Environmental Impacts of Wasting

Pat CostnerGreenpeace International

GrassRoots Recycling NetworkZero Waste Network Action Conference

Oakland, California28 August 2004

• Incinerators -- an overview of environmental health concerns

• Gasification/pyrolysis -- similarities to and differences from incineration

• Landfills – an overview of environmental health concerns

One half to three quarters of One half to three quarters of annual resource inputs to annual resource inputs to industrial economies are returned industrial economies are returned to the environment as wastes to the environment as wastes within a year.within a year.

Source: Matthews, E., Amann, C., Bringezu, S., Fischer-Kowalski, M., Huttler, W., Kleijn, R., Moriguchi, Y., Ottke,C., Rodenburg, E., Rogich, D., Schandl, H., Schutz, H., van der Voet, E., Weisz,

H., 200. The Weight of Nations. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

Global municipal waste generationGlobal municipal waste generation

~2 billion metric tons per year~2 billion metric tons per year

Derived from Marxsen, C., 2001). Potential world garbage and waste carbon sequestration. Environmental Science & Policy 4: 293-300

““incineration plant” means any stationary or mobile incineration plant” means any stationary or mobile technical unit and equipment dedicated to the thermal technical unit and equipment dedicated to the thermal treatment of wastes with or without recovery of the treatment of wastes with or without recovery of the combustion heat generated. This includes the combustion heat generated. This includes the incineration by oxidation of waste as well as other incineration by oxidation of waste as well as other thermal treatment processes such as thermal treatment processes such as pyrolysispyrolysis, , gasificationgasification or or plasma processesplasma processes in so far as the in so far as the substances resulting from the treatment are subsequently substances resulting from the treatment are subsequently incinerated.incinerated.

Article 3.4.Article 3.4.Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of wasteCouncil of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste

Incineration – gasification - pyrolysis

Oxygen Temperature Stack gas volume,

Nm3/te

Incineration ‘complete combustion’

7-14% 900-1600 oC 5,000-

5,500

Gasification ‘incomplete combustion’

Pyrolysis ‘thermal degradation’ by indirect heating

0-5% 400-600 oC 3,000-

4,000

Sources: Porteous, A., 2001. Energy from waste incineration – a state of the art emissions review with an emphasis on public acceptability. Applied Energy 70: 157-167; Weber, R., Sakurai, T., 2001. Formation

characteristics of PCDD and PCDF during pyrolysis processes. Chemosphere 45: 1111-1117

Input

Major

Outputs

Dioxin

Formation

Incineration MSW Stack gas

Bottom ash

Yes

Primarily in fly ash

Gasification ‘refined

MSW’

Gas* (~80%)

Coke/tar (~20%)

Yes

Pyrolysis `single wastes’ (tires, plastic), ‘refined

MSW’

Gas/oil** (~60%)

Coke/tar** (~40%)

Yes

Primarily in gas/oil

Sources: Porteous, A., 2001. Energy from waste incineration – a state of the art emissions review with an emphasis on public acceptability. Applied Energy 70: 157-167; Weber, R., Sakurai, T., 2001. Formation characteristics of PCDD and PCDF during pyrolysis processes. Chemosphere 45: 1111-1117

**steam, carbon dioxide, carbon oxide, hydrogen, methane, aliphatic hydrocarbons (C2 to C4) and primary tar. Combustible but may require additional fuel.

*carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, water, nitrogen, small amounts of higher hydrocarbons, and tar. Requires additional fuel for combustion

IncineratorIncinerator

Stack gasesStack gases

Bottom ash or slag

Bottom ash or slag

Fly ashFly ash

Treated effluent

Filter cakeFilter cake

Scrubber water

5-8,000 cubic meters per ton

10-30 kg per ton

30 kg per ton,

250-350 kg per ton 750 liters

per ton

Source: Indaver

Capital costs of building enough incinerators to burn the world’s domestic garbage (~ 2 billion metric tons per year)

$555 to 867 trillion*

Operation and maintenance costs of incinerators$12 to 17 trillion per year

* Not including tax, planning, design and site acquisition

Derived from Marxsen, C., 2001). Potential world garbage and waste carbon sequestration. Environmental Science & Policy 4: 293-300 and Crowe, M., Nolan, K., Collins, C., Carty, G., Donlon, B., Kristoffersen, M, Brogger, M., Carlsbaek, M., Hummelshoj, R., Thomsen, C., 2002. Biodegradable municipal waste management in Europe; Part 3: Technology and market issues. Topic Report 15/2001. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark.

All incinerator outputs have the potential to affect human health and

the environment

› Stack gas› Fly ash› Bottom ash or slag› Scrubber water› Other residues› Fugitive emissions

Incinerator impacts

Releases of metals, dioxins and other pollutants to air, soil, vegetation, and biota in the nearby environment

Exposure and health impacts on incinerator workers

Exposure and health impacts of nearby human populations

Exposure and health impacts on regional and global populations

Most widely known incinerator pollutants of concern

• Dioxins

• Particulate matter (PM)

• Arsenic

• Beryllium

• Cadmium

•Chromium

•Lead

•Mercury

•Acidic gases

•PAHs

Source: National Research Council, 2000. Waste Incineration and Public Health, Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Other toxic pollutants in incinerator gases and residues

METALS: In addition to the six metals previously listed, 19 other metals have been identified in the wastes sent to incinerators or in incinerator stack gas and/or ash.

ORGANIC CHEMICALS: In addition to dioxins, scientists have detected innumerable organic chemicals in incinerator outputs. Among these so-called products of incomplete combustion (PICs) are hundreds of semi-volatile chemicals only 10-14 percent of which have been completely identified. Semi-volatile PICs are likely to be persistent in the environment and lipophilic (fat-loving).

Toxic properties of incinerator outputs

The following incinerator outputs are mutagenic*:

•stack gas

•fly ash

•bottom ash

•airborne particles

* Mutagenic substances can damage DNA in cells. DNA damage can lead to mutations that may be important factors in the development of cancers.

The following substances that are commonly identified in incinerator

outputs are carcinogens:

Cancer-causing substances (carcinogens)

• Arsenic

• Cadmium

• Dioxins

• PCBs

Dioxins

2,3,7,8-TETRACHLORODIBENZO-p-DIOXIN

2,3,7,8-TETRACHLORODIBENZOFURAN

IncineratorIncinerator

Stack gasesStack gases

Bottom ash or slag

Bottom ash or slag

Fly ashFly ash

Treated effluent

Filter cakeFilter cake

Scrubber water

0.5% of dioxins

58 % of dioxins

35% of dioxins

6.5% of dioxins

Health effects associated with dioxin exposure

• Cancer: One of the dioxins (2,3,7,8-TCDD) is a known human carcinogen, while the other dioxins are possible human carcinogens;

• Neurodevelopmental effects: reduced cognitive function, increase in hyperactive behavior, adverse effects on attentional processes, increased prevalence of withdrawn/depressed behavior;

• Altered immune function;

• Central nervous system disorders;

Health effects associated with dioxin exposure, cont.

• Chloracne and other skin disorders;

• Disrupts liver and kidney function;

• Alters hormone levels: thyroid, testosterone and estrogen;

• Reproductive effects: altered sex ratio, reduced fertility;

• Birth defects: hypospadias;

• Endometriosis

People most likely to suffer health effects from incinerator pollutants:

• Workers

• Local populations

• Regional or supra-regional populations

Incinerator workers

“..incinerator workers have been exposed to high concentrations of dioxins and toxic metals, particularly lead, cadmium, and mercury.”

Source: National Research Council, 2000. Waste Incineration and Public Health, Washington, DC: National Academy Press

“Incinerator operators and maintenance workers, and those involved in the collection, transport, and disposal of fly ash and emission control equipment residues, have the potential to be most exposed to toxic substances associated with incineration.”

Incinerator workers• Biomarkers of contamination - hydroxypyrene,

mutagens and thioethers -- in workers’ urine with increased frequency and at elevated levels. Sources: Ma et al. (1992); Angerer et al. (1992); Scarlett et al. (1990); Van Doorn et al. (1981)

• Chemical contaminants in workers’ urine and blood at elevated concentrations -- dioxins, PCBs, hexachlorobenzene, chlorophenols, benzene, toluene, xylene, arsenic, lead, mercury, and nickel. Sources: Kumagai et al. (2002); Kumagai et al. (2001); Kitamura et al.(2000); Schecter et al. (1999); Kurttio et al. (1998); Van den Hazel and Frankort (1996); Wrbitzky et al. (1995); Papke et al. (1993); Malkin et al. (1992); Angerer et al. (1992); Schecter et al. (1991).

Incinerator workers, cont.

• Increased death rates from cancer of the stomach, lungs and oesophagus. Sources: Rapiti et al. (1997); Gustavsson et al. (1993); Gustavsson et al. (1989)

• Increased death rates from ischemic heart disease. Source: Gustavsson (1989)

• Chloracne, hyperlipidemia, decreased liver function, altered immune functions, altered sex ratio of offspring, hypertension, urinary abnormalities, small airway obstruction of the lungs, and abnormal blood chemistry. Sources: Kitamura et al. (2000); Schecter et al. (1999); Bresnitz et al. (1992).

People who live near incinerators

Biomarkers of toxic exposure - thioethers-- were elevated in the urine of children living near a recently built incinerator. Ardevol et al. (1999)

Dioxin levels in blood increased by 10-25 percent during the two years following the startup of a new incinerator. Gonzalez et al. (2000)

Mercury levels in the hair of people living near a waste incinerator increased by 44-56% over 10 years and with greater proximity to the facility. Kurttio et al. (1998)

People who live near incinerator, cont.

• Elevated dioxin levels in blood were found in communities near incinerators in three studies, but dioxins were not elevated in two other studies. Miyata (1998); Deml et al. (1996); Van den Hazel and Frankort (1996); Startin et al. (1994)

Clusters of two cancers associated with dioxin exposure -- soft-tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) -- were found in one intricate study. Increased incidence of NHL has also been reported in another recent study. Viel et al. (2000); Floret et al. (2003)

Increased rates of deaths from childhood cancer, all cancers combined, cancer of the larynx, liver, stomach, rectum, and lung were found in a series of studies, but one study found no increase in death rates from larynx or lung cancer. Elliot et al. (2000); Knox (2000); Knox and Gilman (1998); Michelozzi et al. (1998); Elliot et al. (1996); Biggeri et al. (1996); Babone et al. (1994); Elliot et al. (1992); Diggle et al. (1990)

Six studies found elevated occurrence of various respiratory effects near incinerators, while one study found asthma in children was not elevated. Lee and Shy (1999); Legator et al. (1998); Shy et al. (1995); Gray et al. (1994); ATSDR (1993); Wang et al. (1992); Zmirou et al. (1984).

People who live near incinerator, cont.

Elevated rates of congenital anomalies were reported in four studies, while one study found eye malformations were not increased. Cordier et al. (2004); Dummer and Parker (2003); Ten Tusscher et al. (2000); Aelvoet et al. (1998); Gatrell and Lovett (1989)

Increased frequency of multiple births was reported in one study. Increased incidence of twinning has been found in a recent study, while another found no evidence of increased incidence of twin births. Obi-Osius et al. (2004); Van Larebeke (2000); Rhydhstroem (1998)

People who live near incinerators, cont.

People who live near incinerators, cont.

Altered sex ratios of births -- a deficit of male births -- was found in one study. Williams et al. (1992)

Lower levels of thyroid hormones were reported among children near a toxic waste incinerator. Osius and Karmaus (1998)

People who live near incinerators, cont.

A recent study of adolescent children who lived near two incinerators found as follows (Staessen et al., 2001. Lancet 357:1660-1669):

Elevated blood levels of PCBs, dioxins and metabolites of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were in the children’s blood.

Delayed sexual maturation was noted among these children;

Reduced testicular volume was found among the boys.

Delayed breast development in girls was positively correlated with serum concentrations of dioxins.

Delayed genital development in boys was correlated with serum concentrations of PCBs.

National Research Council, 2000. Waste Incineration & Public Health. ISBN 0-309-06371-X, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

“The wide dissemination of dioxins throughout the environment including the food supply, results in wide-spread exposures. Exposure indicators (such as blood and fat concentrations) arising from such exposures are close to the levels that, in some experimental systems, give rise to measurable biologic responses that might be related to adverse health outcomes. Thus, the committee has a substantial degree of concern for the incremental contribution to dioxins emissions from all incinerators on a regional level and beyond. …      The term “substantial” is used to express the committee’s highest degree of concern about possible exposure that might lead to health effects among workers, a local population, or a broader population.”

People living in regions with multiple incinerators

People living in regions with multiple incinerators

National Research Council, 2000. Waste Incineration & Public Health. ISBN 0-309-06371-X, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

“The Committee’s Consensus Judgments about Waste Incineration and Public Health … Implementation of … MACT [Maximum Achievable Control Technology] … is expected substantially to reduce emissions from the highest-emitting facilities. … However, on a broader scale, considering multiple facilities and broader populations, implementation of MACT is unlikely to alter the committee’s relative degree of concern for the potential health effects due to pollutants such as dioxin and some metals, and the concerns would remain because these pollutants are persistent, widespread, and potent.”

Landfills

Eklund, B., Anderson, E., Walker, B., Burrows, D., 1998. Characterization of landfill gas composition at the Fresh Kills Municipal Solid-Waste Landfill. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32: 2233-2237

• The trace volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in landfill gas were examined at seven U.K. waste disposal facilities. Over 140 compounds were identified, of which more than 90 were common to all seven sites. The groups of compounds and concentrations observed were alkanes, 302-1543 mg m-3; aromatic compounds, 94-1906 mg m-3; cycloalkanes, 80-487 mg m-3; terpenes, 35-652 mg m-3; alcohols and ketones, 2-2069 mg m-3; and halogenated compounds, 327-1239 mg m-3.

 • Three sites were found to have total chlorine concentrations,

derived from the organochlorine compounds in the gas, of above 250 mg m-3. Chlorine contents of this level were considered to be potentially damaging to landfill gas fueled engines used for electricity generation. Chloroethene (>0.1-87 mg m-3) was identified as the most abundant toxic component. Chloroethene levels in the landfill gases from two of the sites studied were found in excess of the U.K. maximum exposure limit by a factor of 5 and 3. Total VOCs emissions from four of the seven sites studied were estimated to be of the order of 104 kg/yr.

Allen, M., Braithwaite, A., Hills, C., 1997. Trace organic compounds in landfill gas at seven U.K. waste disposal sites. Environ. Sci. Technol. 31: 1054-1061.

PCDD/Fs have been measured in … landfill gas and leachate ..  Emission factors are 0.32-0.36 ng I-TEQ/m3 of fugitive gas, and 0.1-1 ng I-TEQ/m3 of flue gas.

Eduljee, G. PCDD/PCDF releases from various waste management strategies. Http://www.wrf.org.uk/previous/WB46-dioxin.html

…public health threats caused by currently operating landfills include documented emissions of "known carcinogens"; it also noted "many documented cases of acute injury and death caused by fires and explosions related to municipal landfill gas" which occur "both on and off-site." Specific air pollutants listed by the EPA as a concern from currently operating landfills include volatile organic compounds, hazardous air pollutants, methane, odorous compounds, and more than a hundred non-methane organic compounds, including known and suspected carcinogens such as toluene, benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, vinyl chloride, trichloroethylene, and methylene dichloride, to name just a few.

85. 40 CFR Parts 51, 52 and 60 at pp. 9905, 9906 and passim.

Hg vapor was released to the atmosphere at readily detectable rates from all sources measured. Emission rates ranged from ~1 to 20 ng m-2 hr-1 over aged surface covers (generally comparable to background soils), from ~6 to 2400 ng/hr from LFG vents and flares, and from ~5 to 60 mg/hr at the WF. In general the fluxes increased from older to newer landfills, from fresh to aged cover, and from passive to active venting systems.

Limited data suggest that methyl- and other organo-mercury compounds may also be emitted from these sites

We estimate that atmospheric Hg releases from municipal landfill operations in the state of Florida are on the order of 10 kg/yr

Lindberg, S., Price, J., 1999. Airborne emissions of mercury from municipal landfill operations: A short-term measurement study in Florida. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 49: 520-532.

http://www.greenpeace.org/

• Incineration and Human Health

• Dioxin Elimination: A Global Imperative

• The Burning Question: Chlorine & Dioxin

• Chlorine, Combustion and Dioxins

• Technical Criteria for the Destruction of Stockpiled Persistent Organic Pollutants

pat.costner@dialb.greenpeace.org

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