Environmental history 1

Environmental history

The city of Machu Picchu was constructed c. 1450 AD, at the height of the Inca Empire.It has commanding views down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back.There is an ample supply of spring water and enough land for a plentiful food supply. The

hillsides leading to it have been terraced to provide farmland for crops, reduce soilerosion, protect against landslides, and create steep slopes to discourage potential

invaders.

Environmental history is the study ofhuman interaction with the naturalworld over time. In contrast to otherhistorical disciplines, it emphasizes theactive role nature plays in influencinghuman affairs. Environmentalhistorians study how humans bothshape their environment and areshaped by it.

Environmental history emerged in theUnited States out of the environmentalmovement of the 1960s and 1970s, andmuch of its impetus still stems from present-day global environmental concerns.[1] The field was founded onconservation issues but has broadened in scope to include more general social and scientific history and may dealwith cities, population or sustainable development. As all history occurs in the natural world, environmental historytends to focus on particular time-scales, geographic regions, or key themes. It is also a strongly multidisciplinarysubject that draws widely on both the humanities and natural science.

The subject matter of environmental history can be divided into three main components.[2] The first, nature itself andits change over time, includes the physical impact of humans on the Earth's land, water, atmosphere and biosphere.The second category, how humans use nature, includes the environmental consequences of increasing population,more effective technology and changing patterns of production and consumption. Other key themes are the transitionfrom nomadic hunter-gatherer communities to settled agriculture in the neolithic revolution, the effects of colonialexpansion and settlements, and the environmental and human consequences of the industrial and technologicalrevolutions.[3] Finally, environmental historians study how people think about nature - the way attitudes, beliefs andvalues influence interaction with nature, especially in the form of myths, religion and science.

Origin of name and early worksIn 1967 Roderick Nash published "Wilderness and the American Mind", a work that has become a classic text ofearly environmental history. In an address to the Organization of American Historians in 1969 (published in 1970)Nash used the expression "environmental history",[4] although 1972 is generally taken as the date when the term wasfirst coined.[5] The 1959 book by Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The ProgressiveConservation Movement, 1890-1920, while being a major contribution to American political history, is now alsoregarded as a founding document in the field of environmental history. Hays is Professor Emeritus of History at theUniversity of Pittsburgh.[6]

Environmental history 2

HistoriographyBrief overviews of the field of environmental history have been given by John McNeill in 1983,[] Richard White in1985,[7] and J. Donald Hughes in 2006.[8]

DefinitionThere is no universally accepted definition of environmental history. In general terms it is a history that tries toexplain why our environment is like it is and how humanity has influenced its current condition, as well ascommenting on the problems and opportunities of tomorrow.[9] Donald Worster's widely quoted 1988 definitionstates: "Environmental history is the interaction between human cultures and the environment in the past."[10]

In 2001 J. Donald Hughes defined the subject as “The study of human relationships through time with the naturalcommunities of which they are a part in order to explain the processes of change that affect that relationship.”[] and,in 2006, as "... history that seeks understanding of human beings as they have lived, worked and thought inrelationship to the rest of nature through the changes brought by time"[11] ... "As a method, environmental history isthe use of ecological analysis as a means of understanding human history ... an account of changes in humansocieties as they relate to changes in the natural environment.”[] Environmental historians are also “interested inwhat people think about nature, and how they have expressed those ideas in folk religions, popular culture,literature and art.”[] In 2003 McNeill suggested that environmental history was "... the history of the mutual relationsbetween humankind and the rest of nature".[]

Subject matterTraditional historical analysis has over time extended its range of study from the activities and influence of a fewsignificant people to a much broader social, political, economic and cultural analysis. Environmental history furtherbroadens the subject matter of conventional history. In 1988, Donald Worster stated that environmental history“attempts to make history more inclusive in its narratives”[] by examining the “role and place of nature in humanlife”,[12] and in 1993, that “Environmental history explores the ways in which the biophysical world has influencedthe course of human history and the ways in which people have thought about and tried to transform theirsurroundings”.[13] The interdependency of human and environmental factors in the creation of landscapes isexpressed through the notion of the cultural landscape. Worster also questioned the scope of the discipline, asking:"We study humans and nature; therefore can anything human or natural be outside our enquiry?"[]

Environmental history is generally treated as a subfield of history, an established discipline. But some environmentalhistorians challenge this assumption, arguing that while traditional history is human history – the story of people andtheir institutions,[14] "humans cannot place themselves outside the principles of nature."[] In this sense environmentalhistory is a version of human history within a larger context, one less dependent on anthropocentrism (even thoughanthropogenic change is at the center of its narrative).[15]

Environmental history 3

Dimensions

General view of Funkville in 1864, Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, USA

J. Donald Hughes responded to theview that environmental history is"light on theory" or lacking theoreticalstructure by viewing the subjectthrough the lens of three "dimensions":nature and culture, history and science,and scale.[16] This advances beyondWorster's recognition of three broadclusters of issues to be addressed byenvironmental historians although bothhistorians recognize that the emphasisof their categories might varyaccording to the particular study[17] as,clearly, some studies will concentratemore on society and human affairs andothers more on the environment.

Themes

Several themes are used to express these historical dimensions. A more traditional historical approach is to analysethe transformation of the globe’s ecology through themes like the separation of man from nature during the neolithicrevolution, imperialism and colonial expansion, exploration, agricultural change, the effects of the industrial andtechnological revolution, and urban expansion. More environmental topics include human impact through influenceson forestry, fire, climate change, sustainability and so on. According to Paul Warde, “the increasingly sophisticatedhistory of colonization and migration can take on an environmental aspect, tracing the pathways of ideas andspecies around the globe and indeed is bringing about an increased use of such analogies and ‘colonial’understandings of processes within European history.”[18] The importance of the colonial enterprise in Africa, theCaribbean and Indian Ocean has been detailed by Richard Grove.[3] Much of the literature consists of case-studiestargeted at the global, national and local levels.[19]

Scale

Although environmental history can cover billions of years of history over the whole Earth, it can equally concernitself with local scales and brief time periods.[20] Many environmental historians are occupied with local, regionaland national histories.[21] Some historians link their subject exclusively to the span of human history – "every timeperiod in human history"[] while others include the period before human presence on Earth as a legitimate part of thediscipline. Ian Simmons's Environmental History of Great Britain covers a period of about 10,000 years. There is atendency to difference in time scales between natural and social phenomena: the causes of environmental change thatstretch back in time may be dealt with socially over a comparatively brief period.[22]

Although at all times environmental influences have extended beyond particular geographic regions and cultures,during the 20th and early 21st centuries anthropogenic environmental change has assumed global proportions, mostprominently with climate change but also as a result of settlement, the spread of disease and the globalization ofworld trade.[23]

Environmental history 4

Development of the subject

Nature preservationist John Muir with US President Theodore Roosevelt (left) onGlacier Point in Yosemite National Park

The questions posed and themes coveredby environmental history date back toantiquity: historians have always includedthe effects of natural phenomena on humanaffairs.[24] Hippocrates, ancient Greekfather of medicine, in his Airs, Waters,Places, asserted that different cultures andhuman temperaments could be related tothe surroundings in which peopleslived.[25] However, the origins of thesubject in its present form are generallytraced to the twentieth century.

In 1929 a group of French historiansfounded the journal Annales, in many waysa forerunner of modern environmentalhistory since it took as its subject matterthe reciprocal global influences of theenvironment and human society. The ideaof the impact of the physical environmenton civilizations was espoused by thisAnnales School to describe the long termdevelopments that shape human history[]

by focusing away from political andintellectual history, toward agriculture,demography, and geography. Emmanuel

Le Roy Ladurie, a pupil of the Annales School, was the first to really embrace, in the 1950s, environmental historyin a more contemporary form.[26] One of the most influential members of the Annales School was Lucien Febvre(1878–1956), whose book A Geographical Introduction to History is now a classic in the field.

The most influential empirical and theoretical work in the subject has been done in the United States where teachingprograms first emerged and a generation of trained environmental historians is now active.[18] In the United Statesenvironmental history as an independent field of study emerged in the general cultural reassessment and reform ofthe 1960s and 1970s along with environmentalism, "conservation history",[27] and a gathering awareness of theglobal scale of some environmental issues. This was in large part a reaction to the way nature was represented inhistory at the time, which “portrayed the advance of culture and technology as releasing humans from dependence onthe natural world and providing them with the means to manage it [and] celebrated human mastery over other formsof life and the natural environment, and expected technological improvement and economic growth to accelerate”.[28]

Environmental historians intended to develop a post-colonial historiography that was "more inclusive in itsnarratives".[]

Precursors to environmental historians include Henry Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, and even Rachel Carson. Environmental history frequently promoted a moral and political agenda although it steadily became a more scholarly enterprise.”[] Early attempts to define the field were made in the United States by Roderick Nash in “The State of Environmental History” and in other works by frontier historians Frederick Jackson Turner, James Malin, John Muir and Walter Prescott Webb who analysed the process of settlement. Their work was expanded by a second generation of more specialized environmental historians such as Alfred Crosby, Samuel P. Hays, Donald Worster,

Environmental history 5

William Cronon, Richard White, Carolyn Merchant, John McNeill, Donald Hughes, Chad Montrie, and EuropeansPaul Warde, Sverker Sorlin, Robert A. Lambert, T.C. Smout, Peter Coates and Jan Oosthoek.

Frontier historian Frederick Jackson Turner (1861–1932)

Current practice

In the United States the American Society for EnvironmentalHistory was founded in 1975 while the first institute devotedspecifically to environmental history in Europe was establishedin 1991, based at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. In1986, the Dutch foundation for the history of environment andhygiene Net Werk was founded and publishes four newslettersper year. In the UK the White Horse Press in Cambridge has,since 1995, published the journal Environment and Historywhich aims to bring scholars in the humanities and biologicalsciences closer together in constructing long and well-foundedperspectives on present day environmental problems and asimilar publication Tijdschrift voor Ecologische Geschiedenis(Journal for Environmental History) is a combinedFlemish-Dutch initiative mainly dealing with topics in theNetherlands and Belgium although it also has an interest inEuropean environmental history. Each issue contains abstractsin English, French and German. In 1999 the Journal wasconverted into a yearbook for environmental history. In Canadathe Network in Canadian History and Environment facilitates the growth of environmental history through numerousworkshops and a significant digital infrastructure including their website and podcast.[29]

Communication between European nations is restricted by language difficulties. In April 1999 a meeting was held inGermany to overcome these problems and to co-ordinate environmental history in Europe. This meeting resulted inthe creation of the European Society for Environmental History in 1999. Only two years after its establishment,ESEH held its first international conference in St. Andrews, Scotland. Around 120 scholars attended the meeting and105 papers were presented on topics covering the whole spectrum of environmental history. The conference showedthat environmental history is a viable and lively field in Europe and since then ESEH has expanded to over 400members and continues to grow and attracted international conferences in 2003 and 2005. In 1999 the Centre forEnvironmental History was established at the University of Stirling. Some history departments at Europeanuniversities are now offering introductory courses in environmental history and postgraduate courses inEnvironmental history have been established at the Universities of Nottingham, Stirling and Dundee and morerecently a Graduierten Kolleg was created at the University of Göttingen in Germany.[30]

Environmental history 6

Related disciplines

The 77 km long Panama Canal, opened in 1914, connects the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, replacing a longand treacherous shipping route passing via the Drake Passage and Cape Horn at the tip of South America.

Construction was plagued by problems, including disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever) and landslides. Bythe time the canal was completed, a total of 27,500 French and American workmen are estimated to have died.

Environmental history prides itself in bridging the gap between the arts and natural sciences although to date thescales weigh on the side of science. A definitive list of related subjects would be lengthy indeed and singling outthose for special mention a difficult task. However, those frequently quoted include, historical geography, the historyand philosophy of science, history of technology and climate science. On the biological side there is, above all,ecology and historical ecology, but also forestry and especially forest history, archaeology and anthropology. Whenthe subject engages in environmental advocacy it has much in common with environmentalism.With increasing globalization and the impact of global trade on resource distribution, concern over never-endingeconomic growth and the many human inequities environmental history is now gaining allies in the fields ofecological and environmental economics.[31][32]

Engagement with sociological thinkers and the humanities is limited but cannot be ignored through the beliefs andideas that guide human action. This has been seen as the reason for a perceived lack of support from traditionalhistorians.[18]

IssuesThe subject has a number of areas of lively debate. These include discussion concerning: what subject matter is mostappropriate; whether environmental advocacy can detract from scholarly objectivity; standards of professionalism ina subject where much outstanding work has been done by non-historians; the relative contribution of nature andhumans in determining the passage of history; the degree of connection with, and acceptance by, other disciplines -but especially mainstream history. For Paul Warde the sheer scale, scope and diffuseness of the environmentalhistory endeavour calls for an analytical toolkit "a range of common issues and questions to push forwardcollectively" and a "core problem". He sees a lack of "human agency" in its texts and suggest it be writtem more toact: as a source of information for environmental scientists; incorporation of the notion of risk; a closer analysis ofwhat it is we mean by "environment"; confronting the way environmental history is at odds with the humanitiesbecause it emphasises the division between "materialist, and cultural or constructivist explanations for humanbehaviour".[33]

Environmental history 7

Global sustainability

Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life aswe know it. The Blue MarbleBlue Marble NASA composite images: 2001 (left),

2002 (right)

Many of the themes of environmentalhistory inevitably examine thecircumstances that produced theenvironmental problems of the present day,a litany of themes that challenge globalsustainability including: population,consumerism and materialism, climatechange, waste disposal, deforestation andloss of wilderness, industrial agriculture,species extinction, depletion of naturalresources, invasive organisms and urbandevelopment.[34] The simple message ofsustainable use of renewable resources isfrequently repeated and early as 1864 George Perkins Marsh was pointing out that the changes we make in theenvironment may later reduce the environments usefulness to humans so any changes should be made with greatcare[35] - what we would nowadays call enlightened self-interest. Richard Grove has pointed out that "States will actto prevent environmental degradation only when their economic interests are threatened".[36]

AdvocacyIt is not clear whether environmental history should promote a moral or political agenda. The strong emotions raisedby environmentalism, conservation and sustainability can interfere with historical objectivity: polemical tracts andstrong advocacy can compromise objectivity and professionalism. Engagement with the political process certainlyhas its academic perils[37] although accuracy and commitment to the historical method is not necessarily threatenedby environmental involvement: environmental historians have a reasonable expectation that their work will informpolicy-makers.[38]

Declensionist narrativesNarratives of environmental history tend to be declensionist, that is, accounts of progressive decline under humanactivity. Thus environmental history, like environmentalism, is perceived as entrenched pessimism, a litany ofdegeneration, failure, loss, decline and decay – a progressive downward spiral leading inexorably to globalcatastrophe, a kind of environmental eschatology – often portrayed as proceeding from some halcyon golden age ofthe past. Along with this often comes the implication of the heroic struggle of a few wise people against thedestructive powers of modern capitalism. Further, that narratives of this kind are not only boring and repetitive butalso actually mislead due to their excessive simplicity.[39][40] Against this it is argued that deterioration of the globalenvironment is a fact revealed by careful research, that good environmental history does not predict or prophesy, andthat the charge of catastrophism is unwarranted.[41]

Presentism and culpabilityUnder the accusation of "presentism" it is sometimes claimed that, with its genesis in the late 20th centuryenvironmentalism and conservation issues, environmental history is simply a reaction to contemporary problems, an"attempt to read late twentieth century developments and concerns back into past historical periods in which theywere not operative, and certainly not conscious to human participants during those times".[42] This is strongly relatedto the idea of culpability. In environmental debate blame can always be apportioned, but it is more constructive forthe future to understand the values and imperatives of the period under discussion so that causes are determined andthe context explained.[43] An awareness of presentism can help us to be wary of the easy wisdom of hindsight.

Environmental history 8

Environmental determinism

Ploughing farmer in ancient Egypt. Mural in the burial chamber of artisanSennedjem c. 1200 BCE

For some environmental historians "the generalconditions of the environment, the scale andarrangement of land and sea, the availability ofresources, and the presence or absence ofanimals available for domestication, andassociated organisms and disease vectors, thatmakes the development of human culturespossible and even predispose the direction oftheir development"[44] and that "history isinevitably guided by forces that are not of humanorigin or subject to human choice".[45] Thisapproach has been attributed to Americanenvironmental historians Webb and Turner[46]

and, more recently to Jared Diamond in his book"Guns, Germs and Steel", where the presence or absence of disease vectors and resources such as plants and animalsthat are amenable to domestication that may not only stimulate the development of human culture but evendetermine, to some extent, the direction of that development. The claim that the path of history has been forged byenvironmental rather than cultural forces is referred to as environmental determinism while, at the other extreme, iswhat may be called cultural determinism. An example of cultural determinism would be the view that humaninfluence is so pervasive that the idea of pristine nature has little validity - that there is no way of relating to naturewithout culture.[47]

Methodology

Recording historical events

Useful guidance on the process ofdoing environmental history has beengiven by Donald Worster,[48] CarolynMerchant,[49] William Cronon[50] andIan Simmons.[51] Worster's three coresubject areas (the environment itself,human impacts on the environment,and human thought about theenvironment) are generally taken as astarting point for the student as theyencompass many of the different skillsrequired. The tools are those of bothhistory and science with a requirementfor fluency in the language of naturalscience and especially ecology.[52] Infact methodologies and insights from arange of physical and social sciences isrequired, there seeming to be universal agreement that environmental history is indeed a multidisciplinary subject.

Environmental history 9

Key works•• Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed), Does Environmental History Matter: Shikar, Subsistence, Sustenance and the Sciences

(Kolkata: Readers Service, 2006)•• Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed.), Situating Environmental History (New Delhi: Manohar, 2007)• Cronon, William (ed), Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature (New York: W.W. Norton & Company,

1995)•• Dunlap, Thomas R., Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment and History in the United States, Canada,

Australia, and New Zealand (NewYork/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)•• Glacken, Clarence, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought From Ancient Times to

the Endo of the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967)•• Griffiths, Tomand Libby Robin (eds.), Ecology and Empire: The Environmental History of Settler Societies.

(Keele: Keele University Press, 1997)•• Grove, Richard, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical IslandEdens and the Origins of

Environmentalism, 1600-1860. (Cambridge University Press, 1995)•• Hughes, J.D., An Environmental Historyof the World: Humankind's Changing Role in the Community of Life

(Oxford: Routledge, 2001)• Hughes, J.D., "Global Environmental History: The Long View", Globalizations, Vol. 2 No. 3, 2005, 293-208.• LaFreniere, Gilbert F., 2007. The Decline of Nature: Environmental History and the Western Worldview,

Academica Press, Bethesda, MD isbn = 978-1933146409• MacKenzie, John M., Imperialism and the Natural World. (Manchester University Press, 1990)•• McCormick, John, Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement. (Bloomington: Indiana

University Press, 1989)•• Rajan, Ravi S., Modernizing Nature: Forestry and Imperial Eco-Development, 1800-1950 (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2006)•• Redclif, Michael R., Frontier: Histories of Civil Society and Nature (Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press, 2006).• Stevis, Dimitris, "The Globalizations of the Environment", Globalizations, Vol. 2 No. 3, 2005, 323-334.•• Williams, Michael, Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to GlobalCrisis. An Abridgement (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 2006)•• White, Richard, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (Hill and Wang, 1996)•• Worster, Donald, Nature's Economy: A Study of Ecological Ideals (Cambridge University Press, 1977)•• Zeilinga de Boer, Jelle and Donald Theodore Sanders, Volcanoes in Human History, The Far-reaching Effects of

Major Eruptions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002)

Seminal works by regionIn 2004 a theme issue of Environment and History 10(4) provided an overview of environmental history as practicedin Africa, the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, China and Europe as well as those with global scope. J. DonaldHughes (2006) has also provided a global conspectus of major contributions to the environmental history literature.•• George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action, ed. David

Lowenthal (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965 [1864])Africa

Environmental history 10

African landscape: Lesotho

•• Adams, Jonathan S. and Thomas McShane, TheMyth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996)

•• Cock, Jacklyn and Eddie Koch (eds.), Going Green:People, Politics, and the Environment in SouthAfrica (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1991)

•• Dovers, Stephen, Ruth Edgecombe, and Bill Guest(eds.), South Africa's Environmental History: Casesand Comparisons (Athens: Ohio University Press,2003)

• Green Musselman, Elizabeth, “Plant Knowledge atthe Cape: A Study in African and EuropeanCollaboration,” International Journal of AfricanHistorical Studies, Vol. 36, 2003, 367-392

•• Jacobs, Nancy J., Environment, Power and Injustice: A South African History (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2003)

•• Maathai, Wangari, Green Belt Movement: Sharing the Approach and the Experience (New York: Lantern Books,2003)

•• McCann, James, Green Land, Brown Land, Black Land: An Environmental History of Africa, 1800-1990(Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1999)

•• Steyn, Phia, "The lingering environmental impact of repressive governance: the environmental legacy of theapartheid-era for the new South Africa", Globalizations, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2005, 391-403

Antarctica

•• Pyne, S.J., The Ice: A Journey to Anatarctica. (University of Iowa Press, 1986).Americas

Artistic impression of the first landing of Columbus and the pilgrim fathers on the shoresof the New World: at San Salvador, West Indies, on 12 October 1492.

•• Andrews, Richard N.L., Managingthe Environment, ManagingOurselves: A History of AmericanEnvironmental Policy (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1999)

•• Bolster, Jeffrey W., The MortalSea: Fishing the Atlantic in the Ageof Sail (Cambridge, MA: BelknapPress of Harvard University, 2012)

•• Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring(Cambridge, Mass. : RiversidePress, 1962)

•• Cronon, William, Changes in theLand: Indians, Colonists and theEcology of New England (NewYork: Hill and Wang, 1983)

• Cronon, William, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991)•• Dean, Warren, With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1995)•• Dorsey, Kurkpatrick, The Dawn of Conservation Diplomacy: U.S.-Canadian Wildlife Protection Treaties in the

Progressive Era (Washington: University of Washington Press, 1998)

Environmental history 11

•• Gottlieb, Robert, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement(Washington: Island Press, 1993)

•• Hays, Samuel, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement1890-1920(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959)

• Melosi, Martin V., Coping with Abundance: Energy and Environment in Industrial America (Temple UniversityPress, 1985)

•• Melville, Elinor, A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1994)

• Merchant, Carolyn, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper &Row, 1980)

•• Nash, Roderick, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics (Madison: University of WisconsinPress, 1989)

•• Nash, Roderick, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001)• Raffles, Hugh, WinklerPrins, Antoinette, M. G. A., "Further Reflections on Amazonian Environmental History:

Transformations of Rivers and Streams", Latin American Research Review, Vol. 38, Number 3, 2003,pp. 165–187

•• Reisner, Marc, Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (Penguin Books, 1986, 1993)•• Simonian, Lane, Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico (Austin: University of

Texas Press, 1995)•• Steinberg, Ted, Down to Earth: Nature's Role in American History (Oxford University Press, 2002)•• Stradling, David (ed), Conservation in the Progressive Era: Classic Texts (Washington: University of Washington

Press, 2004).• Sale, Kirkpatrick. The Green Revolution: The American Environmental Movement, 1962-1999 (New York: Hill

& Wang, 1993)•• Worster, Donald, Under Western Skies: Nature and History in the American West (Oxford University Press,

1992)•• Wynn, Graeme, Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO,

2007)Asia

Banaue rice terraces in the Philippines where traditional landraces have been grown forthousands of years

•• Boomgaard, Peter, ed. PaperLandscapes: Explorations in theEnvironment of Indonesia. (Leiden:KITLV Press, 1997)

• Burke III, Edmund, "The ComingEnvironmental Crisis in the MiddleEast: A Historical Perspective,1750-2000 CE" (April 27, 2005).UC World History Workshop.Essays and Positions from theWorld History Workshop. Paper 2.http:/ / repositories. cdlib. org/ucwhw/ ep/ 2

• David, A. & Guha, R. (eds) 1995.Nature, Culture, Imperialism:Essays on the Environmental

History of South Asia. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.

Environmental history 12

• Elvin, Mark & Ts'ui-jung Liu (eds.), Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History (NewYork: Cambridge University Press, 1998)

•• Elvin, Mark, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 2004)

•• Gadgil, M. and R. Guha, This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1993)

• Grove, Richard, Vinita Damodaran, and Satpal Sangwan (eds.) Nature & the Orient: The Environmental Historyof South and Southeast Asia (Oxford University Press, 1998)

•• Hill, Christopher V., South Asia: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2008)•• Menzie, Nicholas, Forest and Land Management in Late Imperial China (London, Macmillan Press. 1994)• Mahong, Bao, "Environmental History in China", Environment and History, Volume 10, Number 4, November

2004, pp. 475–499•• Marks, R. B., Tigers, rice, silk and silt. Environment and economy in late imperial South China (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1998)• Perdue, Peter C., "Lakes of Empire: Man and Water in Chinese History”, Modern China, 16 (January 1990): 119 -

29•• Shapiro, Judith, Mao's War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China (New York:

Cambridge University Press. 2001)• Shiva, Vandana, Stolen Harvest: the Hijacking of the Global Food Supply (Cambridge MA: South End Press,

2000)• Tal, Alon, Pollution in a Promised Land: An Environmental History of Israel (Berkeley: University of California

Press, 2002)•• Totman, Conrad D., The Green Archipelago: Forestry in Preindustrial Japan (Berkely: University of California

Press, 1989)•• Totman, Conrad D., Pre-industrial Korea and Japan in Environmental Perspective (Leiden: Brill, 2004)•• Ts'ui-jung Liu, Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History (Cambridge University Press,

1998)•• Tull, Malcolm, and A. R. Krishnan. "Resource Use and Environmental Management in Japan, 1890-1990", in:

J.R. McNeill (ed), Environmental History of the Pacific and the Pacific Rim ( Aldershot Hampshire: AshgatePublishing, 2001)

• Weiss, Anita M. & Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. (2012). Pakistan. In Kotzé, Louis & Morse, Stephen (eds),Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability, Vol. 9. Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire, pp. 236–240.

•• Yok-shiu Lee and Alvin Y. So, Asia's Environmental Movements: Comparative Perspectives (Armonk: M.E.Sharpe, 1999)

Australasia

Environmental history 13

Aboriginal Art, Anbangbang Rock Shelter, Kakadu National Park, Australia

•• Carron, L.T., A History of Forestry inAustralia (Canberra, 1985).

•• Dargavel, John (ed.), Australia and NewZealand Forest Histories. ShortOverviews, Australian Forest HistorySociety Inc. Occasional Publications, No.1 (Kingston: Australian Forest HistorySociety, 2005)

•• Dovers, Stephen (ed), Essays inAustralian Environmental History:Essays and Cases (Oxford: OUP, 1994).

•• Dovers, Stephen(ed.), EnvironmentalHistory and Policy: Still SettlingAustralia (South Melbourne: OxfordUniversity Press, 2000).

•• Flannery, Tim, The Future Eaters, AnEcological History of the Australian Lands and People (Sydney: Reed Books,1994).

•• Garden, Don, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio,2005)

•• Pyne, Stephen, Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia (New York, Henry Holt, 1991).•• Robin, Libby, Defending the Little Desert: The Rise of Ecological Consciousness in Australia (Melbourne: MUP,

1998)•• Robin, Libby, The Flight of the Emu: A Hundred Years of Australian Ornithology 1901-2001, (Melbourne:

Melbourne University Press, 2000)•• Robin, Libby, How a Continent Created a Nation (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007)•• Smith, Mike, Hesse, Paul (eds.), 23 Degrees S: Archaeology and Environmental History of the Southern Deserts

(Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, 2005)•• Young, Ann R.M, Environmental Change in Australia since 1788 (Oxford University Press, 2000)Europe

Roman aqueduct and plaza, Segovia, Spain

•• Brimblecombe, Peter and ChristianPfister, The Silent Countdown: Essays inEuropean Environmental History (Berlin:Springer-Verlag, 1993)

•• Crosby, Alfred W., EcologicalImperialism: The Biological Expansionof Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1986)

•• Christensen, Peter, Decline of Iranshahr:Irrigation and Environments in theHistory of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to1500 A.D (Austin: University of TexasPress, 1993)

•• Ditt, Karl, 'Nature Conservation inEngland and Germany, 1900-1970:

Forerunner of Environmental Protection?', Contemporary European History 5:1-28.•• Hughes, J. Donald, Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins, 1994)

Environmental history 14

•• Hughes, J. Donald, The Mediterranean. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2005)•• Lancaster, Julia H., Marat Fidarov. An Environmental History of the Russian North Caucasus (New York: HHN

Media, 2009)• Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. La construcció del concepte de natura a la Catalunya moderna (Barcelona:

Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 2004)[53]•• Netting, Robert, Balancing on an Alp: Ecological Change and Continuity in a Swiss Mountain Community

(Cambridge University Press, 1981)•• Stephen J. Pyne, Vestal Fire. An Environmental History, Told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter

with the World (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1997)•• Richards, John F., The Unending Frontier: Environmental History of the Early Modern World (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 2003)•• Whited, Tamara L. (ed.), Northern Europe. An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2005)New Zealand & Oceania

Polynesian outrigger canoe

•• Bennett, Judith Ann,Pacific Forest: AHistory of Resource Control and Contestin Solomon Islands, c. 1800-1997(Cambridge and Leiden: White HorsePress and Brill, 2000)

•• Bennett, Judith Ann, Natives andExotics: World War II and Environmentin the Southern Pacific (Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press, 2009)

•• Brooking, Tom and Eric Pawson,Environmental Histories of New Zealand(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

•• James Beattie, "Environmental Anxietyin New Zealand, 1840-1941: ClimateChange, Soil Erosion, Sand Drift,Flooding and Forest Conservation",Environment and History 9(2003): 379-392

•• Cassels, R., "The Role of Prehistoric Man in the Faunal Extinctions of New Zealand and other Pacific Islands", inMartin, P. S. and Klein, R. G. (eds.) Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution (Tucson, The University ofArizona Press, 1984)

•• D'Arcy, Paul, The People of the Sea: Environment, Identity, and History in Oceania (Honolulu: University ofHawai'i Press, 2006)

•• Young, David, Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand ( Dunedin: Otago UniversityPress, 2004)

•• Star, Paul, "New Zealand Environmental History: A Question of Attitudes", Environment and History 9(2003):463-475

•• Hughes, J. Donald, "Nature and Culture in the Pacific Islands", Leidschrift, 21 (2006) 1, 129-144.• Hughes, J. Donald, "Tahiti, Hawaii, New Zealand: Polynesian impacts on Island Ecosystems", in: An

Environmental History of the World. Humankind"s Changing Role in the Community of Life, (London & NewYork, Routledge, 2002)

•• McNeill, John R., "Of Rats and Men. A Synoptic Environmental History of the Island Pacific", Journal of WorldHistory, Vol. 5, no. 2, 299-349

•• Bridgman, H. A., "Could climate change have had an influence on the Polynesian migrations?", Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 41(1983) 193-206.

Environmental history 15

United Kingdom

•• Beinart, William and Lotte Hughes, Environment and Empire (Oxford, 2007).•• Clapp, Brian W., An Environmental History of Britain Since the Industrial Revolution (London, 1994).• Grove, Richard, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of

Environmentalism, 1600–1860 (Cambridge, 1994).•• Lambert, Robert, Contested Mountains (Cambridge, 2001).•• Mosley, Stephen, The Chimney of the World: A History of Smoke Pollution in Victorian and Edwardian

Manchester (White Horse, 2001).•• Porter, Dale, The Thames Embankment: Environment, Technology, and Society in Victorian London, (University

of Akron, 1998).•• Simmonds, Ian G., Environmental History of Great Britain from 10,000 Years Ago to the Present (Edinburgh,

2001).•• Sheail, John, An Environmental History of Twentieth-Century Britain (Basingstoke, 2002).•• Thorsheim, Peter, Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (Ohio University, 2006).

Future

Old and new human uses of theatmosphere

Environmental history, like all historical studies, shares the hope that throughan examination of past events it may be possible to forge a more consideredfuture. In particular a greater depth of historical knowledge can informenvironmental controversies and guide policy decisions.The subject continues to provide new perspectives, offering cooperationbetween scholars with different disciplinary backgrounds and providing animproved historical context to resource and environmental problems. Thereseems little doubt that, with increasing concern for our environmental future,environmental history will continue along the path of environmentaladvocacy from which it originated as “human impact on the living systems ofthe planet bring us no closer to utopia, but instead to a crisis of survival”[54]

with key themes being population growth, climate change, conflict overenvironmental policy at different levels of human organization, extinction,biological invasions, the environmental consequences of technologyespecially biotechnology, the reduced supply of resources - most notablyenergy, materials and water. Hughes comments that environmental historians“will find themselves increasingly challenged by the need to explain thebackground of the world market economy and its effects on the globalenvironment. Supranational instrumentalities threaten to overpower conservation in a drive for what is calledsustainable development, but which in fact envisions no limits to economic growth”.[55] Hughes also notes that"environmental history is notably absent from nations that most adamantly reject US, or Western influences".[56]

Michael Bess sees the world increasingly permeated by potent technologies in a process he calls “artificialization”which has been accelerating since the 1700s, but at a greatly accelerated rate after 1945. Over the next fifty years,this transformative process stands a good chance of turning our physical world, and our society, upside-down.Environmental historians can “play a vital role in helping humankind to understand the gale-force of artifice that wehave unleashed on our planet and on ourselves”.[57]

Against this background “environmental history can give an essential perspective, offering knowledge of the historical process that led to the present situation, give examples of past problems and solutions, and an analysis of the historical forces that must be dealt with”[58] or, as expressed by William Cronon, "The viability and success of

Environmental history 16

new human modes of existing within the constraints of the environment and its resources requires both anunderstanding of the past and an articulation of a new ethic for the future."[59]

Related journalsKey journals in this field include:•• Environment and History•• Environmental History•• Global Environment: A Journal of History and Natural and Social Sciences

References[3][3] See[6] Samuel P. Hays on National Forests and Ecology (http:/ / www. historyforthefuture. org/ wordpress/ ?p=46), History for the Future, WRCT,

Pittsburgh[7][7] See[8][8] See[18][18] See[20][20] See[26][26] See[27] Adam Rome "Conservation, Preservation, and Environmental Activism: A Survey of the Historical Literature" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/

history/ history/ hisnps/ NPSThinking/ nps-oah. htm). Retrieved 2010-8-8.[30] What is Environmental History? K. Jan Oosthoek (http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ environmental_history. html). Retrieved 2010-8-8.[33][33] See[35][35] See[38][38] See[40][40] See[53] http:/ / www. tesisenxarxa. net/ TDX-0620105-134124/[59] See Cronon quote here (http:/ / searchworks. stanford. edu/ view/ 5474508)

Bibliography

Global• Barton, Gregory A. 2002. Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism, - covers British Empire• Bolton, Geoffrey 1981. Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980. 197pp• Clover, Charles. 2004. The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. Ebury Press,

London. ISBN 0-09-189780-7• Guha, Ramachandra. 1999 Environmentalism: A Global History• Jones, Eric L. 1991. "The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World," Research in Economic

History, Supplement 6, pp 235–252• Krech, Shepard; McNeill, John R & Merchant, Carolyn (2003). Encyclopaedia of World Environmental History

Vol 1–3. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-93732-0.• McNeill, John R (2001). Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century

World (Global Century Series). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32183-8.• Ponting, Clive (2007 (rev. edn)). A New Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great

Civilizations. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303898-6.• Simmons, Ian G. (1993). Environmental History: A Concise Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.

ISBN 1-55786-445-4.• Richards, J.F. 2003. The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World (University of

California Press)• Simmons, I.G. 1993. Environmental History: A Concise Introduction. (Blackwell)

Environmental history 17

• Simmons, I.G. 1996. Changing the Face of the Earth: Culture, Environment, History, 2nd Edition. Blackwell.• Takács-Sánta A. 2004. "The major transitions in the history of human transformation of the biosphere," Human

Ecology Review 11, 51-66.• Williams, M. 2003. Deforesting the Earth: From Prehistory to Global Crisis. (University of Chicago Press.)

Africa• Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion (1992) 266p;

covers 1900 to 1980s• Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice (1988), 355pp• Bolaane, Maitseo. "Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park,

Botswana". Journal of Historical Geography. 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241-259.• Carruthers, Jane. "Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 379–406;• Showers, Kate B. Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (2005) 346pp

Asia & Middle East• Economy, Elizabeth. The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future (2010)• Elvin, Mark. The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (2006)• Gadgil, Madhav, and Ramachandra Guha. This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India (1993)• Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita; Sangwan, Satpal. Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of

South and Southeast Asia (1998) 1036pp• Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. "Organizational Demography of Japanese

Environmentalism," Sociological Inquiry, Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481–504• Mikhail, Alan, ed. Water on Sand: Environmental Histories of the Middle East and North Africa (Oxford

University Press; 2013) 326 pages; scholarly essays on plague and environment in late Ottoman Egypt, the riseand fall of environmentalism in Lebanon, the politics of water in the making of Saudi Arabia, etc.

• Thapar, Valmik. Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent (1998) 288pp

Latin America• Dean, Warren. With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (1997)• Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492 (2008)• Melville, Elinor G. K. A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (2008)• Miller, Shawn William. An Environmental History of Latin America (2007)• Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. "Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco".

Biodiversity & Conservation. 14.11 (2005): 2679-2693.• Simonian, Lane. Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico (1995) 326pp

Europe and Russia• Bonhomme, Brian. Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia,

1917-1929 (2005) 252pp• Cioc, Mark. The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815-2000 (2002)• Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. La construcció del concepte de natura a la Catalunya moderna (2004) (http:/ /

www. tesisenxarxa. net/ TDX-0620105-134124/ )• Simmons, I.G. An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present (2001).• Weiner, Douglas R. Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (2000)

324pp; covers 1917 to 1939

Environmental history 18

United States• Bates, J. Leonard. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921", The

Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 1. (Jun., 1957), pp. 29–57. in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/pss/ 1898667)

• Brinkley, Douglas G. The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America, (2009) excerptand text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0060565314/ )

• Cawley, R. McGreggor. Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics(1993), on conservatives

• Flippen, J. Brooks. Nixon and the Environment (2000).• Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985

(1987), the standard scholarly history• Hays, Samuel P. A History of Environmental Politics since 1945 (2000), shorter standard history

• Hays, Samuel P. Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959), on Progressive Era.• King, Judson. The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority (2009)• Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind, (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history• Rice, James D. Nature and History in the Potomac Country: From Hunter-Gatherers to the Age of Jefferson

(2009)• Rothman, Hal K. (1998). The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945. Fort

Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ISBN 0155028553.• Scheffer, Victor B. The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (1991).• Strong, Douglas H. Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists. (1988) online edition (http:/ / www.

questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=8516594), good biographical studies of the major leaders• Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the

Evolution of the New Right. The Journal of American History 96.1 (2009): 123-47 online at History Cooperative(http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jah/ 96. 1/ turner. html)

Historiography• Beattie, James. "Recent Themes in the Environmental History of the British Empire," History Compass (Feb

2012) 10#2 pp 129–139.• Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, "Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe,"

Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp. 545–56;• Bess, Michael et al.; Bess, M.; Giles-Vernick, T.; Gugliotta, A.; Guha, R.; Hall, M.; Igler, D.; Jones, S. D. et al.

(2005). "Anniversary Forum: What Next for Environmental History?". Environmental History 10 (1): 30–109.doi: 10.1093/envhis/10.1.30 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1093/ envhis/ 10. 1. 30).

• Bess, Michael (2005b). "Artificialization and its Discontents". Environmental History 10 (1): 5 para.• Cioc, Mark, Björn-Ola Linnér, and Matt Osborn, "Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe,"

Environmental History, 5 (2000), pp. 396–406• Coates, Peter. "Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in

the United States and the Rest of the Americas," Environment and History 10 (2004), pp. 407–38• Cronon, William (ed.) (1995). Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature. New York: W W Norton.

ISBN 0-393-03872-6.• Dovers, Stephen (ed.) (1994). Essays in Australian Environmental History: Essays and Cases. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. ISBN 0-19-553482-4.• Febvre, Lucien (1925). A Geographical Introduction to History. New York: Alfred A Knopf.

ISBN 0-7103-0844-2.

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• Grove, Richard H (1992). "Origins of Western Environmentalism". Scientific American 267 (1): 42–47. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0792-42 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ scientificamerican0792-42).

• Grove, Richard (1994). Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins ofEnvironmentalism, 1600–1860. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56513-8.

• Hay, Peter. Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought (2002), standard scholarly history excerpt and textsearch (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0253215110/ )

• Hughes, J Donald (2001). An Environmental History of the World: Humankind's Changing Role in theCommunity of Life (Routledge Studies in Physical Geography and Environment). London: Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-13619-8.

• Hughes, J Donald (2006). What is Environmental History? (What is History Series). Cambridge: Polity Press.ISBN 978-0-7456-3189-9.

• Hughes, J Donald (2008). "Three Dimensions of Environmental History". Environment and History 14: 1–12.• Huxley, Thomas H (1863). Man's Place in Nature. New York (2003): Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-43273-1.• McNeill, John R (2003). "Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History". History and Theory

42 (1): 5–43. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-2303.2003.00255.x (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1046/ j. 1468-2303. 2003. 00255.x).

• MacEachern, Alan; Turkel, William J (eds) (2009). Method & Meaning in Canadian Environmental History.Toronto: Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644116-6.

• Mancall, Peter C. "Pigs for Historians: Changes in the Land and Beyond William and Mary Quarterly (2010)67#2 pp. 347-375 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 10. 5309/ willmaryquar. 67. 2. 347)

• Marsh, George P (David Lowenthal ed. 1965) (1864). Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified byHuman Action. Cambridge, Ma: Belknap Press of Harvard University.

• Martinez-Alier, J; Schandl, H (2002). "Introduction: Special Section: European Environmental History andEcological Economics". Ecological Economics 41 (2): 175–176. doi: 10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00033-2 (http:/ /dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0921-8009(02)00033-2).

• McNeill, J.R. (2010). "The State of the Field of Environmental History". Annual Review of Environment andResources 35: 345–374. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-040609-105431 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/annurev-environ-040609-105431).

• Merchant, Carolyn (2002). The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11233-8.

• Melosi, Martin V. (2010). "Humans, Cities, and Nature: How Do Cities Fit in the Material World?". Journal ofUrban History 36 (1): 3–21. doi: 10.1177/0096144209349876 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1177/0096144209349876).

• Mosley, Stephen. "Common Ground: Integrating Social and Environmental History," Journal of Social History,Volume 39, Number 3, Spring 2006, pp. 915–933; relation to Social history

• Nash, Roderick (1970). "The State of Environmental History" (http:/ / www. questia. com/ read/ 28078285). InBass, H.J. The State of American History. Chicago: Organization of American Historians and Quadrangle Books.ISBN 0-585-09291-5.

• Nash, Roderick (1972). "American Environmental History: A New Teaching Frontier". Pacific Historical Review41 (3): 362–372.

• Opie, John (1983). "Environmental History: Pitfalls and Opportunities". Environmental Review 7 (1): 8–16.• Robin, Libby, and Tom Griffiths, "Environmental History in Australasia," Environment and History, 10 (2004),

pp. 439–74• Warde, Paul & Sorlin, Sverker (2007). "The Problem of the Problem of Environmental History: A Re-reading of

the Field and its Purpose". Environmental History 12 (1): 107–130. doi: 10.1093/envhis/12.1.107 (http:/ / dx. doi.org/ 10. 1093/ envhis/ 12. 1. 107)

Environmental history 20

• Uekötter, Frank (2004). "The Old Conservation History – and the New: An Argument for Fresh Perspectives onan Established Topic". Historical Social Research 29 (3): 171–191.

• Warde, Paul & Sorlin, Sverker (2009). Nature's End. History and the Environment. London: Macmillan.ISBN 978-0-230-20346-4

• White, Richard (1985). "Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field". Pacific HistoricalReview 54: 297–335.

• White, Richard (2001). "Environmental History: Retrospect and Prospect". Pacific Historical Review 70 (1):55–57. doi: 10.1525/phr.2001.70.1.55 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1525/ phr. 2001. 70. 1. 55).

• Worster, Donald (ed) (1988). The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34846-3.

• Worster, Donald (1993). The Wealth of Nature. Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination. Oxford:Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509264-3.

External linksPodcasts• Jan W.Oosthoek podcasts on many aspects of the subject including interviews with eminent environmental

historians (http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ podcast/ podcast. html)• Nature's Past: Canadian Environmental History Podcast features monthly discussions about the environmental

history research community in Canada. (http:/ / niche-canada. org/ naturespast)• EnvirohistNZ Podcast is a podcast that looks at the environmental history of New Zealand. (http:/ /

envirohistorynz. wordpress. com/ podcasts-2/ )Institutions & resources• International Consortium of Environmental History Organizations (ICE-HO) (http:/ / eseh. org/ about/ iceho)• Oosthoek, K.J.W. What is environmental history? (http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ environmental_history. html)• Historiographies of different countries (http:/ / www2. h-net. msu. edu/ ~environ/ historiography/ historiography.

html)• H-Environment web resource for students of environmental history (http:/ / www2. h-net. msu. edu/ ~environ/

index. html)• American Society for Environmental History (http:/ / www. aseh. net/ )• European Society for Environmental History (http:/ / eseh. org/ )• Environmental History Resources (http:/ / www. eh-resources. org/ )• Environmental History Timeline (http:/ / www. environmentalhistory. org/ )• Environmental History on the Internet (http:/ / www. cnr. berkeley. edu/ departments/ espm/ env-hist/ eh-internet.

html)• Rachel Carson Center (http:/ / www. carsoncenter. uni-muenchen. de/ )• Forest History Society (http:/ / www. foresthistory. org/ )• Australian and New Zealand Environmental History Network (http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/ )• Brazilian Environmental History Network (http:/ / www. historiaambiental. org/ )• Centre for Environmental History at the Australian National University (http:/ / ceh. environmentalhistory-au-nz.

org/ )• Network in Canadian History and the Environment (http:/ / niche-canada. org/ )• Centre for World Environmental History, University of Sussex (http:/ / www. sussex. ac. uk/ cweh/ )• Environmental History Virtual Library (http:/ / vlib. iue. it/ history/ topical/ environmental. html)• Environmental History Top News (http:/ / www. envhist. com)• Environmental History Mobile Application Project (http:/ / niche-canada. org/ envhist)

Environmental history 21

• HistoricalClimatology.com (http:/ / www. historicalclimatology. com) Explores climate history, a form ofenvironmental history.

• Climate History Network (http:/ / www. climatehistorynetwork. com) Network of climate historians.• Environment & Society Portal (http:/ / www. environmentandsociety. org), "a project of the Rachel Carson Center

for Environment and Society, a joint initiative of LMU Munich and the Deutsches Museum," Munich, GermanyJournals• Environment and History, Published by White Horse Press with British-based Editorial collective (http:/ / www.

erica. demon. co. uk/ EH. html)• Environmental History, Co-published quarterly by the American Society for Environmental History and the (US)

Forest History Society (http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/ Environmental_History)• Global Environment: A Journal of History and Natural and Social Sciences, Published in New Zealand with

special regard to the modern and contemporary ages (http:/ / environmentalhistory-au-nz. org/ )• Historia Ambiental Latinoamericana y Caribeña (http:/ / www. fafich. ufmg. br/ halac/ index. php/ periodico)

(HALAC)• Journal of the North Atlantic (http:/ / www. eaglehill. us/ programs/ journals/ jona/ journal-north-atlantic. shtml)• Pacific Historical Review (http:/ / ucpressjournals. com/ journalSoc. asp?jIssn=0030-8684)

Article Sources and Contributors 22

Article Sources and ContributorsEnvironmental history  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564180541  Contributors: Adam crymble, Aitias, Alan Liefting, AnmaFinotera, Athkalani, Ayanoa, Batterbu,Bawolff, Bender235, Billy Hathorn, Bk262, BoH, Brunnock, CasualObserver'48, Cljim22, CommonsDelinker, CrowzRSA, DASonnenfeld, DaggerNautilus, Dolphin51, Dricherby, Eassin,Edward, Esbenson, Ettrig, Foli8, Fratrep, G34j, Gaius Cornelius, Giraffedata, Granitethighs, Grutness, Hasilein, Hmains, IGRobertson, Jdonhughes, Jedes, Jeff3000, Jezhotwells, Jmajeremy, JohnVandenberg, Joshfinnie, Judy bennett, Karunyan, Kempelen, Kempelen2, Kevlar67, Look2See1, MIPortnova, Mandarax, MelindaPF, Micler, MrBell, Nikdarlington, Ninarosa, Nmf1, Onco p53,Oxymoron83, Peregrine981, Phoebe, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Ragesoss, Random Nonsense, Reywas92, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Scayol, Sct72, Seergenius, Seide, Shogun Luis, Skheraj,Steinan3, Tabletop, TheKarunyan, Themightyquill, Tripperboot, Tucídides, Utahredrock, Von kempelen, Vsmith, Wambool, Wavelength, Woohookitty, 94 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Machupicchuandthesacredvalley.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Machupicchuandthesacredvalley.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: at English WikipediaFile:Penn oil 1864.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Penn_oil_1864.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkwillwm, Coyau, Infrogmation, UrbanFile:Muir and Roosevelt restored.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muir_and_Roosevelt_restored.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Underwood &UnderwoodFile:Frederick Jackson Turner.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frederick_Jackson_Turner.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was KF aten.wikipediaFile:Panama canal panoramic view from the top of Ancon hill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panama_canal_panoramic_view_from_the_top_of_Ancon_hill.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Brian GratwickeFile:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Erasoft24File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Apoc2400File:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Art-top, BBhounder, Happycelebrity, JMCC1, Jeff Dahl, Mdd, Mmcannis, Neithsabes, RobertLechner, Wolfmann, XenophonFile:HistoricalMarkerUSGeorgiaPioneerTurpentiningExperiment.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HistoricalMarkerUSGeorgiaPioneerTurpentiningExperiment.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RichardelainechambersFile:African landscape.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:African_landscape.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR,Geofrog, M loewen, RedWolf, RokeFile:Christopher Columbus3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christopher_Columbus3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Painting : Dióscoro Teófilo PueblaTolín. Publisher : Currier and Ives.File:Rice terraces.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rice_terraces.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Ayacop, Daniel Mietchen, KTo288,Magalhães, NeverDoING, PMG, Royalbroil, W!B:, ÜberraschungsbilderFile:Aboriginal Art Australia(2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aboriginal_Art_Australia(2).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Thomas SchochFile:Roman aqueduct in Segovia (side view).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_aqueduct_in_Segovia_(side_view).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:KomencantoFile:Tokelau Atafu vaka canoe. 20070715.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tokelau_Atafu_vaka_canoe._20070715.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: CloudSurferFile:Eolienne et centrale thermique Nuon Sloterdijk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eolienne_et_centrale_thermique_Nuon_Sloterdijk.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Aloxe

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