besides, water refill stations

can also be provided.

Pedestrian lanes: similarly to cycleways, pedestrians lanes need to be provided separately from

other lanes. Provisions of public seats at reasonable distances shall be as well considered.

Minimum design requirements can also be found in appendix W. Moreover, provision for

appropriate pedestrian crossing facilities may be considered.

Public transport facilities: in order to promote an enjoyable use of public transport, planning

for facilities such as bus transit areas or terminals need to be considered. In addition, “covered”

bus stops have to be set at regular intervals and taking advantage of these, wall advertisements

can mainly focus on “zero carbon” tips. Detailed bus infrastructure design requirements are

provided by NSW Transport State Transit (2011).

Not only all these previously proposed behaviour change and infrastructure design considerations

will have an impact in the reduction of fuel consumption as well as the emissions attributable to

the transport sector but will also impact on other processes outside the boundaries such as refinery

which in this case will reduce its production and consequently its emissions to air or similarly the

car industry whose demand will be sensibly decreased resulting as well in a cut-off of emissions

from various manufacturing processes.

Therefore, by implementing the proposed changes it is assumed that an overall 80% can be reduced

on the demand for fuel in refineries and that this will cut down emissions from transport by the

same percentage with complete substitution of fossil fuel by renewable energy in residential

transport (appendix G).

4.4 Other considerations

Local shoppings: deliver orders made by Internet door to door to reduce the use of private

cars and CO2 emissions.

Jobs: Residents will be hired at positions in the local facilities to decrease the need of

private and/or public transportation and CO2 emissions generation.

Plants: use native plants considering their pollution resistance, insect and bird attraction.

Trees lifetime should be at least 5-10 years to compensate the carbon emissions in their

planting and maintenance (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009).

Site water retention: 5% will be reserved of a site to allow free drainage, (Thomas and

Fordham LLP, 2002).

Shops and services: accessible for all, located along the main street, in the heart of the

movement routes and in the surrounding areas of key places, such as railway station

(Thomas and Fordham LLP, 2002).

12

Local entertainment: volunteers will organize sport activities on weekends.

Landscape: city and landscape are integral (appendix X) to create microclimates and bring

mental, and environmental relieve (Thomas and Fordham LLP, 2002).

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

In summary, suggestions on the conceptual development and design of infrastructures in Metapolis

have been proposed based on the need to sustain the flow of carbon and phosphorus, particularly in

the domestic, commercial and transport sector for carbon, and food production, animal feed,

detergents and fertilizers for phosphorus, which were identified to be most concerned. By

implementing the proposed changes in flow for the two products, the domestic sector will be totally

carbon neutral, while the commercial and transport sectors will considerably reduce their reliance

on carbon products. Similarly, the agriculture’s phosphorus use will decrease considerably through

improved biotechnology and equally, imported and exported (wastewater discharge to the ocean)

phosphorus will be decreased significantly, recycling being enhanced in the latter so as to reduce

the unrecoverable stock of phosphorus.

The consultants submit to the Minister of Environment and Infrastructure the following

recommendations:

1. That the Minister considers that the study being assessed is for the redevelopment of 1,539

ha of Sydney Airport (to be relocated) site and part of its surroundings into residential,

commercial and parks uses that will reflect a sustainable consumption of phosphorus and

carbon products.

2. That the Minister notes in the report processes using more phosphorus on one hand, and

processes using more fossil-fuel carbon sources with subsequent generation of GHG

emissions in the GMR of Sydney on the other hand, set out in section 2.

3. That the Minister notes that the consultants concluded that it was possible to reach a low-

phosphorus and carbon Metapolis, provided that some proposed covenants and constrains

are respected by future Metapolis citizens.

4. That the Minister imposes the covenants and constrains recommended.

That the Minister considers the projected phosphorus and carbon MFAs in appendix F and G,

respectively illustrating the extent at which Metapolis can be made sustainable with direct or

indirect impact on other major processes outside its boundaries.

13

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15

Appendix A: Sources associated with Phosphorus and Carbon and MFA

Sources associated with flows of Phosphorus

P flow is considered within the urban area in food for human and animal, detergent, wood products,

agriculture, food waste, waste water collection and municipal solid waste collection.

Consumption of food

Human consumption of food contains large amount of phosphorus which result in major flow of P.

Phosphorus intake in Sweden was estimated as 1.5gP/day for men and 1.2 g P/day for women.

Almost 90 % of the administered phosphorusis excreted as human waste and finally end up in

ocean through sewage treatment plant. (Kalmykova et al., 2012).

Food waste

Past studies conducted in Swedish confirm that 30% of the food is being wasted before the

consumption, of which 5- 10% is in retail level and 20 to 35% is in house hold level(Kalmykova et

al., 2012).

Detergents

Considerable amount of detergents are used in Sydney according to the phosphorus material flow.

Research conducted in Netherland reveals that the amount of phosphorus usage for detergent is

decreasing due to the regulations. Since these detergents end up in surface water or waste water,

Phosphorus causes eutrophication and poses high-risk to fish(Schroder et al., 2009).

Animal feed

Animal feed and fodder lead to phosphorus imbalances on animal farms. Phosphorus accumulates

in soil due to high levels of input of P, which exceeds demand. Therefore, accumulated p

contaminates the water sources and ground water due to the surface runoff and leaching of p from

animal farms. Digestion of P in animal also plays an important role in P accumulations. Research

on metabolism shows that digestion of p in animal decrease with the age of the animal(Knowlton

and Kohn, 1999).Significant amount of P consumed by pet animals also contribute to the p flow

within the urban area. More than 60 % of pet excretes are disposed via municipal soild waste and

the rest goes to non agricultural lands (Kalmykova et al., 2012).

Wood Product, Paper and Cardboard

P flow in other category includes wood and paper, since these consume phosphorus. Wood

packaging and wood products contribute to P flow across the region.

16

Agriculture

As growth in arable lands does not keep pace with population growth, application of fertilizer is

intensifying to increase food production. However only 25% of the applied phosphorus is taken up

by the crops, rest of the phosphorus is lost in soils and water surface due to surface runoff.

Agriculture sector is the biggest contributor to the P flow through the eco system, nearly 80% of P

demand comes from agriculture in China (Haibin and Zhenling, 2010).

Recently biofuel has been adopted as a renewable energy to produce electricity, Bio fuel is derived

from bio-energy crops. The need for cultivating bio-energy crops has become mandatory which

results in higher use of P fertilizer.

(Smith et al., 2009).

Sewage waste water collection

According to P flow in GMR, sewage system and treatment has the biggest P flow across the plant.

Most P flow originates from households. Commercial sector also contributes but at a very low

level. In 2000 in GMR, 3770 ton of phosphorus has reached the sewage treatment plant from

household and commercial sectors and finally almost 90% of the phosphorus ended up in the ocean.

Urban areas are highly populated and the sewage collected from urban areas is highly phosphorus

enriched. Past studies show that urine and faeces contains 0.5-1 kg of phosphorus per person per

year, which is enough to cover wheat production for one person per year. Since the phosphorus is

being lost in the ocean as waste water, phosphate rocks are continuously mined to produce

phosphate fertilizer (Montangero et al., 2007).

Global annual production of phosphate rock (Schroder et al., 2009)

17

Surface runoff and storm water

Urban storm water also contributes to the total P flow across the GMR. Urban storm water contains

phosphorus used in land application such as lawns, parks, p from pet animal food and detergents.

Storm water runoff carries considerable amount of phosphorus and finally reaches the water

bodies(Environment, 2010).

Municipal Solid waste collection

Composting plant and landfill are commonly used in GMR for solid waste treatment. However

solid waste volume can be significantly reduced by incineration and some of the energy can be

recovered. Butflyash and the dust coming from incineration pollute the environment. Studies on

phosphorus flows reveal that the solid waste also containing considerable amount of P as sewage.

Solid waste consists food wastes, wood, textile, paper and cardboard and these contain

P(Kalmykova and Karlfeldt Fedje, 2013). Organic waste contains a large amount of phosphorus

and domestic residual waste, paper and cardboard waste also contain considerable amount of

P(Kalmykova et al., 2012).As per the P flow across GMR, more phosphorus reached land fill rather

than composting plant. All the commercial sector solid wastes go to landfills.

Sources associated with flows of Carbon

Power stations

Power stations is the process that use more fossil-fuel carbon sources and it is the third generator of

emissions. The huge amounts of coal are used to produce electricity to satisfy the requirement of

industry (construction, commercial/consumer, manufacture and other industrial processes). It is

important to mention that although almost all the power stations are located outside GMR Sydney'

system boundary, their emissions were also taken into account in its MFA.

Industrial and commercial

Industrial and commercial sector is the second consumer of fossil fuel carbon sources and the third

generator of GHG emissions.

Refinery

This is the third sector that uses more fossil fuel carbon sources. The crude oil using by GMR

Sydney refinery process comes from outside Australia.

Transport

Transport is the forth consumer of fossil fuel carbon sources and the second generator of GHG

emissions. The automotive fuels and oil are used for road transportation, railway, water transport,

18

civil aviation and other services. The inputs are equal to the output considering only the inflows of

petroleum products and also that there is minimal to no stock in the sector. Among the types of

transportation, the road transportation (public and private vehicles) is the one that generate more

emissions in the GMR Sydney with 90% and from this percentage around 56% of the total carbon

emissions are generated by residential transport. As a result, more emphasis will be done for this

kind of transport in the infrastructure of Metapolis suburb.

19

Appendix B: Process contributing to the inflow of P across GMR

Appendix C: Process contributing to the outflow of P from GMR Sydney

3454

2664

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Ocean outfall from STP Surface water

Outflow of P from GMR in t/a

20

Appendix D: Main carbon flows in the GRM of Sydney

a) GMR Sydney boundary; b) outside GMR Sydney boundary

Use of fossil fuel carbon source by the main processes at Sydney

21

Appendix E: Calculations of the population, density and total area of Metapolis suburb

APPENDIX V

Population, Total Area and Population Density of Metapolis Suburb

Table of contents for calculations

1. Data given………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1

2. Assumptions ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. .1

3. Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3

3.1 GMR Sydney Population in 2000 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...3

3.2 Population density in 2016 and 2036 at Sydney Airport …………………………………………………………………...4

3.3 Population density in 2023 at Sydney Airport ……………………………………………………………………………………..4

3.4 Inland area of Sydney Airport and calculation of its radio ………………………………………………………………4

3.5 Inland Area of Metapolis Suburb ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

3.6 Buffer Zone of Metapolis Suburb ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5

3.7 Total Area of Metapolis Suburb…….………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….5

3.8 Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023……………………………………………………………………………….………………6

3.9 Population Density at Metapolis Suburb in 2023………………………………………………………………….….…………6

Calcs By: Carla Guilcapi Date: 10/05/2013 Page: 0

Solange Kamanzi

Janani Paramarajah

22

Assignment No. 2


1. Data given

a. Table 1 shows the data given about housing density in Sydney

a. Population Density at south subregion in 2016: 15.30 persons/ha

b. Population Density at east subregion in 2016: 37.27 persons/ha

c. Population Density at south subregion in 2036: 16.09 persons/ha

d. Population Density at east subregion in 2036: 39.62 persons/ha

Table 1.1

2. Assumptions

a. Number of years required for relocating Sydney Airport in Baggery's Creek (construction period): 5 years (EPA WA, 2001)

b. Construction period of Metapolis: 5 years

c. Projected year of Metapolis Settlement in ex Sydney Airport's area: 2023

d. Sydney Airport area: 900 ha (Sydney Airport, 2009)


Solange Kamanzi

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Subregion Area (ha) 2006 2011 2016 2036 2006 2011 2016 2036

Sydney City 2672 158610 184915 196219 237166 59,36 69,2 73,43 88,76

Inner West 5964 222606 240542 256695 287631 37,32 40,33 43,04 48,23

South 44938 644387 669338 687712 722857 14,34 14,89 15,30 16,09

East 7947 274611 287813 296167 314907 34,55 36,21 37,27 39,62

West Central 31210 669388 718561 760454 844098 21,45 23,02 24,37 27,05

South West 337627 406556 448485 509101 775707 1,2 1,33 1,51 2,30

North West 524666 752802 791568 861726 1081253 1,43 1,51 1,64 2,06

Inner North 9827 296484 311773 323337 356587 30,17 31,72 32,90 36,29

North 54710 257411 268515 280028 304612 4,17 4,91 5,12 5,57

North East 25368 231568 241359 246537 265100 9,13 9,51 9,72 10,45

Population Population Density (persons/ha)

900 ha

24

Assignment No. 2


i. Population Density in area of Sydney Airport: Average of South and East subregion's population density

3. Calculations

3.1 GMR Sydney Population in 2000

The population in GMR in the different years was calculated by the sum of population of all its subregions (Table 1)

Table 3.1


Solange Kamanzi

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Subregion Area (ha) 2000 2006 2011 2016 2036 2006 2011 2016 2023 2036

Sydney City 2672 158610 184915 196219 237166 59,36 69,2 73,43 88,76

Inner West 5964 222606 240542 256695 287631 37,32 40,33 43,04 48,23

South 44938 644387 669338 687712 722857 14,34 14,89 15,30 16,09

26,29 26,83 27,86

East 7947 274611 287813 296167 314907 34,55 36,21 37,27 39,62

West Central 31210 669388 718561 760454 844098 21,45 23,02 24,37 27,05

South West 337627 406556 448485 509101 775707 1,2 1,33 1,51 2,30

North West 524666 752802 791568 861726 1081253 1,43 1,51 1,64 2,06

Inner North 9827 296484 311773 323337 356587 30,17 31,72 32,90 36,29

North 54710 257411 268515 280028 304612 4,17 4,91 5,12 5,57

North East 25368 231568 241359 246537 265100 9,13 9,51 9,72 10,45

GMR Sydney 1044929 3792000 3914423 4162869 4417976 5189918

Population Density (persons/ha)Population

Interpolation of Population Density for 2023

Population of GMR

Sydney by applying

linear correlation using

the equation

y = 41896 * x - 8E+07

25

Assignment No. 2


Linear correlation was applied to estimate the population of GMR Sydney in 2000 by applying the equation

y = 41896*x - 8E+07 (Figure 1)

The estimated population at GMR Sydney in 2000 is 3,792,000 people

3.2 Population density in 2016 and 2036 at Sydney Airport

Population Density at Sydney Airport in 2016 = (15.30 + 37.27)/2 = 26.29 persons/ha 1a and 1b

Population Density at Sydney Airport in 2036 = (16.09 + 39.62)/2 = 27.86 persons/ha 1c and 1d

3.3 Population density in 2023 at Sydney Airport

Interpolation between population density at Sydney Airport in 2016 and population density at Sydney Airport in 2036 3.2

Population density in 2023 at Sydney Airport = 26.83 persons/ha Table 2

3.4 Inland area of Sydney Airport and calculation of its radio 2g, 2e, 2d

Inland area of Sydney Airport = Part of Sydney Airport located in the sea x Sydney Airport area 2g, 2e, 2d

Inland area of Sydney Airport = 2/3 x 900 ha = 600 ha


Solange Kamanzi

Janani Paramarajah

y = 41896x - 8E+07R² = 0.9957

0.00E+00

1.00E+06

2.00E+06

3.00E+06

4.00E+06

5.00E+06

6.00E+06

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040

Po

pu

lati

on

Year

Population in GMR Sydney

Population

Linear (Population)

26

Assignment No. 2


Inland area of Sydney Airport = π x r2

= 900 ha 2g

Radio of Inland area of Sydney Airport = 1. 38 km

3.5 Inland Area of Metapolis Suburb

Radio of Inlad area of Metapolis suburb = radio of inland area of Sydney Airport + Radio of buffer zone 3.4 and 2h

Radio of Inlad area of Metapolis suburb = 1.98 km

Inland Area of Metapolis Suburb = π x r2 = π x (Radio of Inlad area of Metapolis suburb)

2

Inland area of Metapolis Suburb =1234 ha

3.6 Buffer Zone of Metapolis Suburb

Buffer Zone of Metapolis Suburb = Inland Area of Metapolis Suburb - Inland area of Sydney Airport 3.4 and 3.5

Buffer Zone of Metapolis Suburb = 1234 ha - 600 ha = 634 ha

3.7 Total Area of Metapolis Suburb

Area of Sydney Airport located in the sea = Part of Sydney Airport located in the sea x Sydney Airport area 2f and 2d

Area of Sydney Airport located in the sea = 1/3 x 900 ha = 300 ha

Total Area of Metapolis Suburb = Inland Area of Metapolis Suburb + Area of Sydney Airport located in the sea

Total Area of Metapolis Suburb = 1234 ha + 300 ha = 1534 ha 3.5


Solange Kamanzi

Janani Paramarajah

600 ha

1.38 km

27

Assignment No. 2


3.8 Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023

Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 = Population density in 2023 at Sydney Airport x Total Area of Metapolis Suburb 3.3 and 2d

Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 = 26.83 persons/ha x 1534 ha

Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 = 41,157 persons

3.9 Population Density at Metapolis Suburb in 2023

Population Density at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 = Population at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 / Total Area of Metapolis Suburb 3.7 and 3.8

Population Density at Metapolis Suburb in 2023 = 26.83 ha


Solange Kamanzi

Janani Paramarajah

28

Appendix F: Phosphorus MFA in Metapolis no change and change scenarios

Phosphorus MFA in Metapolis no change scenario

29

Commerce sector

Household sector

Agriculture sector

(including soils)

Landfill

Sewage system and treatment plant

Other soils

Surface water

Groundwater

Atmosphere

Fertiliser

Manure

Animal feed

Food prod

Food prod

Fertiliser

Food Fertiliser

P free

Detergent

Water

Substance flow:

P

Year 2000

7

7

18

2

0

3

11

3

2900000 + 490

???+ 100

??? + 812 ??? + ???Household

garden left over

0

Animal feed

15

12

3

1

0.2

2

1

3

3

1

???

0

3Others

Stored in crops = 552

0.4

Compost plant

1

Stormwater

Effluent

Biosolids

6

6

1

0.1

Xxxxx + 1057

2

??? + 127

Other garden prod

1

15

??? + ???

<1

1

P free

Detergent 0

0.1

0

0.2

9

Phosphorus MFA in Metapolis change scenario

30

Appendix G: Carbon MFA in Metapolis no change and change scenarios

Carbon MFA in Metapolis no change scenario

Carbon MFA in Metapolis change scenario

31

Appendix I: Remaining world Phosphate rock in 2009 (Schroder et al., 2009)

Appendix J: Sustainable scenario for meeting long term future phosphorus demand through

phosphorus use efficiency and recovery (Schroder et al., 2009)

32

Appendix K: Material used for house construction

Scheme of SIP (Structural Isolated Panel Association, 2011)

Appendix L: Insulated concrete slab. Taken from (EXPOL ThermaSlab, 2013)

Appendix M: Single glazed aluminium windows

33

Appendix N: Solar pergola window

Appendix O: PV Roofs

Sketch of influence of distance between households and yield of PV roof.

Taken from (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009)

Sketch of strategy to avoid overshadow in the use of PV roofs.


34

Appendix P: Matrix of Density per Household According to Accessibility to Public

Transportation and Local Facilities. Taken from (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009).

Setting

0 to 1 2 to 3 4 to 6

Suburban 150-200 hr/ha 150-250 hr/ha 200 - 350 hr/ha

3.8-4.9 hr/d 35-55 dph 35 - 65 dph 45 - 90 dph

3.1 - 3.7 hr/d 40-65 dph 40 -80 dph 55 - 115 dph

2.7-3.0 hr/d 50-75 dph 50 -95 dph 70- 130 dph

Urban 150-250 hr/ha 200 - 450 hr/ha 200-700 hr/ha

3.8 - 4.6 hr/d 35-65 dph 45 - 120 dph 45 - 185 dph

3.1 -3.7 hr/d 40-80 dph 55- 145 dph 55 - 225 dph

2.7 3.0 hr/d 50 95 dph 70- 170 dph 70-260 dph

Central 150 - 300 hr/ha 300 - 650 hr/ha 650 110 hr/ha

3.8 -4.6 hr/d 35 - 80 dph 65 170 dph 140 -290 dph

3.1 - 3.7 hr/d 40 - 100 dph 80-210 dph 175 355 dph

2.7 - 3.0 hr/d 50 - 110 dph 100-240 dph 215 405 dph

Public Transport Accessibility Level (PTAL)

Key

Abbreviations

hr = habitable room

d = dwelling

ha = hectare

dph = dwellings per hectare

hr/ha = habitablle rooms per hectare

Definition of site setting

Central =

areas with very dense development a mix of different uses, large building footprints

and typically buildings of 4 to 6 storeys, located within 800 metres walking distance of an

International, Metropolitan Major town centre

Urban =




Suburban =




Definition of accesibility

Note:

3.8-4.9 hr/d is typically detached and linked houses

3.1 - 3.7 hr/d is typically terraced houses and flats

2.7-3.0 hr/d is typically flats

The PTAL is a mesure of the time taken to walk to an existing public transport mode

35

Appendix Q:Mixed-use development to encourage social interaction in the commuting to

different services by walking and cycling. Taken from (Ritchie and Thomas, 2009)

Possible facilityCatchment

population

Stadium City

Cathedral City

City Hall City

Theatre City

Sports Center 25,000 - 40,000

District Center 25,000 - 40,001

Library 12,000 - 30,000

Health centre 9,000-12,000

Community offcies 7,500

Community centre 7,000 - 15,000

Pub 5,000- 7 ,000

Post office 5,000 - 10,000

Ptimary school 2,500 - 4,000

Doctor 2,500 - 3,000

Corner shop 2,000 - 5,000Loca

l hub

s

150-

250

m

City

Fac

iliti

es

4 - 1

0 km

radi

us

Dis

tric

t Tow

nN

eigh

bour

hood

400-

600

m2-

6 km

36

Appendix R: Characteristics of a walking suburb


37

Appendix S: Comparative summary of emissions between petrol and electric cars (Simpson,

2009)

Appendix T: Typical length of car journeys in Australia (CPF, 2008)

38

Appendix U: GHG emissions according to transport means (CPF, 2008)

Appendix V: Relationship between vehicle speed and emissions level (Barth and

Boriboonsomsin, 2009)

39

Appendix W:Minimum design requirements for cycleways (Mackay City Council, 2008)

Appendix X: Integration of landscape and city


1

Appendix Y: MFA for Phosphorus and Carbon

Food 2768 Waste 215 landfill 0,61 Effluent 25 Sewage 316 Animal feed 1545 Garden left 106 Commerce 2 Animal feed 1550 69

Detergent 1244 Waste 11 other soil 15 Agriculture 110 Sewage 3454 Food prod 2690 compost 570 1051

Fertilizer 141 Waste 583 Storm water 67 Detergent 1244 grease 2 water 3,25

Other garden prod 137 Other soil 150 Fertilizer 420 biosolid 310 fertilize 280

Others 693 atm 69 sewage 760

Total Inputs 4290 809 15,61 352 3770 6592 1057 2 3644,25 69

Sewage 3454 waste 0,61 Ocean outfall 247 Bio solid 310 Fertilizer 250 surface water 150 othersoil 2 Food prod 600 69

Landfill waste 583 Ocean outfall 2664 sewage 316 surface water 110

Garden left 106 effluent 25 Food 2765 1051

Surface water 35 Storm water 11 detergent 1244

Compost plant 570 fertilizer 141

2

Other garden prod 137

Storm water 21

Total Outputs Sum 4748 0,61 0 247 3010 4876 0 150 2 1761 69

9865900 + ? 468000 + ? 470700 +? ? ?

Stock -458 Stock 808,39 Stock 15,61 Stock 105 Stock 760 Stock 1716 Stock 907 0 1883,25 0

MFA FOR PHOSPHORUS

Output

commerce sector Other soils agriculture sector AtmosphereHousehold sector

Input

Lanfill Groundwater Surface water Grease trapSewage sytem & treatment plant

2

Gal 404000

Petroleum

Products ? Crude oil 5520000

Automotive

fuels and

oil 5270000 Fuel ? Plastic ? CH4 38200 Flow 60 6610000 CH4 8430

Plastic ? Plastic 301000 Plastic 219000 CO2 12000000 Coal 5400000 CO2 396000

Otros ? LPG 44100 ? ? CH4 3080000

Natural gas 5110000 CO2 107000

Coking Coal 876000 CO2 468000

Coal 1900000 CO2 4220000

Plastic 26700 CH4 103000

Automotive oil 757000 CO 181000

CO2 682000

CH4 2780000

CO 253000

CO2 282000

CH4 162000

Gases ?

Total Inputs 0 404000 8669700 5520000 5270000 345100 219000 12038200 12010000 12722430

8669700+? 345100 +? 219000+? 12038200 + ? 12722430 + ?

Coal 5400000 CH4 8430

Automotive

fuels and oil 5270000 CO2 468000 CO2 4220000 Plastic 26700 Gases ? CH4 38200 Gases ?

CH4 3080000 CO2 396000 CO2 682000

Petroleum

products ? CH4 103000 Plastic ? CO2 12000000

CO2 107000 CH4 2780000 CO 181000 CO2 282000

Coking Coal 876000 CO 253000 Automotive oil 757000 CH4 162000

Coal 1900000 Fuel ?

Coking coal 4640000 Plastic 301000

Export Coal 13200000 Plastic 219000

LPG 44100

Fuels 291000

Plastic 25800

Total Outputs Sum 29203000 404430 9865900 468000 5261000 470700 0 0 12038200 0

9865900 + ? 468000 + ? 470700 +? ? ?

Stock -29203000 Stock -430 Stock -1196200 Stock 5052000 Stock 9000 Stock -125600 Stock 219000 12038200 -28200 12722430

MFA FOR CARBON

Output

Domestic Landfill Power Station AirMining

Input

Power Station Industrial & Commercial Refinery AirTransport

environmental management assignment no: 2 assignment...

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