employability of graduates and higher education management … · 2012-10-25 · the dehems...
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Employability of Graduates and Higher Education Management Systems (Final report of DEHEMS
project)
Edited by: Samo Pavlin
Publisher: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences
Copyright©FDV, 2012.
Photocopying and reproduction in parts and in whole is prohibited. All rights reserved.
Technical editing: Peter Cimprič
Cover design: Peter Cimprič
Cover photo: Samo Pavlin
This edition has been prepared within Erasmus project ―Network for the Development of Higher
Education Management Systems (DEHEMS)‖; Project Number: 502890-LLP-1-2009-1-SI-ERASMUS-
ENWS.
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This communication reflects
the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be
made of the information contained therein.
Uvod in zahvale
Konzorcij DEHEMS (krajńe za ‗Network for the Development of Higher Education Management
Systems‘, slov. Omreţje za razvoj sistemov menedţmenta visokošolskega izobraţevanja) je pripravil dve mednarodni
konferenci z naslovom 'Zaposljivost diplomantov in sistemi menedņmenta visokońolskega izobraņevanja'.
Prva konferenca je potekala v septembru 2011 na Univerzi za ekonomijo in poslovne vede na Dunaju,
druga pa v septembru 2012 na Univerzi v Ljubljani.
Obe konferenci sta bili usmerjeni v raziskovanje o tem, kateri dejavniki določajo zgodnji karierni uspeh
diplomantov, kako sistemi menedņmenta visokońolskega izobraņevanja upońtevajo raziskave in podatke o
zaposljivosti ter v kolikńni meri delujejo in bi morali delovati na podlagi empiričnih dokazov. Oba
dogodka sta sledila glavnim ciljem omreņja DEHEMS, ki so proučevanje dejavnikov zgodnjega kariernega
uspeha v izbranih profesionalnih domenah, ńtudijskih področjih in evropskih drņavah. Na podlagi teh
izhodińč je omreņje raziskalo v kolikńni meri sistemi menedņmenta visokońolskega izobraņevanja delujejo
na podlagi empiričnih dokazov, kar je povezano z naslednjimi ključnimi vprańanji:
- Kako visokońolske institucije v svojih programih upońtevajo prihodnje profesionalne aktivnosti
svojih diplomantov?
- Kaj počnejo visokońolske institucije, da bi svojim diplomantom pomagale pri prehodu v svet dela
(kratkoročno) in profesionalni karieri (dolgoročno)?
- Kje visokońolske institucije vidijo glavne razvojne potrebe?
- Ali načini poučevanja vplivajo na uspeńnost zaposlovanja in dela diplomantov?
- Kakńna je vloga z zaposlovanjem povezanih servisov pri uspeńnem prehodu diplomantov na trg
dela?
- Ali ńtudijski programi, ki so usmerjeni praktično, diplomante bolje pripravijo na delo, kot
programi, ki so usmerjeni znanstveno?
- Kako naj se sistemi visokońolskega izobraņevanja razvijajo v prihodnosti in v času gospodarske
recesije?
Prispevki v tej izdaji na ta vprańanja odgovarjajo iz različnih vidikov in so zato zelo pomembni za nadaljni
razvoj visokońolskega izobraņevanja in druņbe nasploh. Na tem mestu bi se rad v imenu konzorcija
DEHEMS iskreno zahvalil vsem avtorjem prispevkov na konferenci, ńe posebej pa članom znanstvenega
odbora: Polona Domadenik (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), Colin Tueck (EQAR), Vila E. Luis
(Univerza v Valenciji), Peter Robert (Univerza Széchenyi, Madņarska), Ivan Svetlik (Univerza v Ljubljani,
Slovenija), Oon-Seng Tan (Tehnolońka univerza Nanyang, Singapur), Ulrich Teichler (Univerza v Kasslu –
INCHER, Nemčija) and Pavel Zgaga (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija).
Samo Pavlin,
Ljubljana, oktober 2012
Introduction and Acknowledgements
The DEHEMS consortium (an acronym for ‗Network for the Development of Higher Education
Management Systems‘) has implemented two international conferences, titled ‗Employability of Graduates
& Higher Education Management Systems‘. The first conference has been conducted in September 2012
at the WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, and the second one in September 2012 at the
University of Ljubljana.
Both events explored which factors determine a graduate‘s early career success, how higher education
management systems take employability data and surveys into account, and how much are and should be
evidence-driven. Both events supported the main goals of the DEHEMS network, which is studying
determinants of graduate‘s early career success in selected professional domains, fields of study and EU
countries. On this basis the network explored how much are higher education systems evidence driven,
what is related to the following core consortium questions:
- What is the overall idea of higher education institutions about how studies take into account the future professional
activities of their graduates?
- What do higher education institutions do to successfully help graduates to make the transition to work (short term)
and their professional career (long term)?
- Where do higher education institutions see major developmental needs?
- Do teaching modes have any impact on successful employment and work of graduates?
- What is the role of employment related guidance services in successful transition to the labor market?
- Do practically oriented studies prepare graduates better for work than scientifically-oriented study programs?
- How shall higher education systems further develop in the future and in the time of economic recession?
Contributions in this volume address these questions from different aspects, and are hence extremely
important for the future development of higher education and society at large. At this point, I would like
to cordially thank on behalf of the DEHEMS consortium to all conference contributors, and in particular
to sterring committee members: Polona Domadenik (University of Ljubljana), Colin Tueck (EQAR), Vila
E. Luis (Universitat de Valencia), Peter Robert (Szechenyi University / Institute for Politcal Science), Ivan
Svetlik (University of Ljubljana), Oon-Seng Tan (Nanyang Technological University – Singapore), Ulrich
Teichler (University of Kassel – INCHER) and Pavel Zgaga (University of Ljubljana).
Samo Pavlin,
Ljubljana, October 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ADDRESSING EMPLOYABILITY THROUGH STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING – THE
EXPERIENCE OF BBU ............................................................................................................................................ 7 Paul Serban Agachi, Carmen Loredana Pop, Sonia Pavlenko, Camelia Moraru
I AM HERE TO LEARN BIOLOGY, NOT 'PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT': TESTING THE
BLUEPRINT FOR CAREERS ................................................................................................................................16 Celia Beizsley, Siobhan Neary
HOW TO IMPROVE THE EMPLOYABILITY OF GRADUATES ............................................................26 Neda Bokan, Petar B. Petrović, Mińa Ņivić
EMPLOYMENT AND PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES OF INTERNATIONAL GRADUATES
FROM FINNISH HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS .......................................................................39 Yuzhuo Cai, Yulia Shumilova
ON THE JOB TRAINING FOR STUDENTS AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR INCREASING
EMPLOYABILITY OF GRADUATES ................................................................................................................53 İnci Kayhan Kuzgun
DEMANDS OF THE TEACHER PROFESSION AND GRADUATES' ABILITY TO FULFIL
THESE DEMANDS ..................................................................................................................................................63 Mareike Landmann
EMPLOYABILITY AND COMPETENCES OF UNIVERSITY GRADUATES IN ITALY .................73 Giunio Luzzatto, Stefania Mangano, Roberto Moscati, Maria Teresa Pieri
CASE STUDY ON THE INFLUENCES OF ECONOMIC FACTORS ON EMPLOYMENT OF
GRADUATES OF JAPANESE ENGINEERING PROGRAMS ..................................................................88 Minoru Nakayama
FROM EXPANSION TO CRISIS: UNIVERSITY PATHWAYS AND PROFESSIONAL INSERTION
IN THE LABOUR MARKET .................................................................................................................................96 José Navarro, Sandra Fachelli
GRADUATES WHO FIND JOBS DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN ................................................................... 108 Ashly H. Pinnington
TRANSITION FROM HIGHER EDUCATION TO LABOUR MARKET IN POLAND ON THE
BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY GRADUATES ....................................................................................................... 122 Danuta Piróg
THE ISEKI_FOOD PROJECTS AND NETWORK: STRATEGIES AND ACTIVITIES TO
IMPLEMENT SKILLS AND ABILITIES OF THE FUTURE GENERATION OF GRADUATES IN
FOOD STUDIES .................................................................................................................................................... 135 Pittia P., Silva C.L.M., Costa R., Schleining G., Dalla Rosa M.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREER CENTRES AS MEDIATORS BETWEEN HE STUDENTS AND
THEIR POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS ................................................................................................................. 142 Darka Podmenik, Ivana Čančar
PROMOTING THE USE OF GRADUATE SURVEYS. CATALAN UNIVERSITY QUALITY
ASSURANCE AGENCY TALE. ......................................................................................................................... 156 Anna Prades
6
THE ROLE OF THE LEADERSHIP BY RUNNING A UNIVERSITY UNDER UNCERTAIN
CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................................................................ 164 Victor Pushnykh
DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER QUALITY: RISING ABOVE STRUCTURES, STANDARDS
AND STEREOTYPING ....................................................................................................................................... 171 Oon-Seng Tan
POVZETKI VSEH PRISPEVKOV .................................................................................................................... 174
ABSTRACTS FROM ALL CONTRIBUTIONS .............................................................................................. 184
7
ADDRESSING EMPLOYABILITY THROUGH STRATEGIC DECISION-
MAKING – THE EXPERIENCE OF BBU
Paul Serban Agachi, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Carmen Loredana Pop, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Sonia Pavlenko, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Camelia Moraru, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Abstract: Addressing employability has become a key aspect in universities‘
strategic management decisions regarding the increase in the quality and
quantity of the insertion of graduates on the labour market. In this paper we
would like to present a case study based on Babeş-Bolyai University‘s activity
aimed at highlighting three fundamental steps of the strategic decision making
process in relationship to employability, namely:
- the background informing the decisions (investigating the opinion and
status of stakeholders – graduates and employers - , the status of the
labour market, the employability of graduates, etc);
- the decisions taken with the purpose of improving graduates‘
employability (setting up specialised centres, introducing new subjects in
the curriculum, increasing the focus on practical skills, etc); and
- examining the impact that these decisions had on the graduates.
The threefold perspective will take into account how universities, labour market
and graduates (should) jointly shape higher education‘s landscape, offering
further insight into the decision making process of an individual university, i.e.
Babeş-Bolyai University.
Keywords: competencies, employability, graduate insertion, labour market,
strategic management
During the last decade, numerous studies and specific definitions regarding the HE institutions, graduates
employability and graduates employment have been issued. For HE institutions it was a specific
evolvement stemming from the interest oriented towards the graduates‘ employment expressed as a
quantitative figure – the percentage of the graduates‘ insertion on the labour market to a more refined
approach that started to take in consideration the competences that HE institutions have to developed at
the level of its own graduates in order to increases and facilitate the insertion of graduates on the labour
market. Nowadays the development of employability is a key aspect in HEIs‘ strategic decisions regarding
the increase in the quality and quantity of labour market insertion of a HE institution graduates and a
valuable source of information to assess the capacity of certain degrees to successfully and completely
qualify students for a future career in a specific professional field. For a better practical use of the terms
related to insertion on the labour market a common understanding of the concepts is requested among
the relevant actors in the field. Students, teachers, policy makers at HE institutions level, as well as
employers should have a comprehensive and common understanding of the factors that facilitate the
graduates employment as well as of the factors that are relevant in a successful professional career. But
this comprehensive and common vision of the key factors is sometimes difficult to be achieved even at a
theoretical level. Harvey (1997), based on a study on the opinion of the employers on graduates
qualifications identified general competencies as being prevalent for employment in comparison with
specific competencies, Adelman (2001) identifies IT knowledge and a Higher Education diploma as being
the basic conditions of employment, while Noble (1999) considers that essential for employment is the
8
capacity of the universities of forming transferable competencies and skills. Employability is often seen as
a set of personal characteristics of the graduate, characteristics that can be developed during the
educational and training process offered through a wide range of HE programs and that assure a better
and more rapid and flexible insertion of the graduate on the labour market. One definition usually used in
the current research is that proposed by the USEM model (Knight, Yorke, 2002) sustaining that
employability is a ―set of achievements – skills, understandings and personal attributes – that make graduates more likely
to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefit themselves, the community and the economy”.
It means at individual level a mix of: U – understanding – capacity of understanding concepts, theories
and specific problems of a certain field of science; S – skills – general and specific skills; E – efficacy
beliefs – theories regarding the personal efficacy; M – meta - cognitions regarding learning,
development, performance, general and specific. In today‘s educational environment the term
―employability‖ is wider use in relation to curricular adaptation in order to better educate graduates for a
competitive labour market. But is it a general, common understanding at EU level of the challenges and
solutions for a better insertion of students on the labour market, a labour market that itself is continuously
shaped by the constant and dynamic effects of the globalization process?
Generally defined as the expression of what the student understands or could do after concluding
successfully a module or a period of studies, the term competences implies a capacity of knowing and
understanding specific information, theories and evolutions in a certain specific field, to apply theories to
specific, different contexts, to be able to relate with people, understand and live together in different social
and cultural context.
Taking into consideration this perspective of competence, and regarding the adequacy of the preparation
of the graduates to cope with the labour market, a definition from the academic point of view and from
the perspective of the needs expressed by the labour market was necessary to define the results of the HE
teaching and learning process.
One of the European projects launched in the last decade aimed to take a step forward in the
harmonization process at EU level by making the EU degrees programmes more compatible and
implicitly, their correspondent qualifications.
The TUNING1 project proposed a model based on two types of competencies – general and specific.
General competencies include: instrumental competencies: cognitive, methodological, technical and
linguistic; interpersonal competencies: social skills, of social interaction and cooperation; systemic
competencies: systemic approach. The representatives of universities and economic environment agreed
upon generality and utility of these competencies for a successful insertion of graduates on the labour
market. More than that, the representatives of the economic environment recommended the
development/training of these competencies starting with the first year of study. Specific competencies
are those belonging to each specific discipline and represent the level attained by the science and practice
at the moment of their formation. Due to that, they are depending on the perception of the academic and
economic environment representatives on the evolution of knowledge and the practice in the field and can
be very different in different educational environment. The differentiation process, which represents on
the other hand, the effect of the competence of the HE institutions or of the national system to flexibly
adapt itself to the global challenges and to offer competitive programmes for a dynamic and challenging
labour market is not targeted at EHEA level as a marker for the inability of HE national systems to
1 For more information on the TUNING project aims, structure and results see
9
cooperate towards harmonization of theirs offers but is seen as being an essential indicator for the EHEA
healthy development as long as the differentiation process is maintained to an optimum that will allow a
common understanding of specific competences and qualifications at EU level.
The initiatives at Babeş-Bolyai University (BBU) regarding the graduates‘ insertion on the labour market
and the skills / domains that are perceived as most useful or not useful of the graduate curriculum in the
working place started thirteen years ago. Starting with 1999, when the Center for Strategic Development
and Management of Babeş-Bolyai University was established, several studies regarding the students and
graduates of the university were conducted: forecast of the number of the BBU students, geographical
area of recruitment of BBU students, employers‘ opinion regarding the BBU graduates‘ quality of overall
training, labour market study. Several QA procedures linked to the process of teaching and learning have
been applied – students are questioned regarding the quality of the courses.
The initiative has aimed to identify the link between the jobs and education and proposed several types of
actions of diagnosis and intervention:
A. Measure of the graduates insertion on the labour market;
B. The employers‘ opinion regarding BBU‘s graduates
C. Curricula adequacy and development
D. Educational offer in cooperation and Joint Degrees.
The study on insertion on the labour market of BBU graduates started in February 1999. To interview the
graduates we use a questionnaire with 39 items. The questionnaire is structured on 4 sections: the first
section offers information about the respondent (age, sex, permanent address, civil status, parents‘
background and occupation); the second section refers to the graduate‘s traineeship offered by BBU
(subjects insufficiently studied, subjects not studied but necessary); postgraduate courses (like master
studies, doctoral studies, another undergraduate diploma or other courses); the third section refers to
their working place (if they have had a job during their studies, how many jobs they have already had, their
status on the labour market at the moment, how did they find their job, when did they have their first job,
if they want to change their working place in the next period and if so why, about the organization they
are working in – private/or not, about their job – if it corresponds to their field of study); the fourth
section offers information about the reasons of graduates unemployment (why haven‘t they had a job yet,
why they don't have a job at the moment).
There is no specific sampling procedure, as all graduates from a class are being targeted. The graduates are
asked to fill in this questionnaire when they come to pick up their diploma. The response rate is 70%.
For measuring the degree of insertion, BBU developed the following criteria:
- percentage of the employability – how many graduates are employed after graduation (threshold
accepted as minimum 70%)
- time interval between graduation and employment (max. 18 months)
- percentage of continuation of studies (threshold accepted as minimum 15%)
In the following section we assess the three criteria the university has chosen to describe the
―employability‖ of its graduates.
10
1 Percentage of employment
Because most of graduates come to retrieve their diploma in an interval of 12 to 24 months from
graduation, we will refer in what follows to the moment of 1.5 years (or 18 months) from graduation for
all analysed classes.
Figure 1: Status of the BBU at the moment of raising the study certificates function of year of Graduation
Figure 1 presents the status, by graduation series, of the graduates at the moment of collecting their
diploma (hence at filling in the questionnaire). At the category ―employed‖ the following categories were
included: employed legally with employment contract, and employed on the ―black market‖; at the
category ―unemployed‖ were those registered as unemployed at the offices of unemployment and those
―neither unemployed, nor employed‖. We can notice a decrease in the percentage of employed students
for the class graduating in 2008 and 2009, one of the possible causes for this being the socio-economic
context. The majority of those employed are employed legally with an employment contract. In what
concerns the type of the institution where they are employed, their distribution between state institutions
and private institutions is variable. If for the first classes analysed the greater percentage was represented
by the graduates hired in public institutions (71% for the 1997 graduation series), for the 2004 series
almost half of the graduates were hired by private institutions (47%), and in the class of 2007 73%
declared that they are hired by private institutions. Starting with the class of 2008, we notice a slight
increase in the percentage of graduates hired by state institutions (37% for the 2008 class and 35% for the
2009 class).
If in the class of 1997, 91.7% of the questioned graduates declared they are employed in a position which
corresponded to their initial education, in the 2009 series only half of them were employed according to
their fields of study. This phenomenon can be explained by:
- Early employment (moment of employment shifted from ‖after graduation‖ to ‖during the period of
study‖; because of this early employment the graduates can not find a job in their field of study).
- Disagreement between the demand and offer of the labour force/market;
- Diversification of the better paid jobs which makes possible the employment using the general,
transferable competencies.
Neangajat
0,0%
20,0%
40,0%
60,0%
80,0%
100,0%
11,2% 12,8% 18,7% 19,3% 24,7% 27,8% 24,3% 27,8%
21,0%
12,0% 17,6% 26,7% 27,4%
88,8% 87,2% 81,3% 80,7%
75,3% 72,3% 75,7%
72,2% 79,0%
88,0% 82,4%
73,3% 72,6%
Neangajat
Angajat
11
2 Time interval between graduation and employment
The accurate measurement of this interval started in 2005 when this question was formulated and the
measurement unit is the calendar month.
In what concerns the time interval between graduation and employment, the majority of the questioned
graduates declare that they have found a job within the first 6 months from graduation. The percentages
vary from one year to another; thus, for the classes of 2005 and 2006 44% of the respondents found a job
within the first 6 months, while for the other classes the percentage is increased: 2007 - 80%, 2008 - 73%,
2009 - 86%.
3 Continuation of studies
In the questionnaire used, in the category ―continuation of studies‖ the following alternatives were
included: master, doctorate, post university/qualification studies, other faculty (undergraduate studies).
Relative to the margins of the interval, between the series 1997 and 2009, an increase of continuators of
studies of 20% was observed.
From the factual analysis, one may observe:
- an increase of the percentage of the graduates continuing their studies;
- an increase of the graduates employed in the private sector; this could be interpreted as a shift of
learning paradigm - from application to practice.
- mass-media is the main vector of transmission of the information concerning the job market.
The conclusions concerning the way our graduates are accepted on the labour market should be used
either in marketing of the university, (if the scores are good), but mostly in improving the rate of
employability and the quality of the employers. The way in which the university can achieve these goals is
influencing, improving, updating the curricula in order to give the appropriate competencies and skills.
4 Competencies
There are some questions meant to capture the opinion of the graduates on the quality of overall training
they receive during the studies. Once they get a job, they can appreciate if they have the abilities needed, if
they have the knowledge demanded, or if they have the basic skills to learn the new things required of
them. The graduates‘ answers are presented in Figure 4.
12
Figure 4: Disciplines considered insufficiently studied
Notation: P1 – disciplines in specialty P4 – foreign languages
P2 – practice P5 – computers
P3 – disciplines of the pedagogic module P6 –socio-humanities
It can be observed that the series graduating in 1997 stresses more the disciplines of specialty; the situation
is reversed for the series 2004 which stresses more the practical exercise. The situation can be explained by
the increase of the private sector which is interested more in what the employees can do using a
theoretical basis and less in what theoretical knowledge they have without putting it in practice. Thus,
from the first level of competencies ―to know and understand‖ the stress commutes on the second level
of ―to know and act‖. One can also observe the increase of the percentage of those declaring the
insufficient knowledge in the computer use and foreign languages. These two last categories are part of
transferable skills. The employers in the private sector (the increase was up to 50%) are keen on an
immediate application of knowledge of their employees. These observations are confirmed by the
employers. In 2002, the Center for Strategic Development and Management elaborated the study
―Opinion of the employers regarding the quality of overall training of the BBU graduates‖. The
employers, that asked about what they consider is lacking in the quality of overall training of the BBU
graduates, stated in a proportion of 84.3% that the practical abilities and practical training is suffering.
Coming back to the study concerning the opinion of the graduates, the questionnaire contains the
question ―what other disciplines not studied during the university you feel could be useful in your
professional career?‖. The answers of the subjects are presented in Figure 5.
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
70,0%
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
13
Figure 5: Disciplines considered as necessary and not studied during the college
Notation: Z1 – disciplines in specialty Z4 – socio-humanities
Z2 – foreign languages Z5 - others
Z3 – computer use
This may be explained by the fact the curricula of specialty is not sufficiently updated to the realities in the
field and other disciplines of specialty should be studied. A far greater demand is expressed for computer
use and foreign languages. In the category of socio-humanities, the disciplines not studied or the
insufficient approach in communication, team work, management is mentioned. These belong to the
category of transferable skills.
Considering the disciplines regarded by the graduates questioned as insufficiently studied, we can observe
that the practical exercise is on the first place, followed by IT skills and foreign languages. And increasing
demand can be observed for disciplines like: communication, teamwork, management, management of
pupil‘s classes, negotiation, etc.
Following the studies and investigations carried out, in the BBU, actions were taken on different levels in
order to increase the employability.
5 Internal construction
The policies and strategies adopted by the BBU administration are supported by other studies and
research, regarding the internal and the external environment of the university as well.
Some of them are as follows: student number prognosis (2001), geographical area of student recruitment
(2001), employer‘s opinion about BBU graduates (2002), labour market study (2004), BBU and the
interaction with the environment (2003), strategic planning for applying the Bologna Program (2005),
modalities for the specific practice exercise (2005), evaluation of the courses by the students (study carried
out since 2001).
0,0%
5,0%
10,0%
15,0%
20,0%
25,0%
30,0%
35,0%
40,0%
1997199819992000200120022003200420052006200720082009
Z1
Z2
Z3
Z4
Z5
14
But the BBU‘s attention dedicated to the employability of its graduates is older:
- beginning with 1997 the Placement, Expertise and Consultancy Service (PECS) was founded, a
service that built its database with employers and vacancies that was promoted among students,
offering services like personnel selection for employers as well;
- later on, this service was integrated in the new department created in 1999 – Center for Strategic
and Managerial Development (CSMD) that has the following tasks and responsibilities: preparing
analysis, studies, reports and forecasts; implementing strategic management in the university;
preparing tutorial and consultancy documents for all the university‘s departments; organizing
trainings and courses for university personnel; quality assurance in the university;
- the Centre for Professional Orientation (CPO) was founded in 2001, centre that addressed to
high school graduates, students and BBU graduates too;
- in 2002 CPO was transformed into Centre for Psychological Consultancy and Professional
Orientation ―EXPERT‖ – this centre hosts 12 specialized psychologists. EXPERT Centre offers
students and graduates the following types of services: psychological counselling, career
counselling, professional training, entrepreneurial counselling;
- in 2004 CSMD was transformed into the Centre for University Development (CUD) with the
following responsibilities: ensuring background documentation, analysis, expertise, evaluation of
situations for BBU‘s Academic Council; conceptual preparation of strategy, policy and university
development regulation proposals; evaluation of the implementation of the strategies in different
areas, proposed by the Academic Council, determined by its priorities; preparation of studies,
documentation and project proposals; document and brochure editing; cooperation with similar
centres and institutes in the country and from foreign countries;
- the Career Centre was founded in 2005 and it organizes job shops, meetings with firms, offer
presentations, job mediation.
6 Curricular adequacy and change
Focusing the educational approach on the development of professional skills needed in order to enter the
labour market lead to curricular change in accordance with the international evolution (for example, the
evolution of the linguistic policies on European level, which were analyzed by the Alpha and Lingua
language centres of the university, centres that proposed important amendments) and the suggestions
made by the graduates related to the disciplines that they consider important after being hired, with a role
in facilitating insertion on the labour market and further professional development. Especially three
curricular changes of this period were major, important and relevant from the perspective of increasing
the employability of BBU graduates:
- foreign languages – increasing the percentage of foreign languages as separate disciplines,
conditioning the entrance in the final degree examination, application for masters and doctoral
studies to a standard level of language skills and increasing the number of disciplines available in
foreign languages at graduate and undergraduate levels, increasing the number of specializations
in mother tongue within the framework of the Hungarian and German study lines.
- ITC disciplines – increasing the number of disciplines related to computer use regarding the
formation of general skills and specific computer user skills in scientific/pedagogical fields as well.
- introducing disciplines that favour the formation of instrumental skills2.
Measures have been taken on 3 levels: institutional construction, curricular adequacy and Joint Degrees.
2 See the TUNING Model
15
These directions were covered by the measures taken at BBU. Thus, in 2006 each faculty was endowed
with a computer room; likewise, all university extensions have computer rooms and internet connection.
Considering foreign languages, a decision was made in order to make compulsory studying of two foreign
languages and disciplines developing computer skills were introduced at each specialization. In order to
form those skills that are considered by students (and employers) inexistent, some faculties either
introduced separate disciplines or included them within the objectives of already existent subjects. For
example, the Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering introduced a communication course, or at
the Faculty of European Studies there is a Career management course being taught.
7 Conclusions
Institutional construction through well-informed decision making is fundamental for ensuring a high
degree of employability of graduates. Furthermore, BBU‘s example also illustrates the ability of the
institution to learn, change and develop based on what could be also termed ―feedback‖ from all
interested stakeholders. The strategic management processes used by BBU also help the university
dynamically adapt to an ever-changing environment (be it social, economical or otherwise) and be pro-
active in training its students and developing in them the skills required for the would-be job market.
16
I AM HERE TO LEARN BIOLOGY, NOT 'PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT':
TESTING THE BLUEPRINT FOR CAREERS
Celia Beizsley, Career Development Centre (CDC), University of Derby, United Kingdom
Siobhan Neary, International Centre for Guidance Studies (iCeGS), University of Derby, United Kingdom
Abstract: University careers services in the UK are increasingly challenged to
contribute to ensuring graduates find, obtain and engage with graduate level
opportunities. Parallel to this the range of graduate opportunities has become
increasingly competitive. All universities strive to identify and promote their
added value to the academic experience.
The Blueprint for Careers (LSIS, 2011a) builds on international practice in
developing career management competencies. It offers a useful framework,
which can be used by careers professionals to work with students and
academics to review and assess the attainment of career competencies. This
multi-layered research project utilised an on-line questionnaire, student peer
researcher training and focus groups to engage a sample of students across all
faculties of the university. The indicative findings present a mixed picture, with
students generally feeling most confident about their attitudes to lifelong
learning, and how changes in society impact on life, learning and work. Areas of
least confidence focused on the ability to make effective career and life
decisions and planning and managing life, learning and work. In relation to
programme provision students welcomed opportunities to engage in extra
curricular activities but demanded more focused and relevant work experience
opportunities.
1 Introduction
Graduate employment is an important issue for UK universities and all our higher education institutions
Mason (2006). Every university is challenged by their position in the league tables and many are taking
action to improve this. The measures taken by universities include;
- enhancing teaching and learning to improve the employability of their students,
- investing in skills/employability development roles to engage employers, (to increase the
provision of work experience placements and projects)
- establishing internship programmes that increase the number of work opportunities available on
graduation.
All of these aim to provide students with an advantage when competing with fellow graduates for the
often limited and competitive opportunities available. Although this research is located within the same
context it attempts to consider supporting graduate employability from a different angle; that of
developing career management skills. Employability in and of itself attracts a range of definitions; within
this project we are using that defined by Hillage and Pollard (1998) as the capacity to gain, keep and obtain
new employment as required.
This paper offers an introduction into the Blueprint for Careers, career management skills and how these
have been used in one UK University. The project facilitates students to self-assess their career
17
management competencies and academics to audit where and how their programmes can enhance student
employability.
2 Background and context
UK Universities are required to undertake an annual Destinations of Leavers Survey, (DLHE), which
reports on the employment destinations of leavers 6 months after graduation. This assesses the numbers
of graduates in work and study, those in graduate level jobs and their average salaries; this all contributes
to the universities position in the league tables. These are published and reported on widely in the media.
Prospective students are encouraged to use these league tables to help them to choose their university.
The new fees regime in England from September 2012 requires students to pay between £6000 and £9000
for each year of their degree, contributing to debts of £18,000+ by the time students' graduate. It is felt
that potential students are now using employability as a university selection criteria and will be increasingly
drawn to those universities that have a better position in the employment league table and report better
salaries for their graduates (Norton, 2008).
The University of Derby has always had a strong reputation for vocational degrees across many sectors,
including Art and Design, Business, Computing and Law, Hospitality, Event Management and Spa, Sport,
Technology and Engineering, Education, Health and Science. It also has a history of embedding career
management and employability into its programmes. In 2011-12, a new Learning and Teaching
Enhancement Department was created (LEI) to strengthen the support to academic staff to develop
innovative teaching and learning. Employability is seen to be central to this development.
The Career Development Centre (CDC) is located within LEI and provides a range of services to support
students in making decisions and managing graduate transitions. They have also been charged with
improving the employment outcomes for graduates. In response to this, in September 2011, a proposal
for a research project was put forward to the university research committee to test out the Blueprint for
Careers (2011). It was felt that this framework could support the propositions set out in the Teaching and
Learning strategy that all our students could expect to be engaged with the external environment, globally
informed, with life skills, and ready for employment when they finish university.
Derby has 14,640 UG students, 2,955 PG students and students from a very diverse range of
backgrounds. 50% of students are located within a 50 mile radius of Derby, the other half of the student
population are drawn to Derby from across the UK, and there are increasing numbers of EU and
International students, currently around 1500. In terms of age profile, 32% are under 21, 23% are 21-24,
12% are 25-29, and 32% are 30+. 59% of graduates are working in the local area 6 months after
graduation. 67 % of students have significant work experience prior to coming to university (University of
Derby 2012).
The University of Derby is considered to be a widening participation university, offering access to a wider
section of the population than many others. Consequently a good proportion of students are the first in
their family to attend a university and aspire to a professional career. However the evidence suggests that
working class students are disadvantaged in the graduate labour market because they lack the economic,
social and cultural capital possessed by their middle class peers (Greenbank and Hepworth, 2008). This
social background can have an impact on aspirations, self-confidence and self-efficacy required to
18
compete effectively in the graduate job market. Academic colleagues often comment on the lack of
confidence displayed by our students, who have a very wide range of aims in relation to career and life
goals. For some, just getting to and surviving university is a huge achievement in itself.
The Career Development Centre at the University sees nearly 2000 individual students per year and has
contact with more through teaching sessions within taught modules. Increasingly it is recognised that
employability and future career/life choices must be part of the curriculum from year 1, if students on
graduation are to leave university with self confidence, self efficacy, a clear idea of who they are, their
values, strengths and motivations, be able to articulate this and secure graduate level work. It was for this
reason that the Blueprint for Careers was felt to be an appropriate framework to test out with our student
body.
3 The Blueprint for Careers
Career management skills need to be considered as an extension to employability skills. The term ‗career
managements skills‘ is used to define the skills, attributes, attitudes and knowledge required to effectively
manage their career within dynamic and flexible labour markets (Hooley, Watts, Sultana and Neary,
forthcoming). This lends itself both to the particular needs of university students and to the current
challenging employment market they face.
The concept of a career management framework has been evolving through a number of iterations since
the late 1980s where the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee in the US
developed the first Blueprint; the National Career Development Guidelines (1989). This was then adapted
for Canada in 1996 (National Life/work Centre n.d) to become the Blueprint for Life/Work Designs;
closely followed by the Australian Blueprint (McMahon, Patton, and Tatham 2003). Hooley et al
(forthcoming) provide an in-depth analysis of the various iterations and specifically the evolution of the
Blueprint as a learning paradigm. The framework has evolved to encompass a more inclusive relationship
between work and life; by presenting the competencies enabling this to happen. During 2010/2011 The
Learning and Skills Improvement Service (LSIS) trialled the Australian Blueprint with a range of learning
providers including universities (LSIS, 2011b). This research contributed to the formulation of a Blueprint
for England the Blueprint for Careers (2011a). This current research utilised this new framework.
The Blueprint offers a framework that aims to support individuals to effectively manage their career,
learning and work through defined career learning competencies. Three headings; understanding and
developing myself; exploring life, learning and work and developing and managing my career define the
framework. These are underpinned by 11 career learning competencies; together these make up the
Blueprint. (See Figure 1 below).
19
Figure 1: The Blueprint for Careers
The Blueprint for Careers (LSIS, 2011a) provided an opportunity to investigate how using career
management competencies might raise awareness and support the acquisition of skills to support life,
learning and work with graduates and programme leaders within the university.
4 The Methodology
Funding to undertake the project was sought from the University Student Experience Strategy group, the
focus of which is to test initiatives that could be adopted by the university to enhance students‘ academic
careers. Faculty members of the committee were asked to identify 2 programmes from within their
Faculties to participate in the project; a total of 8 could be involved.
The research project adopted a multi-layered approach which aimed to capture data from students on
both their confidence in their own career management competencies and the extent to which they felt
supported to develop these through their programme of study. A key element of the project was the
involvement of students, to facilitate this the project sought to recruit and employ 2 students from each of
the programmes to support and manage the wider student engagement with the project.
4.1 Student researchers
The ‗student‘ researchers acted as a focal point for the research in terms of promoting the research to
their peers, being a champion of career management and feeding back the outcomes of the research to
their programme. The rationale for selecting this approach was located in a desire for the students to at
the centre of the work and to redistribute the power between the researcher and the students (Atweh and
Leone 1995). Additionally it was felt that students might be more willing to contribute to a project
facilitated by peers rather than academic staff.
Job descriptions and person specifications for the student researchers were drafted and sent out to the
academic partners, with a request they identify students who they thought would become competent
researchers, and have capacity to undertake the work. A total of 10 students were initially recruited and
The Blueprint for Careers
Understanding and developing myself
1. I know who I am and what I am good at
2. I interact confidently and effectively with others
3. I change, develop and adapt throughout my life
Exploring life, learning and work
4. I learn throughout my life
5. I find and utilise information and the support of others
6. I understand how changes in society, politics and the economy relate to my life, learning and work
7. I understand how life, learning and work roles change over time
Developing and managing my career
8. I make effective decisions relating to my life, learning and work
9. I find, create and keep work
10. I maintain a balance in my life, learning and work that is right for me
11. I plan, develop and manage my life, learning and work
20
employed for the project, 6 had been identified by the academic partners and 4 through advertising; 9
finally contributed as 1 left soon after the project commenced. The programmes they came from included
Biology and Zoology, Early Childhood Studies, Business Management, Accounting and Finance, Business
Management and Events Management.
To support the students in the task a training programme was devised which provided an input on
research skills, methodology, ethics, career management skills and opportunities to define approaches for
encouraging their peers to contribute to the project. A project blog was established through which they
could share their experiences and ask for support and ideas from each other in growing the awareness of
the on-line questionnaire and encouraging students to complete it.
Each programme area was asked to support the students in giving them access to student groups to
provide opportunities to promote the on-line questionnaire. This did not happen to the same extent in all
areas resulting in a significant impact on the numbers of students completing the on-line questionnaire. In
total 157 students contributed to the survey. It is difficult to assess the response rate overall as student
researchers were unable to define the numbers of students in each of the lectures they attended to
promote the research.
The questionnaire data was analysed using Excel, this allowed the mean to be calculated for the responses
to each question by programme and for the group overall. Focus groups were arranged by the student
researchers with their peer group to gain a deeper understanding of the responses and to provide
triangulation of the data. This helped in assessing the relevance of the responses as well as identifying
opportunities for programme developments. The narrative elements of the questionnaire were also
collated and analysed to identify themes in relation to student expectations from their programme and
recommendations for enhancements.
5 Findings and discussion
Responses to the questionnaire were received predominantly from four programme areas; Biology,
Zoology, Events Management and Business. Biology and Zoology represented over 57% of the responses
overall. This paper will present some indicative findings for the overall group rather than those specific to
the academic disciplines but will identify any variances that may be of interest. Across academic disciplines
students undertaking Events Management were generally more positive about both their career
management skills and the support of the programme compared to other programmes; Zoology was least
positive.
Students across all programmes generally felt less confident about how their programme was supporting
them and more confident in their own abilities in developing the pertinent career management skills. This
may be because they were able to identify examples from their own experience of where they were able to
demonstrate competence but struggled with defining how the programme supported them.
6 Students’ perception of areas of strength
Areas of most personal confidence identified by all students focused on
- Their ability to change, develop and adapt through life; and
21
- Their ability to understand how changes in society, politics and the economy relate to life,
learning and work
For many these selections reflected that for students their lives had changed through coming to university
and were able to articulate examples when they had to adapt and change. There was a sense of self
awareness of students consciously adopting ways of working to help them develop skills which they felt
would be transferable.
“I try out various revision methods in order to understand which may suit my learning ability.”
“The ability to skim read many long texts and extract that which is important is also a skills I have
gained and develop.”
Areas of least personal confidence focused on
- Their ability to make effective decisions relating to life, learning and work; and
- Knowing who you are and what you are good at
These choices are interesting as they suggest that students are lacking in self awareness which
consequently could also relate to their selection of decision making as an issue. Law and Watts (1977)
identify self awareness and decision making as two of the main components of career planning the others
being opportunity awareness and transition awareness. Students generally struggled in identifying
opportunities within their life that evidenced these two areas of competence. Decision making is a key
employability skill, built on the ability to access and utilise information and then take action. Responses to
the competence ‗I am able to find and utilise information and support from others when I need it‘ was
also generally lower then some of the other competencies explored.
In relation to how the programme supports students they tended to respond more negatively, although
there was a recognition that programmes attempted to support them in developing employability skills.
Areas of most confidence in their programme of study focused on
- Support to change, develop and adapt through life; and
- Recognising the role and importance of lifelong learning
There is some synergy here in relation to personal confidence; as in both instances being able to change,
develop and adapt was the competency attracting the greatest confidence levels. The recognition of
lifelong learning would also suggest a recognition that individuals will need to continue to learn
throughout life and that university is only one part of this. It could be argued that both these competences
reflected more recent experiences and specifically their transition to managing their university life.
Areas of least confidence in their programme of study focused on
- Find, create and keep work
- Apportion and maintain a balance of life learning and work
The issue of work was a key theme identified throughout the narrative responses. Students were very
conscious and aware of the issues of graduate unemployment. The need to develop a robust set of
employability skills was considered by students in many of their responses.
22
“The University should offer every student a few months of practice in a workplace depending on their course.”
The selection of competence around work life balance reflects what for many is a challenging
environment where students are often balancing a number of commitments. It is not unusual for full time
students to also work full time hours. In addition many of the students are mature students and are
balancing their studies with family life.
7 Career management support offered by programmes
All programmes offer personal development support within their programmes; usually in the form of
Personal Development Planning (PDP). In addition to this dedicated careers related module employer
activities and work placements may be offered; this will be defined as appropriate to each programme.
The Blueprint offered programme leaders an opportunity to receive feedback from students on the extent
to which they were meeting student‘s needs and to identify omissions.
Students were able to identify a range of support activities provided by the programme. These tended to
focus on activities to support the development of interpersonal skills, careers awareness, extra curricular
and work specific skills.
Interpersonal skills - students recognised and valued all opportunities offered to them which allowed
them to practice develop and apply interpersonal skills within their programme. Opportunities to work as
a team, with new people, public speaking and presentations were identified as supporting them to enhance
skills to understand and develop themselves.
“Group presentations means I work as part of a team, often with people I wouldn‟t normally work with and also enhances
my ability to communicate information.”
Careers awareness – all opportunities to engage with employers, previous students and to learn about
the range of career opportunities within the sector were welcomed. Students access this both through
provision delivered by the Career Development Centre service and that organised directly by the
programme. These opportunities supported students in making the links between academic skills and
transition into the workplace.
“I would like to engage more in career development planning to help me understand even further what I am good at.”
“Careers based module helps me to define who I am in a professional sense.”
However, not all students recognised the need to broaden out from the academic discipline and resented
the focus on personal development and the dilution of their studies, hence the title of the study.
Extra curricular – many students used opportunities provided by the university to develop their career
management skills. Peer mentoring, volunteering and work placements were all seen to add value to the
programme of study.
“ I take part in peer mentoring scheme where I can be a mentee of someone who is professional and has done the same degree
as mine‖
23
Students generally wanted more of these opportunities, but often not at the expense of discipline based
modules.
Work related skills - opportunities to develop skills that would be used in the workplace such as lab
skills, technology skills, research, volunteering and ‗real practical events‘ supported students in applying
their academic disciplines in practice. Students felt this was an area which needed to be expanded further
and that the relationship between their academic programme and practice could be better supported.
“ More practical work and placement in an environment which more accurately represents the working life than sitting in a
lecture theatre does.”
8 What else do students want?
Students generally recognise, value and appreciate opportunities that allow them to combine their
academic study with real work related opportunities. Many felt there was too much emphasis on
volunteering and part time work rather than supporting students to gain relevant paid work experience.
Students wanted more interpersonal skills development and careers awareness opportunities. Specific
topic identified as a response to the career management questions included; networking opportunities with
professionals from industry, help with finding work placements and internships, global issues relating to
academic disciplines and presentations from a variety of previous students not just the highly successful.
However, an issue identified was the challenge in building in these activities within an already demanding
schedule at times when students can access them. The greatest criticism focused on timetabling. This
tends to be a universal issue and it is unlikely that all students will get what they want when they want it.
9 What happens next?
Feedback of findings to academic colleagues prompted some useful discussions about the Blueprint
framework and how it can be used with students. There is agreement that it is a useful framework within
which to enable students to locate themselves and their personal development needs. It explains to
students why personal development is important and why they should engage with the opportunities an
HE experience can provide.
It has also been recognised that it is a broad conceptual framework that can encompass the wide diversity
of students. What might be important personal career development for a student on Events Management
may not be the same as for Biology. Decision making may be an issue for Zoology students but not so
much for Biology students.
The Career Development Centre (CDC) is working on a diagnostic questionnaire for students that takes
each competence and enables students to self assess their degree of confidence with each one and with
referral to sources of advice and help.
The Blueprint for Careers will be used as a part of the training being rolled out to personal tutors so they
can better understand career management competences and issues and locate their help within this
24
paradigm. The CDC will also use the framework to badge career learning resources to better explain their
value to students and academics.
Hooley, et al (forthcoming) identify that an issue for the adoption of Blueprints of this type is the lack of
empirical evidence of impact. This project is attempting to establish in a small way the evidence base
underpinning the use of a career management blueprint. This next stage will aim to support academic staff
to adopt the Blueprint as a theoretical framework to teach students about career management
competencies. The Careers Development Centre is continuing to have meaningful conversations with
academics about this.
10 Conclusion
Achieving global graduate competence is not just about attaining qualifications and excelling in a
knowledge-based or professional capacity; it is also about holistic development including outlook, values
and character – experiential learning is vital. The university seeks to develop students who are confident
and creative, ambitious and entrepreneurial in their outlook on their life and study and see their experience
in higher education as part of their lifelong career journey.
Traditional career development practices have focused largely on information acquisition and job search.
The assumption has been that with access to appropriate information, and guidance, where necessary,
people will be able to choose the right occupation for themselves: then they simply acquire the
appropriate education and training and, with job search skills, find the right job. The reality is that even
with good information and job search skills, if a person expects to fail, has poor communication and
teamwork skills, is unwilling to embrace change and opportunity, commit to lifelong learning and
innovation they will probably not keep a job long, even if they are fortunate enough to secure one. The
Blueprint addresses how personal and career development works for an individual and develops a sense of
ownership of career progression. By focusing on the individual it can raise aspirations and provide a
framework for personal /career development planning, enabling the potential graduate to be positive and
forward thinking and develop resilience to withstand the vagaries of the graduate labour market.
References
Atweh, B. and Leone, B. (1995), ‗Students as Researchers: Rationale and critique‟, British Educational Research Journal 21,
no. 5, 561-575.
Greenbank, P., and Hepworth, S. (2008), Working class students and the career decision making process. Manchester:
HECSU.
Hillage, J., and Pollard, E. (1998), Employability: developing a framework for policy analysis. London: Department for
Education and Employment.
Hooley, T. Watts, A.G. Sultana, R. Neary, S. (forthcoming), The ‗Blueprint‘ framework for career management skills:
a critical exploration. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling.
Law, B., & Watts, A.G. (2007), Schools, Careers and Community. London: Church Information Office.
Learning and Skills Improvement Service. (LSIS) (2010), Career Learning for the 21st Century: The Career Blueprint:
Supporting an All-Age Guidance Strategy. Coventry: LSIS.
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Learning and Skills Improvement Service (LSIS) (2011b), The Blueprint for Careers – Evidence of impact. Coventry: LSIS.
Learning and Skills Improvement Service (LSIS) (2011a), Blueprint for Careers - A brief Guide. Coventry: LSIS.
Mason, G., Williams, G., and Cranmer, S. (2006), Employability skills initiatives in Higher Education: What effects do they have
on graduate labour market outcomes. London: National Institute of Economic and Social Research.
McMahon, M., Patton, W., & Tatham, P. (2003), Managing Life, Learning and Work in the 21st Century. Subiaco, WA:
Miles Morgan Australia Pty Ltd.
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Retrieved from: http://206.191.51.163/blueprint/home.cfm/lang/1[Accessed 20th June 2012]
National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (1989), National Career Development Guidelines.
Washington, DC: NOICC.
Norton, T. (2008), Graduate employment and earnings: Are universities meeting student expectations? London: 1994 Group.
University of Derby student statistics http://www.derby.ac.uk/statistics/student-statistics [Accessed June 20th
2012].
26
HOW TO IMPROVE THE EMPLOYABILITY OF GRADUATES
Neda Bokan, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Petar B. Petrović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Eng., Serbia
Miša Ţivić, Student Conference of Serbian Universities, Serbia
Abstract: Globalization of markets, technology sophistication, rapid changes in
economic and business environment and demand for high profile individuals
with specialized knowledge, created a shift in labor markets around the globe.
The number of graduates with different academic backgrounds, abilities, skills
and practical knowledge increases from day to day, raising the bar and
competition on labor markets in that respect. However, in this competition,
graduates from all countries do not play the same role. But despite the
competitiveness, we also have to have in mind that one among the eight United
Nations Millennium Development Goals is to develop a global partnership of
all countries in order to achieve this development. We discuss here some
aspects of economy and higher education developments in the Republic of
Serbia which are strongly connected with the employability of graduates and
with its improvement, as well as the ways of achieving this competitiveness in
the realization of this previously mentioned goal.
1 A Retrospection on Global Circumstances
Globalizations of markets, technology sophistication, and rapid changes in economic / business
environment have been recognized worldwide within last several decades. These circumstances have
implied changes in education, research, labor markets, etc. We have recognized the necessity for high
profile individuals with specialized knowledge and ability to learn how to build their own capacities on a
―life-long‖ basis, creating also a shift in labor markets. The number of graduates with different academic
backgrounds, abilities, skills and practical knowledge increases from day to day.
Four Ministers of Education participating in the celebration of the 800th Anniversary of the University of
Paris shared the view that the segmentation of the European higher education sector was outdated and
harmful (see [2]). One year later, The Bologna Declaration of June 1999 [3] was been signed by 29
Ministers of Education, which had put in motion a series of reforms needed to create the European
Higher Education Area by 2010. It was the beginning of the Bologna process. From the start, the three
overarching objectives of this process have been: introduction of the three-cycle system
(bachelor/master/doctoral), quality assurance and recognition of qualifications and period(s) of study.
In the Leuven Communiqué of 2009 [17], the Ministers identified the following priorities for the next
decade:
- Social dimension: equitable access and completion;
- Lifelong learning;
- Employability;
- Student-centered learning and the teaching mission of higher education;
27
- Education, research and innovation;
- International openness;
- Mobility;
- Data collection;
- Multidimensional transparency tools;
- Funding.
After more than ten years of intensive reforms, ministers met on 11/12 March 2011 in Budapest and
Vienna to officially launch the European Higher Education Area, as decided in 1999.
The EU also works to support the modernization agenda of universities through the implementation of
the 7th EU Framework Program for research (European Research Area) and the Competitiveness and
Innovation Program, as well as the Structural Funds and Loans from the European Investment Bank.
Please refer to [30] for more details.
We also point out that the employability problem has been considered by the European Community (see
for example [4] and many other documents). When we discuss the employability of graduates, we need to
recognize the ―brain-drain solution‖ of employability for individuals, typical for many undeveloped
countries whose GDP is also low and consequently with the same tendency in the future, since those
countries‘ economies stagnate because they lose well-educated young people. From that point of view,
their investment in education is also lost.
At the European level, in the framework of the ‗New Skills for New Jobs‘ initiative, a group of
independent experts recommended the development of 'a common language between education/training
and the world of work'. This commitment has recently been affirmed at the highest level through ‗Europe
2020: A European strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth‘ and the Conclusions adopted by
the Education Council on 13 May 2010, which call for a common language and an operational tool.
The intention is to gradually develop a multilingual classification of European Skills/Competences,
Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO), which will be sufficient to broadly meet the needs of Member
States who do not have their own classification system and to enable those with existing national and
sectoral classifications to link with each other.
According to ESCO there is a tendency that employers should focus less on formal qualifications, but
should be concerned with what employees know, understand and are able to do in practice. Furthermore,
there is a growing understanding of the importance of transversal skills, such as learning to learn and
initiative-taking, complementing occupational skills.
At the same time, education and training systems are moving away from approaches defined around the
time spent on learning and where the learning takes place (the input approach), towards a focus on the
knowledge, skills and competences achieved through the learning (the outcome approach). In line with the
European Qualifications Framework (EQF), all Member States are in the process of developing National
Qualifications Framework (NQFs), which describes qualifications in terms of learning outcomes. To
respond to these shifts and to improve matching between supply and demand, a number of Member
States have felt the necessity to develop systems that classify skills and competences and enable these to
be related to qualifications, occupations and job vacancies. At sectoral level, similar initiatives have been
taken.
28
The European development and competitiveness has been discussed by European Commission which
has developed European Technology Platforms (ETP), as new political instrument focused on three main
targets: 1) providing a framework for stakeholders, led by industry, to define research and development
priorities, 2) ensuring an adequate focus of research funding on areas with a high degree of industrial
relevance, and 3) addressing technological challenges that can potentially contribute to a number of key
policy objectives which are essential for Europe‘s future competitiveness (please refer to [5], [7], [8], [11],
[13], [15] for more details).
2 The Program of National Technology Platforms of Serbia
When we observe the employability of graduates in Serbia within the previous five or six decades, we can
see that it is in a close correlation with the level of development of industry. Hence, the main goal in this
section is to present one among alternate models of reindustrialization of Serbian economy in the period
2010-2030. This model of reindustrialization is based on endogenous approach, which implies building up
strong engineering and research human resources, indispensable for intensive development processes in
medium and high technology domains. The foundation for this approach lies in the Program of National
Technology Platforms of Serbia (NTPS Program), which has been recognized as one of the strategic
priorities in current industrial policy of Serbia.
2.1 Present ituation in Serbian industry
Serbian industry has been facing serious problems that last for almost two decades. Stagnation in all
sectors has been present since the nineties, and this process has been associated with the aftermath of the
disintegration of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and various related processes, that
have had a serious impact on the overall economy, especially industry.
The quantification of the stagnation process can be achieved based on three aggregate indicators: 1) the
index of industrial production, 2) the number of industrial workers, and 3) the share of industry in GDP.
The Index of Production (IoP), measures the volume of production of the manufacturing, mining and
quarrying, and energy supply industries. The IoP is a major contributor to the National Accounts. GDP
measures the sum of the value added created through the production of goods and services within the
economy.
Statistical trends of these aggregate indicators are given in Figure 1(a). The trends show the evidence for
sudden collapse of industry output, huge loss of human resources (together with explicit/formal and tacit
knowledge for technology and industrial production), and marginalization of the role of industry. Figure
1(b) shows the dynamics of accumulation and erosion of human resources. In fact, the crisis from the
nineties has triggered the process of intensive deindustrialization of Serbian economy. Over the five
decades, it is possible to identify three characteristic periods:
1960 – 1990 The context that preceded the crisis: Serbia as a part of Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia; stable industrial development; rapid industrial development, average growth rate over 3
decades: 7.8% per year.
Data for the year 1990: IoP_1990 = 100, 998.000 workers, 28.6 % GDP;
29
1990 – 2000 Collapse of the Former Yugoslavia: Massive disintegration processes and ethnic
conflicts; severe economic downturn; enormous inflation and collapse of the national fiscal system;
extensive fragmentation of the industrial system; UN economic sanctions, etc; all together created serious
consequences and severely damaged the industry.
Data for the year 2000: IoP_1990 = 43.3, 643.000 workers, 24.7 % GDP;
2000 – 2010 Democratic changes: The emerging Republic of Serbia; economic liberalization
process/ market economy; extensive privatization process (almost completed); openness for foreign direct
investments; global economy crisis in 2008.
Data for the year 2010: IoP_1990 = 45.9, 312.000 workers, 15.9 % GDP;
For a more comprehensive insight into the condition the industry is in, it is necessary to introduce another
indicator that refers to the quantification of manufacturing industry sectoral technology content, i.e.
industry technological profile. Industry technological profile is defined by the sectoral classification of
investment intensity in research and development (products, processes and/ or business systems), i.e.,
R&D expenditure as defined in [1] and [6]. This indicator is not systematically monitored in Serbia, but it
can be derived from the industry statistical data that are collected regularly. Figure 2 shows the sectoral
technological profile of Serbian industry for 2008 (source: Republic Development Bureau, Republic of
Serbia).
Figure 1: The index of production (indexed to the year 1990), industrial workers, and total industry share in GDP creation within the past five decades (a). A five-decade process of accumulation and erosion of human resources, i.e., the national intellectual capital for industrial technologies and production (b).
30
For the purpose of comparison, the sectoral technological profiles of two leading world economies, the
US and the EU are also given in Figure 2, expressed through R&D investment of industrial companies
(the investment funded by the companies themselves and for their own technological development, [16]).
The differences are almost dramatic, and clearly show a high degree of technological erosion that had
occurred. It is clear that in the past two decades the process of technological development in Serbia had
an inverse character, i.e., a downward direction of development helix that has transformed a former,
highly dynamic and technology intensive, industry into a recourse-based and low value-adding industry. In
this regard, consequences on the overall corpus of engineering, especially in education, as well as R&D
activities in the field of industrial technologies, have been very negative (destructive).
Figure 2: Comparison of the sectoral profile of Serbian industry in accordance to the intensity of technology for 2008 and RTD technology investment profile of industrial companies in EU and USA.
2.2 The NTPS program
The NTPS Program is based on the concept of European Technology Platforms and in all aspects of its
activities is highly focused on establishing and developing various forms of collaboration, especially with
31
individual technology platforms having strategic research agendas complementary with research and
development priorities of Serbia. The Program was formally launched in 2010 and the Academy of
Engineering Sciences of Serbia (AINS) is responsible for its development and implementation.
There are four basic objectives that govern the NTPS Program:
- Creating a new formal framework for a smart and systemic transformation of the technological
basis of Serbian industry;
- Strengthening science – industry interaction by better focusing of RTD programs and funding on
areas of high relevance to Serbian industry and ending the situation in which investment in R&D
often produces less than expected;
- Focusing on technology as an important component for the process of European integration;
Recognizing the challenges of technology which can potentially contribute to the realization of key
societal priorities and deliver benefits to Serbian citizens.
Figure 3: NTPS structure: Core governing level and up to 10 individual technology platforms, dedicated to one or more societal priorities of Serbia.
Regarding the methodological framework, the NTPS Program draws its foundations from the respective
national potential for technology research and development (well-developed educational and RTD
infrastructure), the respective industrial tradition that spreads out for nearly two centuries, and also
cultural and regional specificities.
The NTPS Program is organized as a structure that is composed of two hierarchical levels: 1) The NTPS
Core, which is located within the Serbian Academy of Engineering Sciences and governed by the NTPS
Committee, and 2) NTPS Individual Platforms, a set of up to 10 individual platforms that emerge from
the NTPS Core as a system of mutually complementary, networked and interacting entities. Figure 3
shows the general structure of the NTPS Program.
Any of the NTPS individual technology platforms should be:
- A Response to a Major National Challenges: The Platforms are mission oriented and address
major national economic – environmental – technical – social challenges. NTPS is not a short-
term, problem solving instrument.
- A Strategic National Initiative: Platforms should be set up only when there is a well-defined,
national, strategic need for such an instrument, and national added value can be clearly justified.
32
- Politically Highly Visible: To affect change across national, industrial, technological
boundaries, the NTPS individual platforms must create strong political support and be highly
visible at a national, European, and even at a global level.
- Industry Led: To be effective, the NTPS individual platforms must be driven by actors from the
applications/ problem end of the innovation process. Individual platforms should not become
too academic and the most relevant stakeholders in the sector should be included. The governing
bodies of the platforms must be led by a person who is coming from the industrial domain.
- Well-planned and executed: There must be a ‗road map‘, with a long-term vision, a sound
strategy for achieving this vision and a detailed action plan for carrying out the necessary
activities. The platform must be big enough to be representative.
The NTPS Program is recognized by the Serbian Ministry of Science and Education as a program of
strategic importance for technology development, technology transfer and innovation system
development. This program is also incorporated in the ‗Serbian Industrial Policy 2020‘, as a strategically
important pillar for rising high technology content in Serbian industry [25].
NTPS-Production is the first individual platform that has been derived from the NTPS Program and put
into operation. It is an industry-led voluntary association of stakeholders in the field of industrial
production. This technology platform is closely related to the process of recovery and transformation of
the industrial system in Serbia. In this process, NTPS-Production activities are predominantly focused
on strengthening the interaction of industry and science, including the educational aspects, with active
participation in the following instruments and strategic projects:
1. 3R Packet of Instruments for the recovery and transformation of industry as defined by the
actual Industrial Policy 2020:
- Revitalization (2011-2015) – The first stage of the recovery process, targeted to big
industrial companies and systems;
- Reengineering (2015-2020) – The second stage of the recovery process, targeted to the
modernization of technological basis and organizational structures of big companies and
stimulation of mass development of small and medium enterprises in the field of
industrial production;
- Expansion and growth (2020-2030) - The third stage of the recovery process that is
dedicated to transformation of the technology profile of the industry from dominantly
low-tech to high-tech sectors.
2. Horizontal transformation programs / FaBS Initiative (the Serbian Factory of the Future -
clean, green, lean concept):
- Ecologically sustainable and compatible industry;
- Energy and recourse efficient industry;
- Digitalized manufacturing processes and production – ICT agenda for industry: Digital
Factory, Smart Factory and Virtual Factory programs.
3. TeMaS Project – Technology Maps of Serbia.
For the above listed activities the cooperation with the following individual technology platforms at EU
level is of particular importance: ManuFuture: Future Manufacturing Technologies of Europe, EUROP:
European Robotics Platform, MINAM: European Platform on Micro- and Nano-manufacturing,
ARTEMIS: The European Technology Platform for Advanced Research and Technology for Embedded
Intelligence and Systems, and EPoSS: European Platform on Smart Systems Integration. This
33
cooperation is considered as a vehicle for fast technology transfer (technology shortcut), as well as for
adaptation of Serbian industry to European industry standards and organizational models of industrial
companies, especially in the context of new paradigm of customized manufacturing that radically changes
the general framework of industrial production. In that sense, of particular importance is the initiative of
ManuFuture technology platform named Factories of Future (FoF), which was launched by the European
Commission in 2008 within the Economic Recovery Plant, as a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) with an
allocated budget of 1.3 billion EUR. The FoF PPP is cross-thematic, encompassing the Information and
Communications Technologies (ICT) Theme and Nanosciences, Nanotechnologies, Materials and New
Production Technologies (NMP) Theme. FaBS Initiative (Serbian Factory of the Future), is a
complementary action at the national level, which is closely related to the FoF PPP, focusing in parallel on
the national specificities of Serbian economy, as well as on the European priorities in the field of industrial
technologies, covering both the RTD and the educational aspects.
Figure 4: The general model of the development of a common language between education/training and the world of work, i.e., labor market (adopted from ESCO).
Besides the technological aspect, the FaBS initiative is also focused on educational aspects as well as
interaction of education system and the labor market. The general model of interaction between the
education system and the labor market in sense of the development of 'a common language between
education/training and the world of work', adopted from ESCO, is given in Figure 4. It is essential that
the occupations and skills/competences generated by the system of higher education in Serbia should be
highly responsive to the needs of the reindustrialization process of Serbian economy.
3 Forum of Students and Business People of Serbia 2011
The geopolitical changes in the region of the Western Balkans, as well as the globalization of markets and
rapid changes in economic frameworks have also played a role in some higher education processes in
Serbia. When we had a well-developed economy, we also had a well-developed higher education system,
very internationalized universities with numerous students from all over the world (Please refer to [26] ).
We have already pointed out in the previous section that reindustrialization, the NTPS Program, and
consequently the employability problem of graduates, are closely related to the development of education.
This problem has been discussed by the Government of the Republic of Serbia [9], [12], the Serbian
Chamber of Commerce [21], the Student Conference of Serbian Universities [24], etc. We refer to [22],
[14] for some observations on relations between a university and labor markets in the frame of skills,
34
competences and knowledge achieved by graduates. In this section, we first present the current situation
in higher education, especially according to the graduates‘ employability. In the second subsection we
recognize the new skills, competence and knowledge of graduates to realize reindustrialization proposed
by the NTPS Program. In the last subsection, we propose some steps to improve the educational system
of Serbia, which would allow graduates to achieve new skills, competence and knowledge.
3.1 Current situation in higher education in Republic of Serbia
When we discuss the Bologna process in Serbia, we may point out that our Minister of Education signed
the Bologna declaration in 2003. In 2005 the Parliament passed the Law on Higher Education, and in
2007 and 2010 some amendments to the Law were accepted (see [10], [20]), which are compatible with the
ideas of the Bologna process. At the end of 2010, all study programs and higher education institutions
have been accredited, following the spirit of the Bologna Declaration. The priorities of the Leuven
Communiqué were taken mainly into consideration with initial results already recognized. So, let us
mention that our universities are involved in the projects of mobility of students and academic staff
through the Erasmus Mundus Action Program. The entrepreneurship is developed through master
programs and Business-Technology Incubators (see [22] for more details). The social dimension of the
Bologna process is developed through the Tempus project ―Equal Access for All: Strengthening the Social
Dimension for a Stronger European Higher Education Area‖ (www.equied.ni.ac.rs/en/). Universities
have established Centers for: career development and counseling of students, lifelong learning, students
with disabilities, for transfer of technology, quality assurance, etc; with the goal not only to recognize
formally the priorities of the Leuven Communiqué, but also to make a progress in this spirit.
The Center of Career Development of the University of Belgrade carried out a pilot research ―First
Destination Data‖ / Gde ste, ńta radite / in the period from December 2009 to March 2010, with the aim
of providing, among other information, the data regarding the employability of graduates of the University
of Belgrade. The fact that this was a pilot project (online type, size, and structure of the sample), does not
allow us to draw a more general conclusion based on the information, yet it gives us some insight into
what happens with our students after graduating. Out of all examined graduates that actively searched for
a job, 60% had the opportunity to work within the first six months after graduation; 25,1% of the jobs
were found within the first 3 months. Graduates that got a job fastest were from the Faculty Mathematics,
the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and the Faculty of Economics. However, we need to point out that
analyzing the applicants for enrolling in bachelor degree studies at the University of Belgrade, for example,
and data from the National Employment Service, one can see a misbalance. More precisely, the interest of
candidates for some study programs, and the supply and demand on the labor market are different as
Appendix and [31] show.
Some problems of graduates employed in small and medium enterprises were analyzed in [19].
One can draw a conclusion that a progress is recognizable, but more contribution can be made and many
challenges can be recognized. Some ideas are discussed in the upcoming subsections.
3.2 Competencies, skills and knowledge of graduates
We have already checked in previous sections that the industrial development and consequently the
employability of graduates heavily depend on the quality of all levels of education.
The representatives of students in Serbia, as we mentioned above, in the frame of the Student Conference
of Universities of Serbia, have also taken the employability problem into consideration, as well as the role
35
of various stakeholders in this setting. For that purpose, they organized a ―Forum of Students and
Business People of Serbia‖, from 6 to 8 December 2011 in Belgrade (we refer to [24] for more details).
The Forum has been organized in the form of a panel discussion and 15 round tables in four sessions:
I session: Essential challenges for compatibility of educational system with labor market demands;
II session: Recommendations for improvement of educational system;
III session: Improvement of established recommendation (rotation of participants in various round
tables);
IV session: Ranking of recommendations.
The panel discussion was devoted to the higher education reform, with a view of harmonizing it with
economy demands in the Republic of Serbia. The keynote speakers were: Mr. Boris Tadić, President of the
Republic of Serbia, Prof. Dr Ņarko Obradović, Minister for Education and Science, Mr. Branko Radujko,
Director General of Telekom Serbia, and Mr. Bojan Radun, President of Serbian Association of Managers.
The final conclusions of this Forum were given in two documents:
- Enhancement trends of study programs in higher education institutions of the Republic of Serbia;
- Recommendations: How to improve the educational system in the Republic of Serbia.
Listed below are some of the most important skills and knowledge which have been recognized as
unavoidably necessary for someone who would like to see themselves employed in 21st century:
- Professional knowledge and skills anticipated by study program;
- Practical experience to achieve the ability of team work, communication skills, etc.;
- Entrepreneurial skills;
- Managerial skills;
- Problem-solving skills and analyticity in business challenges, as well as in everyday life;
- Knowledge of economy (marketing, financial management, accountancy);
- Knowledge of labor law (rights and commitments);
- Inquisitiveness and interest in building capacities and lifelong learning;
- Flexibility and adaptability to various circumstances in business environment in the frame of
moral norms;
- Motivation to work and make a career progress in the company;
- Persistency in reaching a final solution to a problem;
- Being well-informed and keeping up with the current trends in the profession and the company;
- Individuality – to be able to, without team assistance, overcome difficulties in his/her job;
- Mobility according to business requirements;
- Interest in intersectoral connections because of good cooperation;
- etc. (one can find more details in [24]).
3.3 On Improvement of Educational System in Republic of Serbia
According to recognized competences, knowledge and skills, the participants of the Forum have proposed
how to improve the educational system of the Republic of Serbia. We present here some of these
recommendations involving some comments of the authors.
- Modernization of teaching process. As we know, the reform of higher education through the
last 15 years has been done in such a way that the system has been changed from a teaching to an
educational system. It involves a shift from a lecture form to a student-centered approach, a shift
in the paradigm from measuring educational attainment to measuring competence (please refer to
[27] and references therein for more details). In the century of internet and an enormous growth
of information available, students have to possess the ability to access the right information and
to learn how to use it in a proper way. Many authors have already discussed this problem. It is
36
necessary to involve students in research, to prepare them to use various information sources and
consequently enable them to draw conclusions in the right way. In this way, students will not
learn how only to memorize the numerous data presented to them as it has so far been the case.
Academic staff needs to encourage students‘ creative and critical way of thinking, not only the
formal one. We refer for some case studies to [29], [28]. It is necessary to introduce an
entrepreneurship course, at least, for the students of technology sciences, more practical teaching
hours, interactive work in teams, simulations of real situation in professional work by „case study―
approach to achieve problem-solving competence. To show how one can apply some theoretical
knowledge in a real business environment, it would be recommendable to organize lectures held
by business representatives for students.
- Modernization of study programs according to the development of corresponding
sciences, technologies, experience at other universities and the possibilities of our
country. A bigger number of elective courses may contribute to a better profile of graduates, also
having in mind the employers‘ requirements. Although it is officially regulated by some bylaws, it
is necessary to encourage more mobility within one university; to put it more precisely – elective
courses might be chosen at other faculties, not solely at the one the student is attending. It would
also help to achieve the functional integration of the university. Although soft skills are developed
through seminars organized by the Center for Career Development, it would be welcome to
develop them in the frame of many courses.
- Internship in a company is more and more unavoidable. We refer to [22], where the first-
listed author of this paper already discussed this problem and some of its solutions. We point out
here that an internship is very important for graduates as they may achieve the first work
experience in a company during an internship, they may also prepare their diploma work, master
work, seminars, etc. Internship has to be organized in such a way that it is involved in a study
program, defined by standards in accreditation procedure and recognized in diploma supplement
through ECTS. Of course, standards have to be clearly defined so as to establish which
companies can offer students internship. The supply and demand for internships need to be
presented transparently in a data base. To encourage internship development, it is necessary to
give tax facilitations to companies which accept to offer internships for students, scholarships and
support for project realization. Subsidies in equipments for small and medium enterprises are also
welcome to support the realization of these proposals.
- New evaluation system. It is necessary to create a new evaluation system of students which
recognizes their abilities important for employers, like evaluation of volunteering, activities in
student associations and non-governmental organizations, etc., where they can develop skills
outside the theoretical type courses. The development of a methodology by teaching staff and
textbook evaluation need to involve recognition of competences, research abilities, quality and
effectiveness of students‘ studies, work in company, etc. A committee whose members would be
representatives of academic staff, students and business people need to develop a methodology
for ranking of faculties and study programs.
- Financial support for harmonization between the supply and demand of the labor market.
It might be achieved by the analysis of labor markets demands and, on the government level, by a
decision on enrollment quotas for the corresponding study programs.
- The strategy of graduates’ employability. It is necessary to motivate employers and companies
to be interested in hiring employees without experience.
37
Acknowledgement
This work has partially been supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of
Serbia, Project III44006.
The authors express with great pleasure their gratitude to Professor Branko Kovačević, Rector of the
University of Belgrade, Mr. Bojan Radun, President of Serbian Association of Managers, Mrs. Vidosava
Dņagic, Vice-President of the Serbian Chamber of Commerce for valuable discussions. We also kindly
thank the National Employment Service, Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia - AINS, and the
administrative staff of the University of Belgrade who offered data important for our analysis.
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38
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39
EMPLOYMENT AND PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES OF INTERNATIONAL
GRADUATES FROM FINNISH HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Yuzhuo Cai, University of Tampere, Finland
Yulia Shumilova, University of Tampere, Finland
Abstract: Following the Bologna process and its policies aimed to enhance the
attractiveness of European Higher Education Area, international graduates‘
employment is increasingly becoming a concern in terms of both attracting
international students to higher education and supporting the national labour
market development and economic growth. However, there is still a research
gap on the issues of international graduate employability in continental Europe.
This paper presents the main outcomes of the VALOA study conducted in
2011-2012 in Finland focusing on the international graduates‘ transition from
higher education to the world of work, identifying some weaknesses of
international higher education and providing suggestions for further research.
Keywords: international graduate employability, Finland
1 Introduction
The Bologna process has fostered the policies of enhancing the attractiveness of European Higher
Education Area. Consequently, a growing number of OECD countries are trying to attract international
students as a way to complement the funding sources for higher educational institutions (HEIs) and, after
they graduate, to contribute to the economic growth of the host countries by integrating this foreign talent
in their labour markets (OECD, 2012). It is also the objective of the Finnish government to considerably
increase the number of international graduates (Finnish Ministry of Education, 2009). The advantages of
international graduates for host-country economies in general and employers, in particular, are apparent.
They often have established ties with both the host- and home-country societies and labour markets and
even in companies that only operate in the domestic markets, the international graduates bring innovation
and new ways of thinking (Vehaskari, 2010).
To higher education institutions, the employability of graduates is often used as a benchmark to measure
the quality of education (Teichler, 2009) and even allocate additional funding. In the context of HEIs‘
increased financial autonomy and the problem of ageing population in Finland, the international
graduates‘ employment is increasingly becoming a concern in terms of both attracting potential
international students and supporting Finnish labour market development and economic growth. In order
to attract more international students and retain them after graduation some aspects of international
education need to be improved in Finland. For instance, the long tradition of tuition fee free education
has resulted in the fact that a number of key elements in international education are underdeveloped as
compared to Anglo-Saxon countries that adopted a more commercialised approach, namely the marketing
of international programs, their relevance to the labour market; the career services and the alumni
relations. Regardless of realising these problems, Finnish HEIs are lacking experience and knowledge in
how to improve. To cope with this situation, two research gaps are expected to be filled before many
other efforts. One is to uncover the employment situation of international graduates from Finnish HEIs,
40
since such kind of information is scarce. The other is to understand what factors influence international
graduate employability. This is not only a challenge for policy makers, higher education administrators,
and scholars in Finland, but also an unsolved academic puzzle globally.
To fill the first gap, a study (Shumilova, Cai, & Pekkola, 2012) was conducted during 2011 and 2012 as
part of VALOA Project3. It examined the activities, outcomes and experiences of international students
after graduation from Finnish HEIs in year 2009-10. The study represents the first attempt to approach
the issue of international graduate employment on a larger scale both quantitatively and qualitatively and
from the perspectives of both the graduates and their employers. It provides a comprehensive picture of
the activities, outcomes and experiences of international graduates from Finnish HEIs in the year 2009-10,
discovers a number of skills and factors affecting the employment of international graduates, and elicits
recommendations on how Finnish HEIs can help enhance the employability of international graduates.
While this study mainly sought to fill the first research gap by adding substantial information on
employment of international graduates educated in Finland, the empirical results have a potential to
contribute to the knowledge on factors affecting graduates‘ employability in general and particularly in the
Finnish context. This paper is an extension of the VALOA study with a special intention to fill the second
research gap. It presents the main results of the VALOA study and primarily discusses how the findings
concerning the factors and skills affecting the graduates‘ employment can support or challenge the
scholarly arguments in existing literature. In so doing, it tries to develop hypotheses about the
relationships between different factors and employability of international graduates educated in Finnish
HEIs.
2 Major scholarly discussion on factors associated with employability
2.1 Defining and measuring employability
Before addressing the factors affecting graduate employability we need to define this multidimensional
concept and point out some issues with measuring it. After revising the numerous definitions of
employability, we have adopted the following one in our study: having the skills and abilities to gain, retain and
(when necessary) find new fulfilling/satisfying/self-rewarding job (Harvey, 2001; Hillage & Pollard, 1998; Pavlin,
2011). Therefore, the fact of finding employment is only one of the components of the employability
along with the labour-market relevant skills and job satisfaction.
The concept of employability is closely linked to „professional success‟, which can be described by a number
of subjective and objective indicators such as: ‖a) the smoothness of the transition from higher education
to the labour market (duration of job search); b) income and socio-economic status; c) a position
appropriate to the field and level of educational attainment; d) desirable employment conditions
(independent, demanding and responsible work); and e) a high degree of job satisfaction‖ (Pavlin, 2010:5).
It deems to be challenging to bring all these constituents to a common denominator. Nevertheless, one
attempt has been made in the framework of the Erasmus Mundus employability survey (Hemmer et al.,
2011) in which the index of the quality of employment was applied to analyse international degree programs in
3 VALOA is a national project, partly funded by European Social Fund, promoting the employment
opportunities of international degree students in Finland. In June, 2011, the Higher Education Group (HEG), University of Tampere won the public tender announced by VALOA to conduct a study on international graduate employability in Finland.
41
terms of their labour market relevance. The index is based on the sum of five key variables, each
multiplied by a certain coefficient (depending on its importance):
variable coefficient
% of active graduates currently employed; 0.4
% of graduates who are employed in permanent terms; 0.15
% of graduates who claim to earn above average; 0.15
% of graduates who are employed in medium or senior positions; 0.15
% of graduates who claim to be satisfied with their job. 0.15
Index composite 1
The resulting index allows to add a qualitative value to the employment rate figures and make the
employability picture more comparable, e.g. across fields of study, nationality, gender, etc. On the other
hand, it may bring the researchers closer to the factors affecting the graduate employability. As after
singling out the cohort of graduates with quality employment it will be easier to see what they have in
common.
2.2 Skills needed at work
The skills/ competences agenda is very prominent in the debates around the factors affecting graduate
employability. There have been many attempts to classify skills and abilities with the major distinction
being made between specific and generic ones. Yet, these classifications are rather artificial and even the
employers do not seem to have found a common ground in their perceptions of the graduate
competences. While some employers tend to be generally happy with the graduates‘ subject specific skills
and less satisfied with the generic or transferrable ones (Yorke, 2006), other studies indicate that ―the
‗missing‘ skills are just as likely to be technical and/or employer-specific in nature as they are to be
transferable‖ (HEFCE, 2003).
Below we discuss the lists of skills, abilities and competences that have been identified by various
researchers as the most important ones for the world of work (Hoo et al., 2009; Badillo-Amador et al.,
2005; Shmarov & Fedyukin, 2004; Department of Education Science and Training, 2002; Allen & van der
Velden, 2009, 2012; OECD, 2012) trying to expand the classification used in the Erasmus Mundus
employability study (Hemmer et al., 2011).
First, there is an evident need for professional expertise or context/job specific skills involving mastery of own
field or discipline, interdisciplinary know-how and research skills. The automation and computerisation of
routine work tasks and the opportunities for outsourcing have led to ―a growth in jobs that involve high
level expert thinking and complex communication‖ (Allen & van der Velden, 2012). However, in the
rapidly changing world, this expertise quickly becomes outdated. Hence, this category also includes an
ability to rapidly acquire new knowledge.
Second, the field/specific skills depend upon a number of essential skills that can be grouped as follows:
Innovative and knowledge management competences including the ability to come up with new ideas and solutions,
critical thinking, ability to write reports, memos or documents; presentation skills, problem-solving skills;
analytical thinking, creativity, entrepreneurial skills. These skills are in line with the paradigm of the
‗knowledge society‘ in which people are required to deal with ideas and concepts rather than objects,
materials and machines (Allen & van der Vende, 2012); and which emphasizes the importance of
42
flexibility, adaptability, entrepreneurialism, initiative, etc. (Lindberg, 2008; Brown and Hesketh, 2004;
Chisholm, 1999).
Even though the technical skills, such as basic operational ICT skills have not been singled out in a separate
category by Hemmer et al., (2011), there is a strong argument for mentioning them separately as the
―ability to successfully use ICT will be just as essential for our ability to function in society as the ability to
read, write or count‖ (Allen & van der Vende, 2012). While the basic computer literacy is often taken for
granted these days, the use of ICT for information retrieval and strategic purposes might need a wider
range of generic skills, such as logical reasoning and an ability to evaluate the trustworthiness of different
sources, hence, this competence needs to be viewed in a broader sense (ibid.).
Next, the functional flexibility category includes skills mainly associated with one‘s ability to cope with
change such as the ability to negotiate effectively, ability to perform well under pressure, ability to
coordinate activities, ability to use time efficiently; self-management/organisational skills and
communication skills.
Furthermore, mobilisation of human resources/workplace-interpersonal skills involves the ability to work
productively with others, ability to mobilize the capacities of others, ability to clearly express one‘s
opinion, ability to assert one‘s authority/ leadership skills; interpersonal/teamwork/ network skills. In the
modern working environment the graduates have to be able to both – work independently and in teams
by bringing out and making use of the strongest qualities of the team members (Hemmer et al, 2011).
Finally the international competences are becoming increasingly important in the global labour market that the
graduates are competing at these days and in the context of multicultural work environments that become
a reality worldwide. They include the ability to write and speak in a foreign language; professional
knowledge of other countries; knowledge/understanding of international differences in culture and
society.
In the case of international education, the researchers (Garam, 2005; Salisbury et al., 2009; Støren& Wiers-
Jenssen, 2010, p.31) argue that a broad range of skills and traits can be developed during the period of
study abroad, such as social or life skills; a deeper understanding and respect for global issues, more
favourable attitudes toward other cultures, improved personal and professional self-image, self-
confidence, ability to handle ambiguity and difficult situations, insight into their own value systems and
overall maturity. The question is whether these broader skills bring advantage to international graduates in
the home or host country labour markets or whether they are still in a disadvantaged position due to the
lack of integration and other factors.
2.3 Other factors affecting employability
Following Harvey, 2001, and Crossman & Clarke, 2010, we recognize that employability cannot be a
purely individual or institutional achievement, rather an outcome of the joint initiatives of the involved
stakeholders including - students, graduates, academics, program coordinators, project managers,
employers, representatives of relevant associations (e.g. AIESEC) and policy makers (See Appendix).
Similarly, Leuze (2010) argues that ―the institutional set-up of both, higher education systems and graduate
labour markets, is the decisive factor for shaping the career prospects of higher education graduates‖. She
further identifies the four institutional spheres that are important for the transition from higher education
to work: the structure of higher education systems (stratification), the content of study (occupational
specificity), the structure of graduate labour market (segmentation), and finally, labour market flexibility
43
(regulation). In relation to the labour market conditions, for instance, there has been a growing concern
since 1970s about the overproduction of the overqualified labour force associated with the massification
of HE and the subsequent increase in the unemployment rates among HE graduates (ibid.).
Along with other researchers, we acknowledge that the employability is also contingent on a number of
other factors external to HE such as socio-economic background (e.g., gender, age of entering higher
education, parents‘ education and income, ethnicity); career aspirations, networks, access to information;
the peculiarities of the job search behaviour and employers‘ beliefs. (Harvey, 2001; CHERI, 2002;
Lindberg, 2008; Krempkow & Wilke, 2009; Pavlin, 2010; Cai, 2011). As an illustration – ethnicity would
be one of the most important factors being relevant in the research of international graduate
employability. And previous studies demonstrate that being a foreign graduate (or even the representative
of an ethnic minority) can be a disadvantage of its own when applying for a job due to discrimination and
prejudice (CHERI, 2002; Vehaskari, 2010; Majakulma, 2011, Shumilova, Cai & Pekkola, 2012). However,
in the framework of this paper we mainly focus on the aspects of higher education that affect the graduate
transition to the world of work, or on the factors that could be the target for possible policy intervention.
As discussed above, HEIs have an important role in helping students develop not only the academic skills
but also the generic or transferable ones more valued by employers in highly skilled professions. The
graduate employability studies conducted in the last decade (CHERI, 2002; HEFCE, 2003; Allen & van
der Velden, 2009; Hemmer, 2011) conclude that HEIs need to have closer links to the world of work and
provide other opportunities to their students in order to enhance graduate employability. The following
observations derived from these studies are relevant in this respect:
- Prior work experience appears to be a highly positive influence on employability, yet, the role of
internships and work placements should not be overestimated, as these studies show no
significant link between internship taken and the employment rate. Also combining studies with
non-relevant work during the academic year might have a negative effect.
- Employer involvement in course design and delivery is positively associated with the quality of
initial employment found by graduates.
- Involvement in extra-curricular activities and study/work abroad opportunities are also related to
successful employment outcomes.
Finally, it has also been argued that the institution attended, the level of the degree obtained and the subjects
studied affect one‘s career prospects. The former is associated with the stratification of the higher
education system. The (vertical) stratification of HEIs by status is not yet a reality in Finland as compared
to the UK, for example. However, there is a horizontal stratification of a binary system comprising the
University and the University of Applied Sciences (polytechnic) sector. The CHERI study (2002) contends
that the socio-economic background would affect the students‘ choice of HEI and the major to be studied
and consequently one‘s employment opportunities. In particular, the international students‘ choice in non-
English speaking countries is largely affected by the offer of programs and courses available in English –
and the competition for jobs in these study fields might be higher.
In terms of subject differences, the labour market position of vocational science/hard applied major graduates
(e.g. computing and medicine, engineering, law) is in general more favourable, as compared to the position
of non-vocational arts/ pure soft discipline graduates (e.g. art, humanities and languages) (CHERI, 2002;
Allen & van der Velden, 2009). Yet, as argued by Leuze (2010), in some countries the type of degree obtained
might be even more important than the discipline. For instance, Fachhochschule-degrees and Staatsexamen in
Germany are linked to specific labour market segments and are mutually exclusive (Leuze, 2010). Again,
44
there is no consensus, on which level of degree offers better opportunities in the labour market.
According to the Europe-wide study of employers‘ perceptions of graduate employability (Gallup
Organisation, 2010), ―a slim majority of employers (55%) answered that graduates with bachelor‘s degrees
would best match the skill requirements in their company, while 35% said that graduates with master‘s
degrees would be a better fit, while Allen & van der Velden (2009) claim the opposite.
3 International graduate employability in Finland: outcomes of the VALOA study
The outcomes of the VALOA study showed that Finland is quite attractive for foreign talent as a place to
live, study and work. And the three major reasons for potential students to come to study to Finland are
tuition fee free education, along with an opportunity to study in English and a chance to enhance one‘s
employability (Shumilova, Cai, & Pekkola, 2012). Among the international graduates of 2009–2010 who
participated in the survey (N=363), only 22% returned to their home countries or moved elsewhere one
or two years after graduation.
Speaking about the transition from higher education to the world of work the statistical data look quite
positive. The employment rate of the VALOA study participants is 70%, which is lower than the national
level, but this is a general trend for international graduate employment rates. Among those who are not
employed 61% are undertaking further studies, which makes it the most popular strategy of enhancing
one‘s employability. Although the first jobs taken by graduates are characterised by fixed term work
contracts (only 33% of contracts are permanent and full time), the situation improves further in the career
with half of the contracts being permanent in the current job. Another positive finding is that 90% of
those who have been employed at least once after graduation managed to find their first job within half a
year.
However, in the context when the tuition fees are being gradually introduced for non-EU/EEA students,
the quality of Finnish higher education cannot be taken for granted. The question is what would be the
next unique selling point of the country with a difficult native language, high cost of living and a small
competitive labour market after the ‗free‘ education is no longer available?
Although, the majority of jobs taken by the graduates are both relevant to their field and level of studies,
25% of the respondents claimed that they had to take jobs that require a lower degree of education or no
higher education whatsoever. This underemployment might be attributed to the fact that the international
graduates, being a more vulnerable group, often have to lower their job expectations in a foreign labour
market due to e.g. insufficient language skills. This argument has been supported by several open-ended
comments like this:
“People with MBAs and different cultural knowledge work as cleaners and have no chance of getting
proper job, because the job market is not ready for international candidates, or does not have enough
vacancies.” (ID: 14)
Despite the discussed above added value of the international education, the disadvantaged position of
international graduates may apply not only to the host but also to the home country labour market. If the
international graduate decides to return to his/her home country, they may need to adjust their salary
expectations, compensate for the missed out networking and re-integrate back to the society (Cai, 2011).
Along with education-job mismatch we also focused on skills mismatch. The VALOA study findings
corroborate the statement ―that a significant proportion of jobs in developed countries is characterised by
45
higher formal education, and more highly acquired skills than the expected ones‖ (Verhaest & van der
Velden, 2010:2, Pavlin, 2011). As seen from Figure 1, the only competence that should be enhanced
according to the graduates is work experience. The significance of the work experience (although it is not
a competence as such) is also confirmed when correlating the level of skills to employment rate. Other
skills that proved to have a significant correlation to the employment rate are:
a. Mastery of one‘s own field or discipline
b. Knowledge of other fields or disciplines
c. Analytical / research skills
d. Ability to rapidly acquire new knowledge
e. Leadership skills
f. Team working skills
h. Ability to coordinate activities / projects
m. Inter-cultural competences
o. Computer skills
Strangely the foreign language skills are not in this group, while the interviews and answers to open-ended
questions strongly supported the need for better Finnish/Swedish language skills and more opportunities
to learn these languages. The only explanation for this statistical irrelevance could be the fact that most of
the graduates were employed in companies where English was the official working language (e.g. in IT and
telecommunications).
46
Figure 1: The level of own and required competences as perceived by international graduates (VALOA study, 2012)
The ten interviewed employers have also been asked to rank the list of skills according to their relevance
in the workplace and interestingly their rankings were higher than those perceived by the graduates (Figure
2). Apart from professional (subject-specific) skills, qualifications and educational background, the
employers are looking for the following set of attributes in job applicants: “Energy, ambition, …evidence of
being an achiever, and goal minded person. Self-motivated characteristics and attitude”, “negotiation & presentation skills”,
“understanding of economic matters”, “innovativeness and the independent research skill”, “ability to work without
supervision”
2
3
4
5
a. Mastery of yourown field or
discipline b. Knowledge ofother fields or
disciplinesc. Analytical /research skills
d. Ability to rapidlyacquire newknowledge
e. Leadership skills
f. Team working skills
g. Problem-solvingskills
h. Ability tocoordinate activities
/ projectsi.
Creative/innovativethinking
j. Communication /social skills
k. Presentation skills
l. Ability to writereports anddocuments
m. Inter-culturalcompetences
n. Foreign languageproficiency
o. Computer skills
p. Entrepreneurialskills
q. Work experiencein the field
Own level Required at work
1 lowest level; 5 highest level
47
Figure 2: The skills required at work by employers‟ expectations and graduates‟ beliefs
To sum it up, despite the discrepancy in graduates and employers views on which skills are most
important in the workplace and the actual skills possessed by graduates, the soft skills along with the
ability to learn throughout life and the right attitude to work are vital for a successful career. However,
generalizations can only be made when discipline-specific differences are taken into account.
3.1 Obstacles to finding employment and higher education weaknesses
While the interviewed employers have positive attitudes towards hiring and working with international
graduates, the graduates themselves find the following obstacles to securing a job in Finland:
- the lack of adequate Finnish/Swedish language skills (86%);
- the lack of the right networks (51%)
- the lack of work experience, especially through internships (43%)
- the small labour market (35%) ,
2
3
4
5
a. Mastery of your ownfield or discipline
b. Knowledge of otherfields or disciplines
c. Analytical / researchskills
d. Ability to rapidlyacquire new knowledge
e. Leadership skills
f. Team working skills
g. Problem-solving skills
h. Ability to coordinateactivities / projectsi. Creative/innovative
thinkingj. Communication / social
skills
k. Presentation skills
l. Ability to write reportsand documents
m. Inter-culturalcompetences
n. Foreign languageproficiency
o. Computer skills
p. Entrepreneurial skills
q. Work experience in thefield
Required at work (perceived by graduates) required by employers
1 lowest level; 5 highest level
48
- ethnic discrimination in the recruitment process (32%)
- lack of career guidance in HEIs (26%)
As can be seen from the list, HEIs can help with four or even five out of the six aspects. The respondents
felt that there is also room for improvement in terms of the higher education‘s relevance to the labour
market.
“As far as the labour market is concerned with all the soft and hard skills needed the Finnish universities
are not even close. The hard skills become obsolete very fast, so I would not say that it‟s very important to
know, e.g. the programming very well. That would change in 6 month. But the soft skills, for example,
how to sell yourself, how to keep up your continuous learning, how to recognise your personal advantage
and weakness, how to work within a team and so on.... that I have not seen in the curriculum, that‟s
what is required. (G5)
The other main issues with higher education were the lack of courses offered in English, the lack of
Finnish language courses; the over-reliance on one industry, and the lack of practice in social skills and
customer service. Moreover, the university career centres turned out to be the least used when searching
for a job and the majority of HEIs happened to keep no track of their international students after they
graduated. The recommendations to HEIs are self-evident based on these identified weaknesses.
4 Revisiting the literature and suggestions for future research
One cannot overestimate the importance of conducting graduate employability studies. From students‘
perspective, the employability factor is one of the key components associated with the quality of
education, while from the university‘ perspective – good employment rates of their graduates will help
successfully market the educational programs, build their reputation and raise the prestige.
As prompted by the literature review, the following factors are affecting graduate employability: the socio-
economic background (age, gender, ethnicity, parental income), the type of institution attended, the study
field, the skills and competences obtained; work experience, study/work abroad and extra-curricular
activities. The VALOA study outcomes have confirmed that these factors largely hold true for
international graduates as well.
To illustrate these factors a summary of some differences in employment rate among recent international
graduates in Finland is given in Table 1.
49
Table 1: Employment rate of international graduates in Finland (VALOA study) Type of HEI &
degree
Gender Disciplinary area Ethnicity Work
experience
during
studies
Univers
ity,
Master
Universit
y of
Applied
Sciences,
Bachelor
male female hard
sciences
soft
sciences
lowest
rate
(Africa
n
countri
es)
highest
(South,
West,
Central
Asia)
yes no
Emplo
yment
rate
75,5%* 68%** 72,1% 68,2% 72,1% 67,3% 55,1% 86,4% 73,7% 63%
*The corresponding rates for all graduates in the country are 88% and **86% respectively
As can bee seen from the Table and the abovementioned obstacles to finding employment, international
graduates tend to be more vulnerable as opposed to the local ones in terms of labour market opportunities
(Walters, 2011). The ethnicity, limited access to professional networks and the sub-optimal knowledge of
the language of the host country may prove to be interfering factors resulting in labour market
disadvantage. Also, the type of educational program attended in terms of language of instruction appeared
to have an effect on further employment opportunities. As the international programs tend to provide
fewer courses than their full-fledged national counterparts, there is a legitimate concern among some
employers about the quality of such programs. In addition, the students pursuing programs taught in
English in Finland do not manage to develop their Finnish language skills well enough to be able to use
them in the workplace (Majakulma, 2011). Hence, in order to help international graduates overcome these
obstacles, more joint efforts are required from the stakeholders, especially with the view of helping
students with the Finnish language mastery, networking with the potential employers, gaining the relevant
work experience, providing more courses in English and raising the awareness among the employers of
the benefits of hiring foreign talent. Unfortunately, the ―relationship between foreign students and
employment-based immigration has not been specifically addressed in the policies and strategies of the
Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture‖ (National Report for EMN study, 2012).
In terms of future research, there is still need for more studies, especially systematic, longitudinal and
comparative ones on the transition of international graduates to the world of work. Below is a list of
recommendations for further research that is based on our experience of conducting the VALOA study:
- While the VALOA study focused on recent graduates, it would be interesting to track their
careers at a later stage, e.g. five years after graduation. This will reveal more clearly where the
international graduates eventually end up. Also it would be useful to further compare the
employment situations of international vs. local graduates.
- As discussed above, employability is more than the ability to gain any employment; it is closely
related to early career success. Hence, instead of relying solely on employment rate figures (or
making separate correlations with job satisfaction and salary rates), using the quality of
employment index might provide a better ground for comparisons.
- Bearing in mind the multifaceted nature of the ‗employability‘ concept, it should also be explored
from the point of view of other stakeholders through policy analysis and by investigating the
HEIs‘ strategies of responding to the changing labour market demands (Teichler, 2009).
50
- The identified discrepancies between the perceptions of graduates and the employers towards
skills and competences required at work are prompting that more studies comparing both
perspectives need to be done to find a common ground. The discussed categorization of skills
provides a useful framework, even though the current study mainly focused on subject-specific
and soft skill divide in its analysis.
- Also, the way the employers‘ beliefs and perceptions about international graduates are shaped
need to be further studied in order to be able to affect them (see Cai, 2011).
- Finally, in the VALOA study we have only been able to focus on the hard/soft disciplinary
divide, while in future studies on international graduates‘ career paths the disciplinary background
differences need to be addressed in more detail (Pavlin, 2011)
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52
Appendix 1
Figure 1: Multiple stakeholders and factors affecting international graduate employability
International Graduates
their personal, social and
cultural capital, educational
background, work experience,
motivation, access to
information, job search
patterns
Employers’
& their beliefs about
international graduates
and recruitment
strategies
HEIs
& their strategies to
enhance graduate
employability
(curricula, support
services, links to
enterprises)
Other linking agents:
e.g., EU and national
projects (e.g. VALOA),
policy makers, AIESEC,
recruiting agencies
Employability &
Professional
success factors
(subjective &
objective)
+ Economy,
Labor market
conditions
53
ON THE JOB TRAINING FOR STUDENTS AS AN INSTRUMENT FOR
INCREASING EMPLOYABILITY OF GRADUATES
A proposal for Turkey
İnci Kayhan Kuzgun, Hacettepe University, Turkey
Abstract: On the job training for students has been used as a traditional
instrument to increase employability of graduates with connected demand for
the labor market. Although trainee is a concept related to the labor market in
Turkey; it does not have a comprehensive legal basement. The study is
structured in three sections. In the first section it provides a brief review of the
existing literature related to the employability of graduates. In the second
section, regulation of on the job training for students has been proposed as an
instrument for increasing employability of graduates in Turkey. With this
framework, the characteristics, performance and constitution of proposal have
been analyzed in the sub-sections.
The characteristics of the proposal have been considered such as below.
- It is an active employment policy instrument.
- It is an integrated strategy for the students to the economic activities.
- It is based on the dynamic demand model.
- It is based on the voluntary cooperation between universities and
enterprises in Turkey.
- It can be concluded in the concept of public and private sector
partnership.
- The performance of this instrument has been considered individual,
institutional
- and social level.
- The apprenticeship training can be taken as a model for constitution of
on the job training for students.
- Size of firm has been used as criterion.
- The cost of application has been financed by the enterprises.
- The premiums of two social security branches have been paid by the
state from the budget of the universities.
The main conclusion has been considered in chapter three.
Keywords: Turkey, on the job training for students, cooperation between
university and industry, dynamic demand model, active employment policy
instruments
1 Introduction
Employability of labor force is important for the new process in the current labor markets. Several
definitions have been suggested related to this process. Under the current labor market conditions being
unemployed is a risk and it reflects dynamic and increasingly competitive economic environment (Ahmed,
2009:293). At the individual level, being employed is not sufficient to solve the problem of employment in
54
the future. Being employable is thought to be more vital for one‘s career than to be employed. Thus job
security is more important than the employment security for the employee. Employability covers
improving the skills and qualifications of the worker, who search for jobs, through training, advanced
education, re-education counseling services (MEB, 2008:18).
Employability skills demanded by employers are essential to get and keep an employment in the labor
market. According to the narrow definition of employability one of the effects is the performance of
graduates starting work (Peggy and Waldock, 2010:19). Besides having a job, continueing to be employed
and having progress during career are important (European Commission, 2012:1). According to the
general consensus, employability refers to a wide range of attributes and competencies that enable the job
seekers to gain and maintain employment (UNESCO, 2012:8). Finally, it is determined by all over socia-
economic indicators such as stability or instability of economic activities, size of economy, labor market
regulations, and age distribution of labor force, unemployment and high education system. It determines
the unemployment level and participation rate to the economic activities.
Graduate‘s employability has the important place in the concept of employability. Graduate‘semployability
is frequently understood as being the same as graduate‘s establishment in the employment market after
graduation (EUROSTAT, 2009:35). In addition to this, employability is more important than being
employed immediately after graduation. It is the first step to transit to the real life. It shows the
individual‘s ability to make an effective ongoing to contribution to the society, and leading satisfying life.
Individual ability and qualities of graduates are developed through the whole range of experiences with
higher education offers.
There is a relationship between employability and quality training of students. Employability of graduates
is closer to the high education. So, high education institutions are under pressure to improve the
employability of their graduates across geographical boundaries and cultural borders (Ahmed, 2009:296).
As the rapidly changing labor market is becoming increasingly knowledge-based, employability is an
increasingly important consideration in the most students‘ life. Graduates must be encouraged to
recognize and develop a set of key skills and reflect their wider experiences at the university to help them
identify relevant skills. That should be one of the strategic key directions for high education (Worldbank,
2007:5). For realizing this strategic direction, the cooperation between the companies and the universities
has vital importance.
The other important concept related to the employability of graduates is adoptability. The adoptability has
been regarded as a state of adaptation and, simultaneously an expectation for high level of innovativeness.
Thus, increasing the education level and using the active employment policy instruments seems to
constitute main target of public policy in order to improve adoptability of the labor force for changing
demand of the labor market. The employability and adoptability to the expectations of firms are
continuously changing by technology. These two concepts have mutual influence on each other.
On the employment training is an instrument for increasing employability of graduates. It has been used
for increasing the integration of the students to the labor market by many different industrial countries. In
many countries, on the job training programs are the first step into the labor market contributing to
students.
According to the Article 4 of Vocational and Technical Educational Regulation, training is obligatory for
the students who complete the theoretical and applied education at the institution. It aims to improve
55
their vocational knowledge and ability, attitude and approach, and to accommodate their career in the real
production and work environment. (Yönetmelik, 2002). This regulation has been applied by the Ministry
of National Education in Turkey.
A student trained in occupation for which he/she received schooling may be trained as a trainee by this
instrument. On the job training for students, take place in an ordinary work place in work hours, using
actual tools, equipments, documents or materials. So, students have the opportunity to work in the work
place and gain experience with the equipments that are used regularly. It makes on the employment
training an efficient approach to learn new things. Thus, it is the most effective method for increasing
employability of the graduates.
With this characteristic, it can be used as an instrument to prepare the students as potential labor force for
employment based on manual or practical activities of work place. It aims to improve the performance of
graduates and this instrument is suitable for realizing the cooperation between university and industry. It is
one of the most common types of training used in the work place, especially in the manufacturing sector.
Beside this, it is used in the service sector.
On the job training for students has two important points such as supply of student labor force and
demand for students as the trainee. So, it can be counted as an active employment policy measure to
increase the employability of graduates.
Dimensions of supply and demand of this instrument have mutual influence on each other and they have
determined dynamic structure of demand for graduates. It is necessary to underline the dimension of
demand for students in the application of this instrument. The private sector‘s demand shapes this
dimension. So, the on job training is an instrument for maintaining the balance between demand and
supply. Finally, this instrument will increase the employability and adoptability of students in the labor
market. Thus, the employability and adaptability of labor force and expectations of companies are
continuously matching by on job training. On the other hand, the wage and income of graduates will
increase by this instrument.
This study discusses the necessity of legal regulation of on the job training as an instrument for increasing
the graduate employability in Turkey. The study is structured in three sections. In the first section it
provides a brief review of the existing literature related to on the employability of graduates. In the second
section, regulation of on the job training for students has been proposed as an instrument for increasing
employability of graduates in Turkey. With this framework, the characteristics, dimensions and
constitution of proposal have been analyzed in the sub-sections. The main conclusion has been
considered in chapter three.
2 On the Job Training For Students as an Instrument for Increasing Employability of
Graduates:
2.1 Graduates’ Employability in Turkey
The unemployment of young people is an important problem in Turkey. The educated young people has
higher relative unemployment rates than the average unemployed young people in Turkey and they have
been accepted as a target group. It is said that there are different categories of young people with different
needs in Turkey (Ayup, 2008:23). One of them is high educated and unemployed young people. The
56
unemployment rate is 30% for high educated young people. This rate is 24% for male and 35.6% for
female in 2011 (TÜİK, 2012:18). These data show that the high educated and unemployed young people
are a problem in Turkey. It is considered that there is some problem for graduates during transition from
the university to the work place. The main problem in youth employment appears to be general difficulties
affecting the transition from education to work life in Turkey (Ayup, 2008:63).
The unemployment rate among young people with high education is approximately twice as much as total
unemployment rate and it becomes more significant. Remarkable reduction in the unemployment rates of
the young and educated people couldn‘t be achieved as well. It is said that there is a skill mismatch
between high education and private sector‘s demand in Turkey (Worldbank, 2007:21). It is considered that
in the last planned period the educational system remained insufficient to meet the requirements of the
labor market (DPT, 2007:48). So, graduates face some difficulties in Turkey. These difficulties are
experienced by young people while entering the labor market and reflect the difference between the
education system and work life in terms of access, quality and relevance (Worldbank, 2009:26). Graduates‘
employability is usually considered in the context of ―knowledge economy‖ related competitive labor
market.
It shows that the education policy must be regulated according to the demand for the labor force.
University education has not train the people according to the needs of labor market for qualified labor
force. The universities should be arranged according to the needs of the labor market. Turkey should also
increase the employability and adoptability of high educated young people. Building the new mechanism
for increasing employability of graduates shou considered be considered in Turkey. It is accepted that the
new mechanisms that would respond to the demands of the economy and particularly, increase the
employability of young high educated people are needed (DPT, 2007:48). High education currently does
not guarantee employment in Turkey. Improving the quality of education is the priority solution for
youth‘s unemployment. It is accepted that new measures need to be taken concerning the functions of
universities in Turkey (Ayup, 2008:69).
In this study, it was hypothesized that on the job training for students as an instrument of active
employment policy would positively affect the employability of graduates. On the job training based on
cooperation between universities and enterprises, is proposed as a solution for Turkey. It is considered
that the new mechanisms will respond to the demands of the economy and particularly, increase the
employability.
2.2 Characteristics, Performance and Constitution of the Proposal
This study suggests using on the job training as an instrument for increasing the employability of
graduates in Turkey. Before drawing conclusion about the importance and efficiency of this instrument in
increasing employability of graduates; it is necessary to analyze the characteristics, performance and
constitution of the proposal.
Employment policy should include increasing qualifications of existing labor force through vocational and
employment training (Ayup, 2008:3). An institutional instrument with a flexible, not centralized, non
bureaucratic structure has proposed to help to achieve greater coherence in policies and activities related
to youth and provide a mechanism for regular monitoring in Turkey (Ayup, 2008:23). On the job training
for students as a measurement has same characteristics. It is not a new instrument for Turkey. But it has
not been used effectively. It is the first step for transition from university to labor market. It is accepted
57
that transition from school to work life needs to be an important part of youth policy in Turkey (Ayup,
2008:23).
2.2.1 The characteristics of the proposal
It is a specific employment policy‘s measure. It will increase the level of educational/vocational
qualification of graduates in Turkey. The proposal has some characteristics such as being an active
employment policy instrument, depending on voluntary cooperation between universities and enterprises;
i.e. public/private sector partnership and suits for the dynamic demand model in Turkey.
2.2.2 It is an active employment policy instrument
On the job training for students is as an active employment policy instrument to prepare students for
work life. It is accepted as an instrument which aims to increase employability by improving skills and
qualifications of the labor force (DPT, 2007:49). By this way, it aims to alleviate the structural
unemployment level of high educated young people. The unemployment rate among youth is
approximately twice as much as total unemployment rate in Turkey and it continues to be significant. In
addition to this, the unemployment rate among the young people who completed tertiary education is high
also. While it was 28.2% in 2000; it was 35.0% in 2002 and it was 30.9% in 2005 (DPT, 2007:47). A
remarkable reduction in the unemployment rates of the young and educated people couldn‘t have been
achieved, yet.
We can say that structural unemployment has been observed among the high educated young people. So,
the young people with high education are a disadvantaged group for the employment policy in Turkey.
This group has low employability and it is necessary to provide support for gaining vocational skills. This
negative tendency can be explained by different ways. The education system remained insufficient to meet
the requirements of the labor market. Thus, on the job training for students has been offered as a
suggestion for increasing employability of graduates in Turkey.
2.2.3 It is an integrated strategy for the students to join the economic activities
It is an integrated strategy for the students to join the economic activities. It has been used to integrate the
high educated unemployed graduates as being a disadvantaged group in the labor market. Therefore, on
job training programs prepare this group for jobs, based on manual or practical activities. It is intended for
the assessment of individual modules. Work experience and placement are vital for giving students
employability skills.
2.2.4 It is based on dynamic demand model:
As the consequence of being an instrument of active employment policy, it is based on dynamic demand
model. Matching is the meeting point of supply and demand for labor force in the applica tionof this
instrument. Therefore on job training for students is based on dynamic demand labor force model. The
labor demand at the real level has determined by the enterprises.
It aims to establish a relationship between the demand for labor force of the economy and the educational
policies in Turkey. The weakness in the relationship has affected the employability of graduates in Turkey.
Employability of labor force is important for resolving unemployment at the individual, national and
global levels. For constitution of the relationship between employability and quality training of labor force,
vocational training is the most important factor. On the job training for students as an instrument for
increasing employability of graduates in Turkey have three dimensions.
58
2.2.5 Voluntary cooperation between the universities and the industry
The efficiency and necessity of voluntary cooperation between the universities and the enterprises for
increasing the employability of graduates has been discussed for a long time. Employer is not obligated to
accept a student as a trainee. Enterprises and universities are the key stakeholders in applying this
instrument. It is an instrument based on the voluntary cooperation. So, it doesn‘t have a bureaucratic
structure.
It is an opportunity to develop core skills. In this training method, the student is assigned to an
experienced worker or supervisor who demonstrates how the job is done. It doesn‘t require a more
complicated organization or to create a lesson plan and set objectives. The student may shadow the other
workers for several shifts, while learning the steps of the work that make the job and how to use all of the
required equipments. With these characteristics, it can be named an unstructured job training method. The
enterprises have responsibility of providing practical training for students while the universities are giving
theoretical training.
2.2.6 It is based on the public/private sector partnership
On job training for graduates can be achieved by the public and private sector partnership. It is placed in
the employment strategy of public policy. Employability of graduates is about addressing the agenda of
state in Turkey. State policies should be defined to enhance high education‘s contribution to student
employability. The public and private sector partnership enables students to increase their chances of
getting a job, staying in the labor market. They need to work together to develop graduates‘ employability.
This instrument is based on public and private sector partnership. It is an instrument to prepare students
for work life. It is a way to improve students‘ experience.
2.3 Performance of the proposal
On the job training for students as an instrument for increasing employability of graduates should increase
individual, organizational and societal performance.
2.3.1 Increasing Individual Performance
At the individual level, on the job training for students is aimed to increase the employability of graduates
in the labor market. They will gain new occupational skills and advance. It is much closer to the increasing
adoptability capacity of the labor force. So, this instrument helps to constitute main target of public policy
in order to decrease unemployment among graduates.
Beside this, on the job training can be a way to find the first job for graduates. Finally, Turkey must
encourage and give priority to investment on job training for increasing employability and adoptability of
graduates.
2.3.2 Increasing Organizational Performance
Second performance dimension of this instrument, is related to competitiveness of companies. On the job
training aims to increase the competiveness of firms. It is observed that this instrument has been also an
important economic instrument for the strategies of productivity and competitiveness. So, it should be
formed to be a part of the employment strategy of firms that it will be developed in accordance with labor
demand in different areas. This instrument is aimed to reply to the demand for qualified labor force.
59
It has based on expectations of firms and they have been continuously changed by their competiveness
power. This aspect of on the job training is important for the globalization process. It is observed that
training has been also an important economic instrument as the strategies of productivity and
competitiveness of firms (ILO, 2010:1).
2.3.3 Increasing Societal Performance
The unemployment is a social and economic problem. With these characteristics, the unemployment level
is an indicator of societal performance of economy. With increasing the employability and adoptability of
graduates, unemployment among high educated young people will decrease and this trend will increase the
social performance of Turkey.
On the job training aims to constitute the relation between employment and education policy. It means
improving the skills and qualifications of the graduates. It is considered that the relation between
education and employment policies couldn‘t be sufficiently established in Turkey (SPO, 2006:46) (DPT,
2007:48). Therefore, Turkey has suffered from serious structural unemployment for young high educated
people. As the solution for this negative tendency, on the job training has been proposed as an instrument
for the structural unemployment of graduates in Turkey.
On the job training strives labor market needs for skills; improves productivity and competitiveness in all
sectors, which human resources are critical. It is aimed to resolve this problem. At the same time, it is
aimed to increase productivity of labor force in contrary to decrease cost of the structural unemployment
in the country.
2.4 Constitution of the proposal
For constitution of legal structure of on the job training for the students, the apprenticeship training in
Turkey can be used as a starting point. Turkey has had experience in the apprenticeship training since
1977. Mandatory apprenticeship training in some branches has been used since 1988 and the last
regulation has realized by Vocational Education Law 3308 in 1988. It is a comprehensive law and it
contains also planning, development and evaluation of vocational and technical education in schools,
institutions and enterprises (Kepeneker, 2007:2719). On the job training has been considered in this law.
On the other hand, the trainee is accepted as a concept related to the Labor Law and despite this, on the
job training has not been regulated in the scope of Labor Law (Çelik, 2003:40). Paid or unpaid, mandatory
or voluntary on the job training has not been regulated by the Labor Law 4857 which is a main act
regulating labor force, providing general rules in Turkey. It is necessary to constitute a system of on the
job training as an active employment policy in Turkey. In this frame work, the constitution of proposal
has been structured.
Payment of the social security premiums for only mandatory on the job training was cancelled by Law in
2006. Now, for both mandatory and voluntary internships social security premiums should be paid by the
universities. This regulation has covered all of the high education system in Turkey. Turkey has unitary
system for high education. It is centralized with the all high education institutions tied to the Council of
Higher Education. The high education system of Turkey is compatible with the Bologna three cycle
systems.
60
2.4.1 It is applied by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security
Ministry of Labor and Social Security is responsible for labor and social security in Turkey. In oher words,
it is responsible of Turkish labor market. On the job training is an active employment policy measure and
it is based on the dynamic demand model. As the consequence of these, it is necessary to regulate and
apply on the job training by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Turkey. The Ministry of National
Education is not responsible for the work life.
2.4.2 The size of firm can be accepted as a criterion
In order to increase employment, the employment obligation of employers should be revised (DPT,
2007:48). This trend is the consequence of globalization in Turkey. Despite this as the traditional
approach, the size of firms has been accepted as a criterion for determining enterprises in the scope of this
instrument. This acceptance has been based on the traditional approach since the first Labor Law 3008 in
year 1937. The size of firms based on number of workers has been considered as the basic criterion for
regulation of Labour market by current Labour Law 4857. It is accepted as a criterion in the obligation of
employers based on work contract (Kuzgun, 2011:157). On the other hand, size of firm has been
accepted for applying the apprenticeship by the Law 3308.
The same approach has been accepted with the proposal. Thus, the enterprises which employ 20 or more
workers and operate branches covered by legal regulation are obligated to provide internship for practical
training for students in number of corresponding to 5% to 10% of their total worker‘s number in the
proposal. The enterprises employing more than 200 workers are required to set up a training unit for
students and appoint trainees to this unit by this regulation.
2.4.3 The cost of this application has been financed by the enterprises
The cost of this instrument‘s application is internal and will be financed by enterprises‘ own funds. The
employer has not been in the obligation of wage payment for the students. But if the employer pays the
wage to the trainee, students‘ wage which is paid by employers should be at minimum wage pursuant to
the Article 33 of the Labor Law 4857.
Currently, the employer is not obligated to accept a student as a trainee and to pay trainee for the time
spend on training in the work place. There is not a job relation between trainee and employer. This
characteristic has been accepted as the feature of the on job training in Turkey (Çelik, 2003:40). A training
agreement may be concluded with a trainee for a definite period. On concluding a training agreement, a
trial period may be stipulated, not longer than one semester.
2.4.4 The trainees are covered by Law 506 limited to two insurance branches
The trainees are covered by two insurance branches premium such as occupational accident and diseases
and health insurance. The premiums of these social security branches have been paid by the state instead
of employers from the budget of the universities. The payment of the premiums by university decreases
the cost of this instrument for the employers. This solution is thought to increase the on employment
training in Turkey. The provisions of Social Insurance Law 506 concerning work accidents and
occupational diseases are applied for students (Law 5510, Article). Beside this, if the student is dependent,
she/he is in the scope of health insurance.
61
3 Conclusion
This study aims to conclude on the job training as an active employment policy instrument for increasing
employability of students. Some of the main conclusions reached in this study include following. The
conclussions have been focused on three points such as structural characteristics, performance and
constitution of proposal.
The structural characteristics of the proposal have been considered such as below.
- It is aimed to increase employability of graduates.
- On the job training for students has been introduced to coordinate with the macro economic
policies in Turkey. So, it has been integrated to the national employment and development
strategies of Turkey.
- It is based on the dynamic demand model. With this characteristic, it is closer to the job creation
capacity of Turkey‘s economy.
- The proposal is based on voluntary agreement which has been established between the
universities and enterprises. It is expected that it will create a new entrepreneurial responsibility.
So, it is based on corporate social responsibility.
- It can be concluded in the concept of public and private sector partnership. A new high education
policy has been created by this instrument in Turkey.
The performance of proposal has three dimensions:
- It is aimed to increase the employability of graduates at individual level.
- This proposal has been also an important economic impact as the strategies of productivity and
competitiveness of firms.
- With increasing the employability and adoptability of graduates, it will increase the societal
performance of Turkey.
Constitution of proposal:
- The apprenticeship training can be taken as a basement for the constitution of model. But, on the
job training is a responsibility of Ministry of Labor and Social Security.
- Size of firms has been considered as a criterion for determining the enterprises in the scope of
training.
- The cost of application has been financed by the enterprises.
- The premiums of two social security branches have been paid by the state from the budget of the
universities.
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63
DEMANDS OF THE TEACHER PROFESSION AND GRADUATES' ABILITY
TO FULFIL THESE DEMANDS
The Potential of Results from Graduate Tracer Studies for the Evaluation of Teacher Education in North-
Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Mareike Landmann, Professional Center of the University of Cologne, Germany
Abstract: This article describes the design for an evaluation of teacher education
in Germany related to standards for teacher education. These standards were
published in 2004 and 2008 by the German Standing Conference of the Ministers of
Education and Cultural Affairs. It goes on to discuss the implications of the
research design on the potential and limits of the results to evaluate teacher
education programmes at North-Rhine-Westphalian universities. To tackle the
subject of teacher education standards and the respective quality of teacher
education programmes by conducting graduate tracer studies in Germany, a
scale on the demands of the teacher profession was developed within the
framework of the German ‗Cooperation Project for Graduate Tracer Studies‘
(KOAB). This article presents the second and the final version of the scale as
well as results from the second version. The results show that teaching
graduates‘ abilities to fulfil demands of the teacher profession vary between
different teacher action fields. The match between perceived demands and self-
assessed abilities to fulfil these demands in different action fields also depends
on the teaching programme respectively the type of school the programme
prepares for. To shed light on the question, in how far these evaluation results
can be used to evaluate teacher education or adjust study programmes, the
research methodology of the evaluation at hand is examined on the basis of
general evaluation attributes introduced by Chelimsky (1997). An understanding
of the type of evaluation performed, identified by its purpose, is sought to
point out the potential, but also the restrictions of this evaluation project of
teacher education in North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
1 Introduction
In 2004 and 2008, the German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK)
published guidelines for teacher education standards in Germany. Since their publication, these standards
have been criticised as being overly complex by teacher educators involved in teaching programmes at
German universities (e.g. Böttcher 2008; Tulodziecki 2007). Thus, the standards face a problem of
legitimacy among teacher educators, who are faced with an obligation to adjust teacher study programmes
to these political obligations. From the perspective of education policy in Germany, the standards reflect
demands of the teacher profession in Germany today. On these grounds, it is argued that these demands
have to be taken into account when designing study programmes for teacher education.
(Kultusministerkonferenz 2008, 2) Here lies another legitimacy problem, which is connected to the
acceptance of the politically defined demands in the teacher action fields. Based on a lack of research on
the tasks which constitute teacher action as a whole, rejecting the proposed teacher education standards in
normative argumentation is easily done (see Terhart 2004).
64
Nothing much can be done to counter the first legitimacy problem stated, before the second legitimacy
problem is countered by evidence from research on the demands of the teacher profession. Therefore, the
first step to render an evaluation of teacher education programmes possible is to supply research findings
on the demands of the teacher profession. These findings can build a basis for the discussion of the
adequacy of the politically defined teacher education standards. Step two will then be to compare the
demands with the ability of teachers after graduation to fulfil these demands.
The evaluation research on the demands of teacher profession presented in this paper has been designed
to cover both purposes. The first part of the paper focuses on the development of the scale and the
research steps taken to incorporate the demands of the teacher profession as they are perceived by
teaching graduates, when they enter the professional field. Subsequently, an overview of the results for
North-Rhine-Westphalia from the second version of the scale is given. The following part of the paper
presents a definition of different types of evaluation based on different perspectives and purposes of
evaluation research proposed by Chelimsky (1997) and built upon by (Kromrey 2001; 2003a; 2003b). This
typology serves as a foundation for the discussion of the potential and limits of the present results for
evaluating teacher education in the concluding part of the article.
2 Scale on the Demands of the Teacher Profession Implemented in Graduate Tracer
Studies in Germany
As mentioned above, the development of the scale on demands of the teacher profession serves two
purposes. The first purpose is to render a valid and reliable tool to measure the demands of the teacher
profession perceived by young teachers after graduation. To achieve this standard for the scale, a mixed
methods design was applied to give an insight into the demands of the teacher profession assessed by
teaching graduates, who have entered the professional field in the second part of their education to
become teachers.
Based on a theoretical model of the fields of teacher action founded on the recommendations by the
German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs, a first version of the scale was
developed. The demands of the teaching profession are divided into the teacher action fields 'teaching',
'moral education', 'student evaluation', 'school innovation' and 'subject areas' and further divided into
subareas (see table 1 and the refined model in table 2).
The theoretical constructs were operationalised by different teacher tasks connected to the action field.
Confirmatory factor analysis was applied to test validity and in a second step reliability of the scale.
Problematic items were either dropped or reassigned on theoretical grounds to reflect a different
construct. Additionally, the graduates‘ open answers naming typical and additional teacher tasks were
analysed using qualitative content analysis (Mayring 1990; 2000) to single out areas that had been neglected
by the political definition or to reallocate areas of teacher action to another superordinate teacher action
field. The scale was tested over a span of two graduate survey years using data from two, respectively four
North-Rhine-Westphalian universities. The survey was carried out between one and two years after
graduation, depending on the date of the last exam. Confirmatory factor analyses were carried out on a
sample of 816 graduates for the graduate year 2008 and 1000 for the graduate year 2009. Open text
65
answers were accessible for 729 North-Rhine-Westphalian graduates of the graduate year 2008.4 (see
doctorate Landmann, to be published in 2012, for further discussion on the methodology) The second
and the final version of the scale are presented in table 1 and table 2.
Table 1: Second Version of the Scale on Perceived Demands of the Teacher Profession in Germany
Field of Action ‘Teaching’ Item
Area ‗Planning and Design of Lessons‘
planning and structuring lessons 1
varying methods in the design of lessons 2
creating an obvious underlying structure for each lesson5 3
creating a lesson according to the learning objective 5
Area ‗Enhancement of Pupils‘ Motivation and Performance‘
including pupils‟ mistakes in the learning process 6
analysing pupils' mistakes 7
Area ‗Support for Independent Learning Strategies in Pupils‘
supporting independent learning strategies in pupils 8
encouraging pupils to reflect on their individual learning process 9
guiding each pupil‟s learning progress by offering individual support 10
Field of Action ‘Moral Education’
Area ‗Consideration of Pupils‘ Social Background‘
incorporating pupils‟ intercultural differences in their learning experience 11
acknowledging influences from the social background on pupils' learning process 12
Area ‗Conveyance of Norms and Values‘
conveying society's norms and moral values 13
offering solutions and strategies for addressing conflicts 14
Area ‗Creation of a Pleasant Social Atmosphere‘
preparing lessons thoughtfully in order to avoid unnecessary conflict 15
dealing with conflicts in the classroom in an adequate manner 16
Field of Action ‘Student Evaluation’
Area ‗Diagnostics and Counselling‘
assessing each pupil‟s learning abilities 17
diagnosing steps in each pupil's individual learning process 18
offering feedback to promote each pupil's development6 19
Area ‗Grading and Evaluation on the Basis of Objective Standards‘
grading pupils‟ work on the basis of objective standards 21
developing a grading system according to the curriculum 22
weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of different grading systems 23
Field of Action ‘School Development’
Area ‗Creation of a Work-Life-Balance‘
carrying out school tasks effectively and with an adequate amount of effort 41
creating your individual work-life-balance to reduce strains caused by the teacher profession 42
Area ‗Adapting to the Regulatory Framework‘
4 To ensure validity across the KOAB, all analyses were also carried out for a sample including universities
from different federal states, who also used the teacher questionnaire. There are no fundamental differences to be reported.
5 Lipowsky 2007 [translation: Lisa Hegemann] 6 Oser 2001 [translation: Lisa Hegemann]
66
being aware of and acting according to school laws 25
perceiving school as an administrative unit 27
Area ‗Evaluation‘
planning school projects 29
employing different methods of evaluation in school development 30
improving your teaching on the basis of evaluation studies 31
Field of Action ‘Subject Areas’
Area ‗Representation of Subject Areas‘
updating your knowledge in your subject areas 32
participating actively in discussions in your subject areas 33
using new scientific results for developing the curriculum 34
Area ‗Application of Scientific Methods from Subject Areas‘
employing scientific methods from your subject areas to plan teaching unit 43
adapting scientific methods from your subject areas to teach pupils 44
Area ‗Usage of Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledge‘
structuring subject content over several school years with the help of the curriculum 37
choosing learning content according to its scientific relevance 39
Table 2: Final Version of the Scale on Perceived Demands of the Teacher Profession in Germany
Field of Action ‘Teaching’ Item
Area ‗Planning and Design of Lessons‘
obtaining, viewing and developing teaching materials 45
varying methods in the design of lessons 2
creating an obvious underlying structure for each lesson 3
creating a lesson according to the learning objective 5
Area ‗Enhancement of Pupils‘ Motivation and Performance‘
including pupils‟ mistakes in the learning process 6
analysing pupils' mistakes 7
motivating pupils to learn 46
Area ‗Support for Independent Learning Strategies in Pupils‘
supporting independent learning strategies in pupils 8
encouraging pupils to reflect on their individual learning process 9
guiding each pupil‟s learning progress by offering individual support 10
Field of Action ‘Moral Education’
Area ‗Consideration of Pupils‘ Social Background‘
incorporating pupils‟ intercultural differences in their learning experience 11
acknowledging influences from the social background on pupils' learning process 12
Area ‗Conveyance of Norms and Values‘
conveying society's norms and moral values 13
offering solutions and strategies for addressing conflicts 14
establishing rules to promote prosocial behaviour in pupils 47
Area ‗Creation of a Pleasant Social Atmosphere‘
preparing lessons thoughtfully in order to avoid unnecessary conflict 15
dealing with conflicts in the classroom in an adequate manner 16
intervening in classroom disturbances 48
Field of Action ‘Student Evaluation and Counselling’
67
Area ‗Counselling and Support‘
being there for your pupils 49
counselling parents in regard to their children's problems and needs 50
reacting to pupils‟ family problems and providing suppot 51
Area ‗Diagnostics'
assessing each pupil‟s learning abilities 17
diagnosing steps in each pupil's individual learning process 18
offering feedback to promote each pupil's development2 19
Area ‗Grading and Evaluation on the Basis of Objective Standards‘
grading pupils‟ work on the basis of objective standards 21
developing a grading system according to the curriculum 22
weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of different grading systems 23
Field of Action ‘School Development’
Area ‗Creation of a Work-Life-Balance‘
teaching well under pressure 24
being aware of and acting according to school laws 25
Area ‗Adapting to the Regulatory Framework‘
being aware of and acting according to school laws 25
adhering to the bureaucratic framework for administration and documentation 52
planning, organising and structuring everyday school life 53
Area ‗Creation of a Work-Life-Balance'
carrying out school tasks effectively and with an adequate amount of effort 41
creating your individual work-life-balance to reduce strains caused by the teacher profession 42
Area ‗Cooperation‘
engaging in cooperative teamwork and exchange with colleagues 54
contributing constructively to conferences, working groups and meetings 55
Area ‗School Development‘
planning and realising school projects and extracurricular school events 56
contributing with ideas, concepts and commitment to the school's development 57
Area ‗Evaluation‘
employing different methods of evaluation in school development 30
improving your teaching on the basis of evaluation studies 31
reflecting on school processes and your individual teacher action 58
identifying and addressing your individual need for skill enhancement 59
Field of Action ‘Subject Areas’
Area ‗Representation of Subject Areas‘
updating your knowledge in your subject areas 32
participating actively in discussions in your subject areas 33
using new scientific results for developing the curriculum 34
enjoying your subject areas and conveying their appeal to pupils 60
Area ‗Application of Scientific Methods from Subject Areas‘
employing scientific methods from your subject areas to plan teaching units 43
adapting scientific methods from your subject areas to teach pupils 44
Area ‗Usage of Subject-Specific Pedagogical Knowledge‘
structuring subject content over several school years with the help of the curriculum 37
choosing learning content according to its scientific relevance 39
68
using didactic reduction to teach subject knowledge 61
To incorporate both the possibility of evaluating the demands of the teacher profession and the ability to
fulfil these demands from the perspective of young teachers after graduation, the scale is used in the
questionnaire twice. The first question introducing the scale refers to the degree in which the demands of
the teacher profession are encountered by the graduate. The second question asks, in how far these
perceived demands can be met by the graduate answering the survey.
Question 1:
In your experience, to which degree do you encounter the following demands of the teacher profession?
Question 2:
In your experience, to which degree are you able to meet the following demands of the teacher profession?
3 Demands of the Teacher Profession and Graduates' Ability to Fulfil these Demands –
Results
A differentiated examination of the findings on perceived demands and graduates‘ self-assessed ability to
fulfil these demands from the second version of the scale cannot be presented here. Nevertheless, a
summarising picture of the match between demands and abilities in the respective areas of the main action
fields will be drawn. First of all, it has to be mentioned, that there are differences between the estimates of
young teachers practising at different types of schools. In some action fields, these differences apply
primarily to the perceived demands, in some action fields more to the self-assed abilities to fulfil these
demands. Overall, the area ‗Planning and Design of Lessons‘ renders the most frequent perceptions of
demands at a level higher than average. The only exception can be noted for vocational school teachers. It
is followed closely by the area ‗Support for Independent Learning Strategies in Pupils‘. However, whereas
at least 97,2 % of the graduates, who perceive high to very high demands, estimate their abilities in the
area ‗Planning and Design of Lessons‘ higher than average, the latter area shows 10 to 30 % percentage
points lower on the abilities than on the demands.
The areas ‗Conveyance of Norms and Values‘, ‗Creation of a Pleasant Social Atmosphere‘ and
‗Enhancement of Pupils‘ Motivation and Performance‘ rank in the higher middle-field of perceived
demands. The ability to convey norms and values is assessed as higher than average by at least 70 % in the
groups with demands estimated higher than average. The remaining two areas of the action fields
‗Teaching‘ and ‗Moral Education‘ fare less satisfactorily. Only special needs education teaching graduates
perceive the demands in the area ‗Consideration of Pupils‘ Social Background‘ as higher than average
compared with the other areas. All teacher groups show low abilities to fulfil the demands of this area,
though. To summarise, all areas of the action fields ‗Teaching‘ and ‗Moral Education‘ show a high amount
of demands perceived higher than average with the exception of the last area. Abilities of fulfilling these
demands are ranked higher for the core tasks of preparing and giving lessons and the conveyance of
norms and values.
Next to the expected high demands in these traditional action fields, the areas ‗Grading and Evaluation on
the Basis of Objective Standards‘ and ‗Diagnostics and Counselling‘, subsumed under the action field
‗Student Evaluation and Counselling‘, show an estimation of high demands by the teachers in training.
The demands of grading and evaluating pupils‘ performance vary in their ranking between groups. With
69
the exception of special needs education teachers, this area ranks among the four areas with the highest
demands in all groups. The match between higher than average demands and respective abilities varies
between 45 % and 80 %. Thus, abilities in this area fare much lower than the perceived demands. Overall,
‗Diagnostics and Counselling‘ is one of the four highest ranking areas according to the estimated demands.
Among those who perceive demands higher than average, about 70 % assess their abilities higher than
average.
The action fields ‗School Development‘ and ‗Subject Areas‘ show a very heterogeneous picture for the
different teacher groups. Generally, it can be stated that the demands in the subsumed areas are perceived
as lower. Also, a mismatch in terms of higher assessed abilities than perceived demands occurs more often
than in the other three action fields. Looking at the action field ‗School Development‘, the area ‗Creation
of a Work-Life-Balance‘ shows a match of 34 % to 48 % between demands and abilities both higher than
average, the area ‗Adapting to the Regulatory Framework‘ between 35 % and 65 % and ‗Evaluation‘
between 44 % and 66 %. The ‗Representation of Subject Areas‘, with a match of 46 % to 62 % between
high demands and high abilities, is deemed the least demanding area. All other areas of the action field
‗Subject Areas‘ show higher demands than those in ‗School Development‘.
4 Basic Properties of Evaluation Research
According to Kromrey (2001, 106ff.), evaluation in terms of empirical methodology refers to a research
design which renders information on a measure or programme, stating an explicit purpose and relying on
defined instruments. In this context, the subject of an evaluation is a specific issue at hand, a measure or a
programme. Those performing an evaluation are either methodological experts or experts in the field of
the subject, which is being evaluated. To achieve retraceability, explicitly defined criteria related to the
subject of the evaluation are essential.
The subject of the evaluation needs to be defined according to its status of implementation, its inherent
characteristics and its aims. Out of these characteristics and aims, the precise focus of the evaluation as
well as the aims to be inspected has to be defined prior to the evaluation process. Furthermore, the
evaluation's purpose has to be specified. Concerning the researcher, who carries out the evaluation, it has
to be ensured that the necessary methodological or subject expertise is given. The evaluation methodology
has to comply with research standards of objectivity, validity and reliability; both in the gathering of
information and the following evaluation of the programme. Purpose, criteria and standards for evaluating
the measure at hand should be defined beforehand to avoid that conclusions are drawn at random. It is
also necessary to distinguish between different purposes from different perspectives if multiple
stakeholders are involved in the subject of an evaluation. Not all perspectives have to be considered
within the evaluation process, but transparency about the perspectives included is vital to retain the
standard of objectivity. Most importantly, the measure and its aims have to be clearly differentiated from
the evaluation process and its purpose. Thus, an evaluation process refers to goals on two levels; the aims
to be achieved by the evaluated measure on one level and the purpose of the evaluation process on
another level. (Kromrey 2001, 107-110)
Regarding different purposes and perspectives of an evaluation, Chelimsky (1997, 99-104) introduced a
categorisation of three types of evaluation; accountability, developmental and knowledge evaluation. The
first type of evaluation focuses on accountability purposes by measuring the results of a measure
compared to its respective aim. The second type emphasises developmental purposes by rendering
70
process information about a measure. This type of evaluation aims at a better understanding of the
measure under investigation to improve performance and strengthen its impact. The third type of
evaluation focuses on the knowledge perspective. Its purpose is to yield a better understanding of a
subject of an already existing measure or one to be implemented on the basis of the evaluation‘s result.
Taking these different purposes and perspectives into account when introducing a specific evaluation
programme is vital for the choice of methods, the interpretation of the research findings and
recommendations based on these findings.
The assessment of quality plays a major role in most evaluation programmes introduced within the higher
education sector. In accountability evaluation, the quality of a measure is assessed by comparing the
conceptual aim of a measure with the realisation of this aim. Quality in developmental evaluation can be
defined as best practice concerning the processes of the measure under inspection. For knowledge
evaluation, quality is the adequacy and relevance of the findings in regard to the subject being evaluated.
Stake (2001, 3-6) emphasises the importance of value when defining the quality assessed in an evaluation.
Quality should not be regarded as a property, but as a consensus based on the value of a subject as defined
by the stakeholders involved. The value taken into account is derived from the happiness of stakeholders
with the measure under evaluation. Thus the question in any evaluation undertaken is ‗Which is the quality
of the measure which can cause happiness or unhappiness for the individuals involved?‘ Good quality
leads to collective happiness, i.e. the more of the actors involved benefit from the programme, the better
the quality of the programme.
5 Potential and Limits of the Present Results for an Evaluation of Teacher Education in
North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Taking these aspects of evaluation measures into account, what can be said about the quality of our
evaluation of teacher education? The evaluation serves two purposes. First, a better understanding of the
demands of the teacher profession experienced by teachers after graduation is sought. This knowledge
serves as a basis for evaluating the teacher education standards introduced by education policy in 2004 and
2008 for all federal states in Germany. The second purpose is to evaluate teacher education in North-
Rhine-Westphalia on the basis of the match between perceived demands and self-assessed abilities in
different teacher action fields.
Regarding the first purpose of the evaluation project, the quality of teacher education standards is defined
as the likeness of the underlying theoretical model to actual demands of the teacher profession
encountered by young teachers after graduation. The underlying assumption is that teacher education
should prepare teaching students for the whole range of demands of the teacher profession. If this is the
goal of teacher education, teacher education standards have to take into account all action fields of the
teacher profession. The German Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs should be
happy with this first purpose of the evaluation project, as the recommendations state that teaching
programmes should prepare for the demands of the teacher profession (2008, 2). If teacher educators are
obliged to build their study programmes on the foundation of the present teacher education standards,
they should be happy to gain more knowledge on their validity. Without knowing, which demands
teaching graduates actually encounter, there is no reliable basis for teacher education programmes. Instead,
normative reasoning combined with some practical knowledge has to serve as the basis for designing
71
teacher education programmes. Thus, the first part of the evaluation programme, can be subsumed under
the field of knowledge evaluation.
So have we gained more knowledge on the demands of the teacher profession than we had before the
evaluation project? Yes, we have, but there are restrictions. Through confirmatory factor analysis and
qualitative content analysis, evidence has been produced, that the existing standards grasp the complexity
of the teacher profession for young teachers. Teaching graduates do not only have to teach and convey
norms and values, but they evaluate pupils‘ performance, counsel pupils, parents and fellow teachers. They
also cooperate in school development, quality management and school evaluation. Young teachers
perceive, though on a lower level, the obligation to lifelong learning and the task of integrating research
methods in the subject areas. However, the model underlying teacher education standards in Germany had
to be refined for the action fields ‗Moral Education‘ and ‗School Development and Evaluation‘. Socio-
pedagogical counselling for pupils and parents, based on the graduates‘ answers, is a typical teacher task
and has to be included into the model of teacher action fields. School development and evaluation is a
growing field, which was mentioned in a variety of answers ranging from cooperation with fellow
teachers, school activities outside school, school projects with pupils to quality management and even
more. There is still need for improvement of the model, as there were contradicting results in the
graduates‘ answers to the open questions on typical and additional teacher tasks related to the subject
areas. Another restriction concerns the stability of our results. In times of change within the whole
education system, the reliability of the results for future graduates has to be ensured by further developing
the model as we go along.
The second part of the project, contrasting graduates‘ perceived demands and self-assessed abilities, is a
mixture between accountability and knowledge evaluation. From the perspective of education policy, the
question of meeting the standards in teacher education is a question of money well spent. The politically
defined aim of teacher education is to prepare students for the demands of the profession. Funding
teacher education programmes, policy makers expect universities to work towards this aim. If the data
were used to evaluate, whether universities meet this aim, the research findings serve as accountability
evaluation. Quality, defined in relation to the purpose of this accountability approach, is the match
between graduates‘ demands and abilities to fulfil these demands in different teacher action fields.
From the perspective of teacher educators the second part of this project can be defined as knowledge
evaluation. Its findings provide an insight on the demands of teacher action fields for teaching graduates
and their abilities to fulfil these demands, which so far lacked reliable empirical evidence. This new
information can be used as a framework to identify action fields which are problematic and should be
further developed by teacher education. Teacher seminars, which are in charge of the second part in
teacher education after graduation, and universities can use the findings to discuss the improvement of
their cooperation in preparing young teachers for the demands of the profession. The findings can also be
used in teacher education courses to raise awareness among teaching students about the demands of their
future profession. Quality, according to this purpose, is the validity and reliability of the research findings
to identify action fields that actually need more attention when designing teacher education programmes.
It also refers to the validity and reliability of the results for teaching students about the demands of their
future profession.
72
6 Conclusion
This research project combines characteristics of knowledge and accountability evaluation. It provides
empirical evidence for a field which previously had mostly been discussed on normative grounds. It also
gives policy makers the opportunity to gain an abstract insight on the achievement of objectives in teacher
education. The purpose of this evaluation research neither is, nor can it be, to produce knowledge on the
methods and the content in teacher education that will improve abilities in different teacher action fields.
It cannot in any way evaluate the complex measure ‗teacher education‘. Thus, it cannot substitute but
complement developmental evaluation in teacher education. Conclusions as to the accountability of the
actors involved should be drawn very carefully on this abstract level. They should also rather result in
recommendations on an abstract level and should not contradict the results from developmental
evaluation carried out by those who are involved in teacher education programmes.
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73
EMPLOYABILITY AND COMPETENCES OF UNIVERSITY GRADUATES IN
ITALY
Giunio Luzzatto, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
Stefania Mangano, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
Roberto Moscati, University of Milan-Bicocca, Italy
Maria Teresa Pieri, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
7
Abstract: Since 60% of Italian Bachelor graduates enroll immediately in a Master
programme, the public often assumes that this is a consequence of very limited
employment opportunities for these graduates. We show that this is contradicted by
existing data on the employment rate of graduates that show a small difference in
the employment rates of Bachelor and Master graduates. Bachelors who only looked
for a job right after graduation have a high rate of employment, while many of those
who enrolled in a Master programme are also working. However, employers often
remark that university graduates are well prepared in their disciplines, but lack
general competences. By analyzing the responses to a questionnaire sent to heads of
university programmes, we investigated the general competences indicated as
learning outcomes in the curricula offered by Italian universities. We present here
some of our results.
1 Context
The restructuring of university degrees into two levels, followed by a third one, the Doctorate, with different
characteristics, was decided within the Bologna Process, an initiative started in 1999 for the realization of a
European Higher Education Area (EHEA). In Italy this began with the decree of the Ministry of Education
(D.M.) 509/1999, partially modified by D.M. 270/2004. The new structure is present in every Italian university
since 2001.
In this paper we do not analyze all issues related to the Bologna Process but some problems related to the
employability of Italian graduates. Our analysis does not simply look at the quantitative results but also at
qualitative issues, since the main issues related to the employment situation of graduates are not due to the
achievement of a Bachelor instead of Master degree but to the lack of general competences in both groups.
This was evident, for example, at a meeting organized by CARED at the University of Milan Bicocca in May
2011 between entrepreneurs and academicians (http://www.cared.unige.it/Allegato1Rapporto09062011.pdf) as
part of this research. Analogous results are found in other reports (Fondazione Agnelli, 2012; Leoni, 2011).
Those who hire university graduates are satisfied with their disciplinary knowledge, but find at the same time
that they lack many of the competences required to work in production and service industries. These
competences include the ability to work in teams and to communicate effectively: this suggests that the
university should modify some of the traditional approach to teaching and learning. We believe that this is the
real challenge of the Bologna Process and of the employability of graduates, and for this reason we have
developed the survey described below.
7 The paper, and more specifically sections 1 and 5, stem from a joint work of all authors. The sections 2 and 3 are
more specifically due to S. Mangano, the section 4 to S. Mangano and M.T. Pieri.
74
In the European countries for which we have data the employment rate of Bachelor graduates is only slightly
lower than the one of Master graduates (Schomburg and Teichler, 2011)8. However, the different procedures
used in the collection of these data recommends caution when making comparisons (Teichler, 2009). Overall
analyses of employability of B and M graduates may be found in EHEA reports (EHEA, 2012; § 5.4) and in
networks as REFLEX (Allen and van der Velden, 2011) and DEHEMS (www.dehems-project.eu).
In Italy the employment situation of Bachelors (B, the official name of the degree is ‗laurea‘) has been, and still
is, quite controversial. More than half of Bachelor graduates pursue a Master programme (M, called in Italy
‗laurea magistrale‘), and many blame for this the low level of employability of B. The public was also led to
believe by unfounded claims that Bachelor graduates are not employable at all, the only exception being
graduates in health fields.
In section 2 we combined the data collected by AlmaLaurea and STELLA9, and that collectively include over
80% of B and M graduates in Italy, to build a quantitative picture of the employment of 2009 graduates one
year after graduation. We compared these results with the employment rate of young Italians. Then, we added
the results available from AlmaLaurea for 2010 B graduates one year after graduation divided in specific
categories (section 3).
We also present preliminary qualitative results on the general competences of graduates collected from a
questionnaire submitted to over 1.800 heads of programmes. In Section 4.1 we describe the first part of the
survey designed to verify how the structuring of programmes has considered learning outcomes, as described
through the Dublin Descriptors, and the recommendations of stakeholders. In Section 4.2 we verify if the
acquisition of general competences is included in the course objectives as described through the Dublin
Descriptors, and how these were achieved. In the conclusions (Section 5) we summarize the observations and
our results, highlighting issues that should be discussed further in more detail.
2 Graduates with employment
Table 1 includes the percentages of 2009 B and M graduates one year after graduation obtained by combining
the results of AlmaLaurea and STELLA weighted for the different sample sizes.
Table 1: Employment conditions of 2009 B and M Graduates (% on the total)
Categories B Categories M
Is working, total 42,1 Is working 52,7
works and is not attending a M course 27,6
works and is attending a M course 14,5
Doesn‘t work, is not attending a M
course, but is looking for a job 9,1 Doesn‘t work, but
looks for a job 25,2
Doesn‘t work and is attending a M
course 45,0
Doesn‘t work and
doesn‘t look for a
job(1)
22,7 Doesn‘t work, is not attending a M
course, and is not looking for a job 3,9
8 See also Colombo and Bellani (2009). *The paper, and more specifically sections 1 and 5, stem from a joint work of all authors. The sections 2 and 3 are
more specifically due to S. Mangano, the section 4 to S. Mangano and M.T. Pieri. 9 These are two University consortia that collect data on university graduates on a yearly basis. In 2009, 54 of the 81
Italian universities were included in AlmaLaurea; nine of them in STELLA, six of which in the Lombardy Region.
75
Source: our own analysis based on AlmaLaurea, STELLA (1) It includes graduates attending post-graduate courses.
More than 42% of B graduates is employed one year after graduation; some of them are both working and
pursuing a M degree. However, a substantial percentage of graduates (27,6%) are only working. The
employment situation of M graduates is about 10% better than B graduates. Using the same variables for
individual disciplines, there are significant differences as shown in the CARED study “Laureati “puri” di primo
livello: l‟occupazione in molti casi c‟è” (http://www.cared.unige.it/OccupazioneLaureatidiprimolivelloanno2009.pdf)
(“Pure”10 Bachelor graduates: in many cases there is employment”).
The global and Italian economic crisis of the last years has certainly influenced the occupational trend of
graduates. Since there are significant differences in the behaviour, we discuss the trends over three years
separately for AlmaLaurea and STELLA (Table 2).
Table 2: Trend of employment conditions of 2009 B and M Graduates (% on the total)
Categories B
AlmaLaurea STELLA Categorie
s M
AlmaLaurea STELLA
200
7
200
8
200
9
200
7
200
8
200
9
200
7
200
8
200
9
200
7
200
8 2009
Is working, total 42,4 42,0 43,1 45,0 37,2 38,1 Is working 58,9 53,3 51,4 68,0 61,8 58,0
works and is not
attending a M course 26,2 27,2 27,3 33,9 27,6 28,6
works and is attending a
M course 16,2 14,8 15,8 11,1 9,7 9,5
Doesn‘t work, is not
attending a M
course, but is
looking for a job
6,5 8,6 9,4 5,8 7,6 7,8
Doesn‟t
work, but
looks for a
job
18,8 24,9 27,8 10,3 14,6 14,7
Doesn‘t work and is
attending a M course 48,2 46,4 44,3 44,2 50,3 47,8
Doesn‟t
work and
doesn‟t look
for a job1
22,3 21,4 20,8 21,7 23,1 27,3
Doesn‘t work, is not
attending a M
course, and is not
looking for a job
2,8 3,0 3,3 5,1 4,9 6,3
Source: own elaboration based on AlmaLaurea, STELLA. 1 It includes graduates attending post-graduate Courses.
From 2007 to 2009 the employment rate of B is stable in AlmaLaurea but decreases in STELLA; for M
graduates it decreases in both groups of data, more heavily in STELLA. The difference in employment rates of
B and M has decreased, not much in the STELLA data but more significantly in AlmaLaurea where the
difference decreases from 16,5 to 8,3%.
The rapid decrease in the STELLA values could have suggested that the 2007 economic crisis affected more
significantly Lombardy, the area preferentially covered by this dataset; Lombardy is the most economically
developed Italian region, where the percentage of B working without being enrolled in a M programme, and
working M graduates has always been higher. This hypothesis was confirmed by the analysis of results from the
universities in Lombardy included in STELLA in the three years.
10 In this study we exclude from the B category ―hybrid‖ graduates, i.e. those who started in the old, one-tier system
and then transferred to the new one; in 2009 this represented 6,9% of 2009 graduates in AlmaLaurea.
76
There is a complete agreement between these trends and the rate of employment in the population between 18
and 29 years of age collected by the National Institute for Statistical Data (ISTAT). In 2007 48% of young
Italians are employed; in 2009 only 44%. In Lombardy the employment rate in this age group went down from
62,1% in 2007 to 57% in 2009.
3 More data on Bachelor graduates
We have access to the AlmaLaurea data also for 2010 graduates. This population represents more than 68% of
the B graduates of the entire country. They are more or less evenly distributed across the country and,
therefore, give an accurate picture of the Italian situation, with the exception of the underrepresented area of
Lombardy. In Table 3 we show the total numbers of graduates in each of the categories: we will discuss the
categories present in the last rows. Also the smaller numbers are high, supporting the significance of the
percentages that we will discuss later. In this table and the next ones we show also the values obtained
excluding graduates from health programmes (e.g., nursing), since they are highly specialized professional
programmes with high level of employment. Therefore, we are interested in evaluating the situation when these
graduates are excluded from the analysis.
Table 3: 2010 Bachelor Graduates
National Total Total without Health
group
Number of interviewees 88.958 78.902
Is working, total 37.055 29.685
Works and is not attending a M course 23.877 16.693
Works and is attending a M course 13.178 12.992
Doesn‘t work and is attending a M course 39.269 39.047
Never enrolled in post-Bachelor programmes1 34.296 24.854
Never enrolled, working 22.846 15.775
Never enrolled, not working at graduation 20.192 13.046
Never enrolled, not working at graduation,
now working
11.453 6.361
Source: AlmaLaurea.
1 Most frequently it is a M programme, but it could be a second B degree or an AFAM (Academy of Fine Arts or Music
Conservatory).
Economic development is uneven in Italy, the South being much weaker; therefore, we expected regional
differences in the employment rates. Results are shown in Table 4.
77
Table 4: Employment situation of 2010 B Graduates in the three geographical areas of residence shown as percentages, irrelative of the location of the universities
Whole Population Without graduates in Health fields
Categories
To make
a
comparis
on:
National
2009
Nation
al1
Nort
h
Cent
er South Δ2
Nation
al1 North
Cente
r
Sout
h Δ2
Is working,
total 43,1 41,7 49,2 43,3 32,7 16,6 37,6 45,2 40,3 27,8 17,3
works and is
not attending a
M course
27,3 26,8 32,8 25,9 21,0 11,9 21,2 27,1 21,0 14,7 12,4
works and is
attending a M
course
15,8 14,8 16,4 17,4 11,7 5,7 16,5 18,1 19,2 13,2 6,1
Doesn‘t
work and is
attending a
M course
44,3 44,1 39,1 42,7 50,3 11,2 49,5 43,4 47,6 57,2 13,8
Source: AlmaLaurea. 1 It also includes the small number (0.5%) of graduates with residence abroad. 2 Difference between the highest and lowest regional percentage.
For comparison, we show in Table 4 also the national percentage for 2009. The decrease in the last year
corresponds to the decrease from 44% to 42% of the employment rate in the age group between 18 and 29
years. On the other hand, in the last year there was a slight increase (from 51,4 to 52,1%) of the employment
rate of M graduates.
Looking at the employment rate of Bachelor graduates, we notice a substantial difference between North and
South. While the difference was expected, its magnitude was higher than expected: more than 16% for the
whole population, increasing to more than 17% when we excluded graduates in Health fields.
Similar results, albeit with somewhat lower differences, are seen for graduates who are only working and not
attending a Master programme. Understandably we notice in the South the highest numbers of graduates
attending a Master programme and not working: more than 11% higher than in the North, where we find the
lowest values, and almost 8% more than residents from central areas.
In the two groups of Bachelor graduates (with and without graduates from Health fields) we have further
broken down the regional results by subject area (Table 5).
78
Table 5: Employment of different categories of 2010 B Graduates, by geographical area and by subject
Table 5.A Table 5.B
% of working B graduates of those
not pursuing post-graduate degrees
% of working B graduates of those
not working at graduation and not
pursuing post-graduate degrees
Nation
al1
Nort
h
Cente
r
Sout
h Δ2
Nation
al1
Nort
h
Cente
r South Δ2
Total 66,6 74,9 66 56,4 18,5 56,7 66,3 54,3 48,5 17,8
Subject area
Agriculture 66,7 77,5 59,5 49,7 27,9 55,9 69,3 50,8 33,7 35,5
Architecture 59,4 67,0 60,8 46,2 20,8 45,7 56,3 44,5 33,0 23,2
Chemistry, Pharmacy 65,0 78,0 69,6 48,8 29,2 57,5 73,9 66,7 41,3 32,7
Economics, Statistics 66,3 74,4 66,4 52,9 21,5 52,1 63,4 51,6 36,3 27,1
Education 69,0 82,7 74,7 51,9 30,8 49,6 67,8 49,2 39,0 28,9
Engineering 72,4 78,8 71,2 62,1 16,7 64,8 72,1 63,1 55,1 17
Foreign Languages 59,2 65,8 58,1 47,5 18,2 50,1 58,1 44,9 41,0 17,1
Geology, Biology,
Geophysics 54,5 64,0 55,7 36,7 27,3 42,4 53,2 46,8 26,4 26,8
Humanities 56,2 62,1 57,9 44,4 17,7 40,2 46,7 42,4 29,6 17,2
Law 61,9 69,7 68,0 46,6 23,1 39,2 50,6 26,5 28,0 24,1
Mathematics, Physics,
Computer Science 75,3 81,7 78,1 67,5 14,2 67,4 75,2 64,5 60,8 14,4
Medicine 74,9 85,8 69,9 67,7 18,1 71,3 82,6 65,8 65,2 17,4
Physical Education 78,3 83,4 79,2 67,3 16,1 54,4 64,2 56,8 40,7 23,5
Politics, Social Sciences 60,1 68,9 62,1 47,8 21,1 41,6 51,7 43,8 31,3 20,5
Psychology 62,6 70,2 71,7 46,3 25,4 39,2 46,5 46,8 30,1 16,7
Total without Health
graduates 63,5 71,7 64,5 50,7 21,0 48,8 59,2 47,7 37,3 21,9
Source: AlmaLaurea. 1 It also includes graduates with residence abroad (0,5%). 2 Differences between highest and lowest regional percentage.
Table 5A includes working graduates who are not pursuing a post-graduate degree and decided to seek
employment after completion of a Bachelor degree. These graduates viewed their degree as sufficient to
prepare them for the labour market rather than as an intermediate step in their academic career. There are
modest differences between subject areas at the national level: highest values are shown for graduates in
Physical Education, Medicine, Math/Physics/Computer Sciences and Engineering (>70%) and lowest for
graduates in Geology/Biology/Geography and the Humanities (around 55%). In the other fields the
employment rates vary between 59 and 69%.
Looking at the regional distribution, the highest values, with the exception of one subject area, are found in the
North and the lowest values in the South. In some instances the differences are substantial, with a total regional
difference of more than 18%. Looking at graduates residing in the South where the issues related to
employment of young people are dramatic, over 56% of all graduates (including the Health field) are employed
less than one year after graduation; excluding Health professions, the percentage decreases to 51%.
79
Table 5B shows the employment situation of working graduates who were not working at the time of
graduation and not pursuing further studies. The rates of employment are high, only slightly lower than the
values shown in Table 5A. The national values are close to 57%; 49% if we exclude graduates in Health fields.
There is some variability in the subject areas: three groups (Health, Science, and Engineering) are above 64%,
the others are between 58% and the minimum value of 39,2% in the Law and Psychology groups. In summary,
the majority of the B graduates who decide to find a job after graduation find it in less than a year.
The regional differences are substantial both in the total values and in each subject area. The total number
without the Health field is 10% lower in the South than in the Center, which is 11% lower than the North. In
all subjects, with the exception of Law, the lowest values are found in the South and the highest ones in all
subjects in the North. However, even in the South and without including the health fields 37,3% of B
graduates find a job in less than a year if they look for it; this percentage is higher than 50% not only in the
Health field but also in Sciences and Engineering.
4 A survey designed for heads of degree programmes
As pointed out above, the issue of graduate employment is related to the quality of the design of degree
programs and specifically:
A) to the correct formulation of formative outcomes, and
B) to the presence of adequate opportunities to develop general competences.
We have, therefore, submitted a questionnaire to the heads of the B and M degree programmes at Italian
universities. Since there is no available list of them, we first had to search for their e-mail addresses. We found
them for 42 of the 75 Italian universities that offer B and M programmes11. The 1.834 questionnaires sent to
the heads of degree programmes at these universities cover about 49% of all the programmes offered in Italy.
The questionnaire was developed with the CAWI methodology and was online from 18/01/2012 to
31/03/2012. Answers came from 395 Heads of programmes, a response rate of 22%; the questionnaires filled
in have been 488, as sometimes the same person is in charge of more than one programme. 57% questionnaires
come from northern universities, 27% from central universities. Looking at the distribution on the five areas in
which subjects are grouped for statistical purposes in Italy (Figure 1), the distribution of responses is quite
even.
11 Among the 81 Universities, 6 offer only Doctorate or other programmes.
80
Figure 1: Distribution of answers1 per subject Area
1 The total number of responses included in this graph is 497 and not 488 because 9 of the responses are from
programmes that belong to two different areas and are therefore counted twice.
The complete analysis of the responses is ongoing and will be included in a specific report. Here we highlight
some of the more significant results that we have already obtained.
4.1 Objectives and Dublin Descriptors
Each university programme is organized in Courses (C) and Other Learning Activities (OLA: laboratories,
internships, drafting of a graduation paper, etc.); Italian law mandates that its objectives should be described
using the Dublin Descriptors. One of the questions asked if the design of the programme included information
on how each C and OLA contributed to each objective. Most of the responses showed how unclear is the use
of the Dublin Descriptors. Very few cited the use of matrices or tables, some referred to the course
organization, but most responses merely listed descriptors, activities, and expected learning outcomes. Only
few programmes show that they have examined in detail the specific contribution of each C and OLA to the
overall objectives of the programme.
The responses to the question on the use of suggestions coming from meetings with employer representatives
for the planning and implementation of programmes were more positive. This has resulted in the
recommendation on courses, but mostly labs and practica, identified as useful, and on the relevance to be given
to different subjects in terms of ECTS credits. In some universities were established programme committees,
consisting of staff members and representatives from stakeholders, that guarantee an ongoing dialogue between
the academic and the outside world.
Potential employers have also made specific requests on competences that need to be strengthened. In some
cases these are specific professional competences within the main subject area, e.g. professional accounting and
business evaluation in a programme of economics and business management. In other cases the suggestions are
for competences that are thought to be relevant as additional knowledge like industrial management systems,
management of chemical industries, environmental and safety control, and marketing of chemical industries in
a programme of chemical science and technology. In other cases the suggestions are for generic competences
Scientific Area 129 26%
Political & Social Area 124 25%
Humanistic Area 96
19%
Medical Area 87
18%
Technological Area 61
12%
a
b c
d e
81
like reading and interpreting complex texts, the ability to write different types of texts designed for various
audiences, development of critical thinking, analytical and synthesis abilities, logical approach to various
problems and situations, familiarity with ordinary, technical, and computer languages. A good knowledge of
foreign languages, often but not only English, was a unanimous request.
It is interesting to note that some companies have shown to appreciate graduates with a broad and
interdisciplinary training based, e.g. on a solid foundation of math (20 credits), physics (70 credits), chemistry
(60 credits) in a programme in physical science and technology.
In some cases the suggestions, albeit valid, countered ministerial requirements for the organization of degree
programmes. For example, they requested to increase the availability of curricula that differed in the third year
of the Bachelor, something made extremely difficult by a decree of September 2010, which restricts flexibility.
We asked also if there had been further interaction with external representatives to discuss the progress and
outcomes of the degree. Most of the responses were positive but generic. In some cases there were useful
clarifications specifically for internships and programme monitoring.
Plan changes, requests for new openings, and systematic feedback were involved in internships. The
assessment of the first results compared to the initial plans to suggest changes and/or review of rules
concerned mostly the progress in enrollment and the monitoring of the temporal agreement of objectives and
curricula with the evolution of technology and requests from the labor market. Surveys of graduates and
potential employers were used to identify expectations and information on the how the graduates were
included in the job market. The responses also gave interesting information on the kind of initiatives that
involved the stakeholders, e.g. collaborative courses and labs, sharing of labs, regular seminars by industry
representatives, theses resulting from internships, cultural events and initiatives to promote programs,
agreements with professional organizations to receive credit for certain activities required for board exams,
survey of alumni to identify positive and negative aspects of the degree program as well as deficiencies relative
to issues encountered in the work environment.
4.2 Generic competences
The second part of the questionnaire concerned generic competences. Respondents were asked to select from a
list of 44 the five main competences that their programme aims to provide to their students. The most
commonly selected competences are shown in Table 6, which includes the eight more commonly cited
competences as well as the seven most cited ones in some of the five subject areas. There were 2.209 selections
of competences.
82
Table 6: Occurrences of the 15 competences that appear in the top 8 for the Total or in the top 7 for at least one Subject area1
Total
Scientific Area
(a)
Political & Social
Area (b)
Humanistic Area
(c)
Medical Area
(d)
Technological
Area (e)
Questionnaires 488 129 124 96 87 61
Competences Number of
indications %
Number of
indications %
Number of
indications %
Number of
indications %
Number of
indications %
Number of
indications %
A.1 Capacity for analysis and synthesis 246 50,4 67 51,9 75 60,5 53 55,2 23 26,4 33 54,1
A.5 Problem solving 209 42,8 70 54,3 46 37,1 18 18,8 42 48,3 37 60,7
A.4 Information management skills (ability
to retrieve and analyse information
from different sources)
153 31,4 41 31,8 51 41,1 33 34,4 21 24,1 8 13,1
A.16 Capacity for applying knowledge in
practice 135 27,7 35 27,1 38 30,6 16 16,7 25 28,7 23 37,7
A.3 Oral and written communication in
your native language 115 23,6 30 23,3 26 21,0 42 43,8 13 14,9 7 11,5
A.2 Capacity for organization and planning 106 21,7 29 22,5 27 21,8 8 8,3 26 29,9 17 27,9
A.9 Teamwork 105 21,5 28 21,7 18 14,5 21 21,9 32 36,8 8 13,1
A.11 Ability to work in an interdisciplinary
team 90 18,4 30 23,3 17 13,7 13 13,5 18 20,7 15 24,6
A.17 Research skills 88 18,0 22 17,1 14 11,3 29 30,2 16 18,4 8 13,1
A.18 Capacity to learn 86 17,6 29 22,5 24 19,4 14 14,6 10 11,5 12 19,7
A.6 Decision-making 81 16,6 16 12,4 31 25,0 8 8,3 16 18,4 11 18,0
A.8 Critical and self-critical abilities 69 14,1 6 4,7 19 15,3 34 35,4 9 10,3 1 1,6
A.23 Capacity for generating and managing a
project 62 12,7 13 10,1 19 15,3 8 8,3 8 9,2 17 27,9
A.10 Interpersonal skills 58 11,9 4 3,1 17 13,7 11 11,5 20 23,0 7 11,5
A.21 Understanding of cultures and customs
of other countries 26 5,3 0 0,0 6 4,8 20 20,8 1 1,1 0 0,0
Number of indications for 15 competences
considered
1.629 420 428 328 280 204
Total number of indications 2.209 585 557 439 405 264
% indications considered/total 73,7 71,8 76,8 74,7 69,1 77,3 1In bold the top eight competences for the Total, the top seven for the Subject areas.
83
Figure 2 shows graphically the eight competences mostly selected in the questionnaire. The graph shows the
percentages of each competence compared to the total number of selected competences, not the percentage of
questionnaires where the competence was selected. Each respondent could select up to five competences, and
on average 4,53 were selected with slight differences in subject areas. This allows us to note that the eight
competences most frequent overall, and the seven most frequent for a subject area, cover more than half of the
total occurrences.
Figure 2: Competences mostly selected
Mostly selected for the total Further selected for some subject area
A.
1
Capacity for analysis
and synthesis
A.
3
Oral and written
communication in your
native language
For
a, e:
A.
18
Capacity to
learn
Fo
r c:
A.
8
Critical and self-
critical abilities
A.
5 Problem solving
A.
2
Capacity for
organization and
planning
For
b:
A.
6
Decision-
making
Fo
r c:
A.
17 Research skills
A.
4
Information
management skills
(ability to retrieve and
analyse information
from different
sources)
A.
9 Teamwork
For
e:
A.
23
Capacity for
generating and
managing a
project
Fo
r c:
A.
21
Understanding of
cultures and
customs of other
countries
A.
16
Capacity for applying
knowledge in practice
A.
11
Ability to work in an
interdisciplinary team
Fo
r
d:
A.
10
Interpersonal
skills
A.1 11,1
A.1 11,5
A.1 13,3
A.1 12,1
A.1 5,7
A.1 12,5
A.5 9,5
A.5 12,0
A.5 8,5
A.5 10,4
A.5 14,0
A.4 6,9
A.4 7,0
A.4 9,2
A.4 7,5
A.4 5,2
A.16 6,1
A.16 6,0
A.16 6,8
A.16 6,2
A.16 8,7
A.3 5,2
A.3 5,1
A.3 4,7
A.3 9,6
A.2 4,8
A.2 5,0
A.2 4,8
A.2 6,4
A.2 6,4
A.9 4,8
A.9 4,8
A.9 7,9
A.11 4,1
A.11 5,1
A.11 5,7
A.8 7,7
A.17 6,6
A.21 4,6
A.23 6,4
A.6 5,6
A.10 4,9
A.18 5,0
A.18 4,5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total
Scientific Area (a)
Political & Social Area (b)
Humanistic Area (c)
Medical Area (d)
Technological Area (e)
Eight mostly selected competences for the Total, and seven mostly selected for each Subject area.
84
Rather than giving detailed comments on the results shown in Table 6 and Figure 2 and how each competence is
represented in the programmes, we will limit our discussion to a few remarks. Only ―capacity for analysis and
synthesis‖, a rather generic competence, appears for all subject areas in the seven most commonly reported
competences. In three areas ―teamwork‖ is not in the top seven competences, and in the Political and Social
Area it is missing together with ―ability to work in an interdisciplinary team‖: however, these are two of the most
highly requested competences in the work environment. Still in the Political and Social Area the lack of attention
given to ―understanding of cultures and costumes of other countries‖ is disturbing. The fact that ―oral and
written communication in your native language‖ is of little significance in the Health and Technological areas is
also worrying since communication competences are necessary in any area. Other highly required competences
appear in the top seven category only in one Subject area: ―capacity for generating and managing a project‖ only
in the Technological area and ―interpersonal competences‖ only in the Health field.
For each of the selected competences the respondent had to specify if only academic Courses (C), or only Other
Learning Activities (OLA), or both contributed to the acquisition of the competence. We show here the
responses given for the 15 most frequently selected competences that were identified above. Figure 3 shows the
percentage of responses in the C category (x axis) versus the percentage of responses in the OLA category (y
axis). The diagonal lines represent the results where the contribution to the competence was given by both
categories.
Figure 3: Contribution to competences given by Courses (C), by Other Learning Activities (OLA), or by Both
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
32 37 42 47 52 57 62 67 72 77 82
On
ly O
LA (
all o
r so
me)
co
ntr
ibu
te (
% o
f an
swer
s)
Only C (all or some) contribute (% of answers)
Eight mostly selected for the total
Other, selected for some subject area
A.1
A.4
A.16
A.5 A.18
A.6
A.V.
A.23
A.21
A.2
A.8
A.9
0
A.17
A.11
A.3
A.10
Both=40
Both=50
Both=30 Both=20
85
Figure 3 shows that ten among the fifteen competences compose a cluster: almost no respondent believes that
these competences are provided only by OLA, whereas between 19 and 36% of the respondents believe that the
OLA contribute together with C. For the remaining five, most of the respondents declare that the OLA provide
these competences, alone or jointly with C; for ―teamwork‖ and ―ability to work in an interdisciplinary team‖,
more than 20% of the respondents refer only to OLA, and for the last quoted competence less than 37% refers
only to C.
These results show one critical and one positive aspect. It is clear that the academic tradition centered around
traditional lectures is still very strong, as suggested by the low percentage of OLA. On the other hand, often the
respondents have demonstrated that they can clearly distinguish the characteristics of the various competences
by identifying the areas where they are provided.
5 Conclusions
We have shown that the employment of Bachelor graduates is not the main issue concerning the implementation
of the Bologna Process in Italy. Due to the economic crisis, there are job problems for young people; however,
for graduates the employment rate is higher than for others, and it does not differ much for B versus M
graduates.
While part of B graduates entering M programmes are part-time students, as they are also employed, exactly two
thirds of B graduates who are not pursuing a further degree is employed. There are regional differences, with the
highest employment rates in northern Italy. Anyhow, in the South, where issues related to employment of young
people are dramatic, almost 57% of all graduates are employed less than one year after graduation. Even if we
only consider B graduates who started working after graduation, the overall employment rate is almost 57%; in
the South, almost one half (48,5%) of B graduates find a job in less than a year, if they look for it.
Difficulties turn out to be qualitative rather than quantitative. A student-centered learning environment, which
can provide both Bachelor and Master graduates with the competences necessary for their positive introduction
A.
V.
Average value A
.4
Information
management skills
(ability to retrieve and
analyse information
from different sources)
A.
9
Teamwork A.
17
Research skills
A.
1
Capacity for
analysis and
synthesis
A
.5
Problem solving A.
10
Interpersonal
skills
A.
18
Capacity to learn
A.
2
Capacity for
organization and
planning
A
.6
Decision-making A.
11
Ability to work in
an
interdisciplinary
team
A.
21
Understanding of
cultures and customs
of other countries
A.
3
Oral and written
communication in
your native
language
A
.8
Critical and self-critical
abilities
A.
16
Capacity for
applying
knowledge in
practice
A.
23
Capacity for
generating and
managing a project
86
to the labour market, is missing, or at least insufficiently developed. This statement is also supported by other
studies (Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli, 2012; Unioncamere, 2011), that show several reasons why employers and
working graduates are not fully satisfied. Employers remark on deficiencies in the generic competences of
otherwise well prepared graduates. Employed graduates note that they are not utilized at their full potential.
The results of our survey show that the Italian academic system is still largely based on the teaching of discipline-
based content, i.e. is still teacher-centered. The definition of objectives expressed using the Dublin Descriptors is
present because it is required, but is mostly extraneous to the true organization of the curriculum. In fact the
content of formative activities is almost never defined in base of the objectives, and the contribution that each
activity gives to the achievement of these objectives is missing.
Our data show that there is awareness of the need to include generic competences to specific discipline-based
learning outcomes. Even if the generic competences included in the programmes are still closely linked to the
specific subject areas, at least the terminology of these competences is becoming part of the language of some
curricula. Since the reform of the university system was introduced without appropriate support from the
Ministry of Education, we find this result encouraging and a step in the right direction. To overcome the
mismatch between the required competences and what graduates effectively have, Italian universities must move
in a much more systemic way into a student-centered approach, based on learning outcomes and competences.
References
Allen, J. and van der Velden, R. (eds.) (2011), The Flexible Professional in the Knowledge Society. New Challenges for
Higher Education, Springer, Dordrecht.
ALMALAUREA (2009), Condizione occupazionale dei Laureati. XI Indagine 2008, Asterisco, Bologna.
ALMALAUREA (2010), Condizione occupazionale dei Laureati. XII Indagine 2009, Asterisco, Bologna.
ALMALAUREA (2011), Condizione occupazionale dei Laureati. XIII Indagine 2010, available at
http://www.almalaurea.it/universita/occupazione/occupazione09/volume.pdf (accessed 19 june 2012).
ALMALAUREA (2012), Condizione occupazionale dei Laureati. XIV Indagine 2011, available at
http://www.almalaurea.it/universita/occupazione/occupazione10/volume.pdf (accessed 19 june 2012).
Colombo, S. and Bellani D. (2009), ―Una università classista e disattenta al mondo del lavoro?‖, in Regini, M. (Ed.), Malata e
denigrata. L‘Università italiana a confronto con l‘Europa, Donzelli, Roma, pp. 50-65.
CARED, Seminario sull‘occupazione dei laureati (Milano 23/05/2011), available at
http://www.cared.unige.it/Allegato1Rapporto09062011.pdf (accessed 19 june 2012).
CARED, Laureati ―puri‖ di primo livello: l‘occupazione in molti casi c‘è, available at
http://www.cared.unige.it/OccupazioneLaureatidiprimolivelloanno2009.pdf (accessed 19 june 2012).
EHEA (2012), The European Higher Education Area in 2012: Bologna Process Implementation Report,
http://vilnius2012.bolognaexperts.net/sites/default/files/ehea_2012_bologna_implementation_report.pdf (accessed 19
june 2012).
Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli (2012), I nuovi laureati. La riforma 3+2 alla prova del mercato, Laterza, Roma-Bari.
Leoni, R. (2011) ―Employability of graduates and development of competencies: mind the gap and mind the step! Empirical
evidence for Italy‖, in Dehems Conference Proceedings 22-23 September 2011, Vienna available at http://www.dehems-
project.eu/static/uploaded/files/files/contributions/Leoni_Riccardo_DEHEMS_Conference_Paper_Employability_of_gra
duates_and_development_of_competencies.pdf (accessed 19 june 2012).
Schomburg, H. and Teichler, U. (2006), Higher Education and Graduate Employment in Europe. Results from Graduate
Surveys from Twelve Countries, Springer, Dordrecht.
87
Schomburg, H. and Teichler, U. (Eds.) (2011), Employability and Mobility of Bachelor Graduates in Europe. Key Results of
the Bologna Process, Sense, Rotterdam.
STELLA (2009), Laureati STELLA. Indagine occupazionale post-laurea laureati anno solare 2007, Cilea, Segrate.
STELLA (2010), Laureati STELLA. Indagine occupazionale post-laurea laureati anno solare 2008, Cilea, Segrate.
STELLA (2011), Laureati STELLA. Indagine occupazionale post-laurea laureati anno solare 2009, Cilea, Segrate.
Teichler, U. (2009), Higher Education and the World of Work. Conceptual Frameworks, Comparative Perspectives,
Empirical Findings, Sense, Rotterdam.
Teichler, U. (2009), Higher Education and the World of Work, Sense, Rotterdam.
Teichler, U. (Ed.) (2007), Careers of University Graduates. Views and Experiences in Comparative Perspectives, Springer,
Dordrecht.
UNIONCAMERE (2011), Sistema formativo Excelsior 2011. Il monitoraggio dei fabbisogni professionali dell‘industria e
dei servizi per favorire l‘occupabilità, Graficart, Formia.
Sitography
www.almalaurea.it
www.cared.unige.it
www.dehems-project.eu
www.excelsior.unioncamere.net/index.php
www.istat.it/
www.vulcanostella.cilea.it/
88
CASE STUDY ON THE INFLUENCES OF ECONOMIC FACTORS ON
EMPLOYMENT OF GRADUATES OF JAPANESE ENGINEERING
PROGRAMS
Minoru Nakayama, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
Abstract: The employment of university graduates may be influenced by the
economic situation, the composition of industry and by other conditions.
Though it is recognized that Engineering graduates seek work in
manufacturing and related industries, their employment is not limited to
these specific industries. A case study was conducted by surveying the
employment statistics of graduates from various Science and Technology
departments in Bachelor's, Master's and Ph.D. courses at a Japanese
national university at 5 year intervals between 1985 and 2010. The results
show that new graduates continue to be employed by certain companies,
but that graduates‘ types of preferred industries have been changing as
business conditions have changed. The annual statistics for engineers
graduated from university departments and the industrial sectors they
entered were analysed using multiple correspondence analysis. Two
dimensional scales were extracted using the industries and the graduates‘
academic departments. In comparing the relationships between university
departments, industrial sectors, degree levels and year of graduation, these
relationships have changed over the years. The factors causing these
changes are discussed in context with the changes in the relationships
between them.
1 Introduction
The employment of university graduates may be influenced by factors such as the economic situation,
the structure of industry and the needs of companies. In Japan, manufacturing industries are major
employers, although the ratio of employment of graduates of science and technology courses to the
overall work force has decreased recently (Nakayama, 2011). As postgraduate courses in science and
technology increase their level of expertise in Japan, many Master's students have found employment
in companies in non-scientific & technological industries, such as finance and commerce. However, it
is often suggested that a strong relationship still exists between specific disciplines and certain
industries.
To illustrate this, a case study was conducted by surveying annual employment statistics for graduates
of various Science and Technology departments at a Japanese national university, for every 5 years
between 1985 and 2010, and the trends of student's employment preferences are summarized. Also,
the relationships between university departments and industries are analysed across degree levels and
years of graduation.
This paper will address the following topics:
(1) The number of job openings for applicants from a leading Japanese Science and Technology
university are surveyed, and economic and employment trends in Japan are summarized.
89
(2) The relationship between the course of study and industry of employment are measured, and the
matrices of the number of graduates employed in each industry are analysed, using corresponding
analysis. The graduates' preferences for particular industries are also summarized.
2 Japanese labour conditions
The Japanese work environment has changed during the past quarter century. Following the "high
advanced growth" of the 1970‘s and the "bubble economy" of the late 1980‘s, Japan experienced the
"two lost decades". The nominal GDP increased marginally from 1985 to 2000, but decreased in the
following 10 years to 2010. This suggests that there are some obstacles in the Japanese economy.
The labour force, or the number of people employed, is illustrated in Figure 1(a), according to
Japanese statistics. The vertical axis shows the ratio of various industries to the overall workforce. The
ratios for manufacturing industries are the highest from 1985 to 1990, while the ratio for service
industries steadily increases to its highest point in 1995. The ratio of engineers employed in the
construction industry also decreases after 2000, but employment in transportation and
telecommunications industries increases after 2000. Business opportunities in the information
technology industry peaked worldwide around 2000. This graph depicts the overall changes in the
structure of Japanese industry.
Also, the activities and employment needs of industry affect the initial salary of new employees. The
mean salaries for graduates with Bachelor‘s degree are summarized in Figure 1(b). The statistics for
graduates with Master's degrees have only been surveyed since 2005, so the plots for these are limited.
Salaries jumped in 1995 due to inflation caused by the "bubble economy", and those for most
industries increased slightly in the preceding years, except for finance, real estate and service industry
workers. The recession in the 1990s influenced the high salaries of finance, real estate, and services
industry workers, which decreased as employment grew. Salaries for graduates with Master's degrees
are significantly higher than those for graduates with Bachelor's degrees, though the survey only
covers two years.
As the above mentioned structural changes and salary incentives may have affected student‘s job
selections, it is useful to analyse employment surveys at a Science and Technology university.
Figure 1 (a): Labour force in Japan (source: MIAC), (b): Initial salaries across industries in Japan (source: MHLW)
90
3 A case study of Science and Technology graduates' employment
A national science and technology university, which is one of the leading universities in Japan, was
chosen as a cohort. The university has summarized graduates' employment statistics according to
department and industry, on an annual basis.
In this paper, the statistics for every five years between 1985 and 2010 are compared. Some categories
have changed during the years of the surveys, so some compensation is necessary. The number of
graduates employed is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Totals of new graduates employed, by year and degree
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Bachelors 226 355 252 173 101 91
Masters 555 663 839 1141 1339 1308
Doctors 58 87 169 117 159 135
The table suggests that most graduates are Master's, the number of Master's graduates has increased
twice during the 1990s due to the proliferation of postgraduate science and technology courses. Most
Bachelor graduates currently go on to Master‘s courses. The number of Doctoral students has also
increased, and since 2005 there have been more Doctoral graduates than Bachelor graduates.
3.1 Employment trends
To survey the demand for science and technology graduates, the number of applications by students is
summarized in Figure 2(a). The ratio of job applications per student decreased once in 1995, and
decreased again in 2010.
The ratios of company positions per student are generally consistent across the years. Therefore, some
internal changes in company requirements vis a vis job applications may have happened around 1995,
and as recently as 2010.
The number of new graduates hired per company is illustrated in Figure 2(b). As some graduates are
hired by the same company, the mean number can be calculated every year. Though the mean
numbers decrease slightly across the years, on average there are around 2.5 Master‘s graduates working
together at the same company, while most Bachelor's and Doctoral graduates are working by
themselves at their company of employment.
As shown in Figure 2(a), though many companies offer students employment, students choose
specific companies to work at. As the author has reported, most students complete their Master‘s
degree in science and technology, and the number of graduates with Bachelor‘s and Doctoral degrees
is relatively small compared to those with Master's degrees (Nakayama, 2011). Therefore, the number
of graduates may affect the ratios of graduate employees per company.
91
Figure 2 (a): The number of applications per student, (b): The number of graduates per company
To summarize the job selection trends of graduates, the percentages of graduates with each level of
degree in each industry are summarized in Figure 3. This figure shows which industries are preferred
by graduates.
Figure 3(a) shows the percentages for Construction, Chemical Engineering and Electronics. Ratios of
both Bachelor's (B) and Master‘s graduates (M) in Electronics are the highest between 1985 and 2000,
but the ratio of Bachelor's graduates decreases after 2000, and the ratio of Master's graduates remains
the highest. The ratio of Doctoral graduates (D) in Electronics increases after 2000, but the ratio for
Bachelor's graduates decreases.
Figure 3 (a): Percentages of graduates in Construction, Chemical Engineering and Electronics, (b): Percentages of graduates in Transportation & Telecommunications, Finance and Services.
The ratios of Master‘s and Doctoral graduates in Chemical Engineering are almost always higher than
the ratio for Bachelor's graduates, while their ratios are nearly comparable, except for 1990. The
Chemical Engineering industry prefers expert engineers like Master's and Doctoral degree holders, as
the results show. For Construction, the ratios are almost always low, although the ratios of Bachelor's
graduates are the highest in the industry between 1985 and 2000. All of these graduates' preferences
are different across each industry.
Figure 3(b) shows trends for non-manufacturing industries. All ratios for Service industries increase
and decrease before and after 2000, while the ratios of Bachelor's and Doctoral graduates are the
highest. Service industries include information services and academic services to industry, and there
was a significant change around 2000. The Transportation and Telecommunications industries prefer
92
Master's graduates. In additional, these industries preferred Doctoral graduates after 2000. The
Finance industry always prefers Bachelor's graduates, and Master's degree holders to a lesser extent.
3.2 Relationship between departments and industries
As mentioned above, employment statistics regarding department, degree and industry of new
graduates have been summarized every year. To extract the relationships, multiple correspondence
analysis is applied to the survey data. The categorical variables are shown as follows: Years (1985,
1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010), Degree (Bachelor's, Master's, Doctoral), Departments (Math, Physics,
Chemistry, Material Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electronic
Engineering, Informatics, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Social Engineering, Nuclear
Engineering, Bio-Engineering and Interdisciplinary studies), and Industry (Agriculture, Mining,
Fisheries and Food, Construction, Publishing, Chemicals, Textiles, Metals, Machinery, Electronics,
Transportation, Other manufacturing, Electricity & Gas, Telecommunications, Finance, Real Estate,
Commerce, Services, Education and Public Service).
Figure 4 (a): Configuration by degree and department, (b): Configuration by year.
First, all data have been analysed, and the values for departments and degrees are illustrated using two
dimensional features in Figure 4(a). The Master‘s degree is located near the point of origin (0,0), and
Electronics Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Interdisciplinary studies surround the Master‘s
degree. Social Engineering is located near the Bachelor‘s degree. The Doctoral degree is not near the
point of origin, and Bio-Engineering, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering are located between
Doctoral degree and the point of origin. In these industries, graduates with Doctoral degrees are
preferred over graduates with lesser degrees.
93
Figure 5: Suggested scales in two dimensions
To illustrate the change across the years, the values for every 5 years are mapped in Figure 4(b). In the
figure, the first three years, 1985, 1990 and 1995 show significant deviations, and the rest of the years
are located around the same location. Many factors have changed simultaneously during the 25 years
surveyed. For the first three 5 year periods, the university increased its number of graduate courses.
For the last three 5 year periods, economical conditions were unstable, resulting in a distribution
without significant variation.
The features of these plots represent some tendencies in two dimensions, such as basic vs. advanced
disciplines represented by the horizontal axis, and broad demand vs. specific demand represented by
the vertical axis. These axes are shown in Figure 5. A Bachelor‘s degree is relatively basic in
comparison with postgraduate courses which deal with advanced course materials. Also, Mechanical
Engineering and Electronics Engineering cover broad areas of technology, but Bio-Engineering is
relatively limited in application.
Figure 6: Configuration by degree, department and industry in 1985
94
Figure 7: Configuration by degree, department and industry in 2010
The structure by degree, department and industry for 1985 is illustrated using the same features as in
Figure 6. The dimensional scale in the vertical axis is converted according to Figure 5. The Doctoral
degree is separate from the point of origin, and the position of Education is located near the Doctoral
degree. This means that a Doctoral degree has a high degree of expertise and most jobs for Doctoral
degree holders are as teaching staff at educational institutions. In 1985, the emphasis for doctoral
degree courses was on positions in research and development.
Figure 7 shows the structure in 2010. The Doctoral degree is near the point of origin, and many
industries are located around the Doctoral degree. This means that some industrial sectors prefer
graduates with Doctoral degrees. The typical relationships between departments and industries have
disappeared, except for Social Engineering, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, as most graduates
can work in a variety of industrial sectors.
The major factors causing these structural changes and the process by which these relationships were
established should be studied in more detail. Also, new educational programs should be introduced to
help students recognize the changes in the labour market. These points will be subjects of our further
study.
4 Summary
To measure the relationships between the employment of new graduates of university departments
and the industrial sectors they entered, annual employment statistics of graduates from various Science
and Technology departments at a Japanese national university for every 5 years between 1985 and
2010 were analysed as a case study.
95
The trends in job application statistics, and changes in employment ratios by industry for graduates
across degree levels are summarized, and deviations in indices for labour economics surveys in Japan
are observed. The quantitative relationships in the statistics for graduates, between their departments
and the industries they entered, are extracted using multiple correspondence analysis. The
relationships between dates of initial employment and degree levels are also determined.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Dr. Hiromitsu Muta, Professor Emeritus of Tokyo Institute of
Technology, who kindly suggested the analysis of annual institutional statistics of employment of
graduates.
References
Japanese Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Labour Force Survey,
http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/roudou/index.html
Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Basic Survey on Wage Structure,
http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/itiran/roudou/chingin/kouzou/detail/
Economic and Social Research Institute, Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, National Accounts of Japan,
http://www.esri.cao.go.jp/en/sna/menu.html
Nendadi'c, O. and Greenacre, M. (2007) Correspondence analysis in R, with Two- and Three-dimensional
Graphics: The ca Package, J. of Statistical Software, Vol.20, Issue.3
Nakayama, M. (2011) A Survey of the Relationship between Quality Assurance and Employability for Graduates
of Japanese Engineering Programs, Proc. of DEHEMS 2011.
http://www.dehems-
project.eu/static/uploaded/files/files/contributions/Nakayama_Minoru_DEHEMS_Conference_Paper_A_Sur
vey_of_the_Relationship_between_Quality_Assurance_and_Employability_for_Graduates_of_Japanese_Engin
eering_Programs.pdf
96
FROM EXPANSION TO CRISIS: UNIVERSITY PATHWAYS AND
PROFESSIONAL INSERTION IN THE LABOUR MARKET12
José Navarro, GRET- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Sandra Fachelli, GRET- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Abstract: This document focuses on the conclusions of a typological
analysis on the occupational insertion of graduates of Catalan public
universities in 2004 and 2007. The data come from a periodic survey on
the labour market outcomes of graduates from Catalan universities,
carried out by the Catalan University Quality Assurance Agency (AQU).
A comparison element has been introduced in order to contrast labour
market outcomes among graduates in 2004 (interviewed in the first
quarter of 2008), who studied and made its labour insertion during a
period of economic expansion in Spain and graduates in 2007 who
completed their degrees about a year before the start of the recent
economic crisis (interviewed in early 2011). Although we can see a
decline in the employment rate of graduates as a whole, with regard only
to occupied graduates no significant differences were found between the
two cohorts.
1 Introduction
The university-to-work is one of the most important periods of young people in the construction
of his or her adult life. However, it is well known that this transition is no longer a linear pathway
(family-study-work) for most of the young. The specific way in which an individual transit into
adulthood is the result is the result of the conjunction of three factors, with the same importance
between them: personal decisions, social and cultural frames that could inspire those decisions
(social class, gender, geographical origin, etc.) and institutional settings that limit and channel these
same decisions (educational opportunities, strategies of employers who will recruit the individual,
structure and preferences of the working population that the individual competes with, public
youth employment policies, etc.).
In addition, in order to focus on a topic as complex as youth employability is essential to be
establish within a historical angle (Sala et al., 2007), taking into account phenomena such as the
educational expansion or the economic crisis
In this sense, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 and has lasted until the present moment
is an element that has influenced the employability of university graduates. In the last years, Spain‘s
youth unemployment rates have grown considerably. However analysts agree that the problem has
stronger impact on the youth without post-secondary education or even more on those with
unfinished secondary studies, owing to the fact that during the economic expansion period of the
12
This research work is part of the ―Plan Nacional de Investigación científica, desarrollo e investigación tecnológica (CSO2010-19271) financed by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under the title ―Itinerarios universitarios, equidad y movilidad ocupacional‖. The authors form part of the GRET, Labour and Education Research Group, UAB.
97
past years, employers used to offer well-paid jobs with no educational requirements (mostly in
construction and services).
Furthermore, a recent research (Planas and Fachelli, 2010) concluded that Catalan Universities had
played a positive role in equity and professional mobility of their graduates. Authors found that
neither the social background nor the educational outcomes could clearly explain the inequality in
labour outcomes of graduates. Only the gender appeared as an explicative variable of income
differences between graduates.
In this paper two purposes are explored: a contribution to the knowledge of professional insertion
of Catalan universities graduates and, secondly, a study on the impact of the recent economic crisis
on their employability. A typological approach was used in order to clarify different labour market
outcomes on two sets of graduates: the first one, during the economic growth in Spain (2004) and
the second, previous to the outbreak of economic crisis (2007). Both populations were surveyed
four years after graduation, in 2008 and 2011 respectively.
2 Data
Data from a periodical survey on graduates‘ labour market outcomes carried out since 2001 by The
Catalan University Quality Assurance Agency (AQU Catalunya) was used to perform the
typological analysis. In this research, the last two surveys were used: the first carried out in early
2008 with graduates from 2004 cohort, and the second in early 2011 with the 2007 graduates (AQU
Catalunya, 2008; 2011).
In the 2008 database, 96% of the sample came from public universities, while in 2011 survey data
from private universities was introduced for the first time in the survey. In this sense, a different
distribution of public-private graduates was resulted (80% public, 20% private). In order to avoid
possible bias in the comparative analysis, for this particular research, only data referring to the
public universities is analysed.
Table 1: Population, sample and sampling error (Public Universities) 2004 Cohort 2007 Cohort
Population Sample Sampling error Population Sample Sampling error
22.343 11.771 0.62% 22.191 12.219 0.59%
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
It is noteworthy to mention that both surveys used the same questionnaire, which addressed the
following issues: job situation, job satisfaction, evaluation of factors influencing contracting,
satisfaction with degree studies and its usefulness/suitability for the work, further studies,
geographical mobility, academic performance, socioeconomic status and finally and specific section
for unemployed graduates.
98
3 Methodology
Firstly, the main features of the whole graduates in relation to their work situation are presented. A
descriptive analysis of general occupation situation is shown taking into account gender, social
background, field of studies and combination of studies and work during the university experience.
Secondly, a typological analysis on occupied graduates is proposed, with the aim to establish a
differentiation regarding labour market outcomes. The typological analysis was carried out using
two complementary statistical techniques: multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) and cluster
analysis (CLA) (Fachelli 2010, López 1996,). The MCA helps to describe similarities or likenesses
between individuals and relationships between qualitative variables, while automatic classification
techniques allow grouping individuals and variables through different algorithms, having the
possibility to avail themselves of the results of the ACM (Lebart, et al. 2000). Hence, the mentioned
techniques offer the possibility of constructing complex, effective and useful descriptions of large
data sets, organized in matrices that relate individuals and variables (Cornejo, 1989).
4 Graduates’ job situation
In this section some general characteristics of Catalan universities graduates‘ work situation13 four
years after graduation are exposed. First, a simple typology of students regarding their occupational
status is established: occupied, internships, inactive and unemployed.
Regarding the internships, we refer to those graduates who answered affirmatively to the question
―do you work at present?‖ but in the question about contract type chose the ―internship‖ answer.
An internship contract may imply different modalities of approaching the labour market, being the
most representatives the pre o postdoctoral grants or practice contracts in enterprises, with evident
differences between them. Besides, we opted to separate internships from the rest of occupied
students because they were not asked about some items in the questionnaire14.
Graduates who reported not to be working at the time of the survey were divided into two groups:
unemployed and active. The former are those whose graduates were not working but searching for
a job, the latter are those who were not working neither looking forward to do it.
According to the data available, we note the impact of the economical crisis: the percentage of
occupied graduates decreases from 90,6% in the 2004 cohort to 84,7% in the 2007 cohort. The
impact can also be observed in the unemployed percentage that rises from 3.1 to 7.8%.
13
Review AQU Catalunya 2008 and 2011 for a more complete presentation of surveys results. In addition, in the second reference the reader could review a historical evolution of different variables for the period of 2001-2011.
14 They did not were asked about job satisfaction, factors influencing contracting, enterprise size and
duration of working day.
99
Table 2: Occupational status.
Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational status Cases Percentage Cases Percentage
Occupied 10664 90,6 10349 84,7
Internships 343 2,9 477 3,9
Unemployed 362 3,1 957 7,8
Inactive 402 3,4 436 3,6
Total 11771 100,0 12219 100,0
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
Taking into account gender, we found that men have been more affected by the unemployment
raise. While in the first cohort differences between men and women are observed in inactive and
internships, in the second one the differences are found regarding to occupation (higher for women)
and unemployment (higher for men).
Table 3: Occupational status by gender. Percentages
Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational status Female Male Total Female Male Total
Occupied 90,7 90,4 90,6 85,1 84,1 84,7
Internships 2,6 3,4 2,9 3,9 3,9 3,9
Unemployed 3,0 3,1 3,1 7,3 8,6 7,8
Inactive 3,7 3,0 3,4 3,6 3,5 3,6
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
It is also important to analyse the impact of social background on the distribution of graduates‘
occupational status, in order to answer to questions such as: does the social class influences job
situation of university graduates? Or, does graduates coming from families with higher educational
background have a better insertion to labour market? Although, this issue requires further analysis,
it is worth reviewing the major indicators of the relationship between social origin and occupational
status.
Socioeconomic status was measured through two indicators: family educational and occupational
background (i.e. the highest educational and occupational level attained by either one of the two
parents). The educational background was classified in three categories considering the main
educational levels: primary, secondary and tertiary, whereas the occupational status categories were
grouped hierarchically into three levels: low, medium and high15.
15
For further analysis on the relationship between social class and occupational success of graduates see Planas and Fachelli (2010). Moreover, this article explains the construction of the categories used for these two variables.
100
Table 4: Occupational status by family educational level. Percentages Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational
status Primary Secondary
Higher
education Primary Secondary
Higher
education
Occupied 92,6 90,8 87,5 86,8 85,4 81,7
Internships 1,8 2,9 4,5 2,4 4,1 5,4
Unemployed 2,7 3,2 3,4 7,5 7,1 8,8
Inactive 2,8 3,1 4,6 3,3 3,4 4,0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
In table number 4, we can see that the higher the family educational background (at least one of the
parents studied up to the third level), the more likely graduates are to be unemployed, internships and
inactive, both in economic growth and in a context of economic crisis. This may be due to the fact
that these graduates have more family resources to wait until they found an optimum alternative to
work. This hypothesis is reinforced when we observe that it is precisely in the upper level where
there is a higher increase in the proportion of unemployed people between the two surveys.
Regarding parents occupations, no large differences were found in the distribution of graduates‘
occupational status. In parents with higher occupational levels we can see smaller proportions of
occupied graduates in both surveys, but added to the internships, the proportions are similar between
the three levels, again in both surveys. With regard to unemployment, differences are less than a
percentage point inside each survey and the rise in the proportion of unemployed is practically alike
in all three categories.
Table 5: Occupational status by family occupational level. Percentages
Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational
status Low level
Medium
level High level Low level
Medium
level High level
Occupied 92,4 89,9 89,7 85,7 84,9 83,8
Internships 2 2,9 3,8 2,9 3,8 4,8
Unemployed 2,7 3,5 2,9 7,8 8,1 7,7
Inactive 3 3,7 3,5 3,6 3,2 3,7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
The Catalan University (Autonomous Community in Spain) system categorise the degrees in five
subject areas: social sciences, engineering and architecture, health sciences, humanities, and
experimental sciences. For this work, along with the line developed by GRET (Planas and Fachelli,
2010), the social sciences area was subdivided into two subject areas, because of the variability in
employability outcomes observed among its graduates. Thus, degrees related to law, economics,
business administration and business sciences were grouped into one independent area, while the
rest of degrees remained in the social sciences area.
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In this way, the distribution of occupational status according to the six subject areas is as follows:
Table 6: Occupational status by subject areas. Percentages. Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational status SS LEA ES EA HS H SS LEA ES EA HS H
Occupied 92,9 92,9 77,3 93,1 94,1 85,2 89,4 86,4 68,2 85,5 90,1 76,9
Internships 1,5 0,8 13,1 1,9 2,1 4,1 1,6 1,6 18 3,1 3,1 4,6
Unemployed 3,1 2,8 3 2,3 1,4 5,8 6,3 6,3 8,8 8,2 3,8 12,7
Inactive 2,6 3,5 6,6 2,6 2,4 4,9 2,7 2,7 5 3,2 3,0 2,7
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
SS: Social sciences
LEA: Law, economics and administration
ES: Experimental sciences
EA: Engineering and architecture
HS: Health sciences
H: Humanities
With regard to the level of occupation, all subject areas reported a lower percentage in the 2007
cohort than in 2004. The subject areas that present a greater decrease on employment rates are
experimental sciences (9.1 points of difference), humanities (8.3 percentage points of difference)
and engineering/architecture (decreased 7.6). In addition, these same subject areas are showing a
further increase in unemployment. The increase in the number of internships (5 points) is also
important with regard to experimental sciences area. The latter result can be read as a positive
matter (as an increase in research training programs) or as a reflex of difficulties in finding a job on
the labour market, and thus these graduates have taken refuge in the studies to deal with the period
of economic crisis. Once made this clarification, it should be mentioned that the area of humanities
is clearly the one that showed a lower level of occupation and a higher level of unemployment in
both 2004 and 2007 cohorts.
Finally, we analyse the relationship between occupational status and the combination of studies and
work during the university experience. This aspect involves many actors in the phenomenon that
we are discussing: students, employers and managers of higher education institutions. There are
several reasons to combine the studies (not asked in the survey), but the type of work (part-time or
full time job, related or unrelated with the specialty) reflects different professional pathways
decisions taken by young people.
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Table 7: Occupational status by the combination of studies and work. Percentages Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Occupational
status S PR PNR FR FNR S PR PNR FR FNR
Occupied 88,7 95,2 90,4 95,4 92,9 81,6 87,6 82,9 91,5 88,7
Internships 4,5 2,1 2,7 1,1 0,9 6,6 3 4,3 1,4 1,3
Unemployed 3,3 1,4 4 2,1 3,9 8,3 6,9 9,5 4,9 7,8
Inactive 3,4 1,4 2,8 1,4 2,3 3,6 2,5 3,4 2,1 2,2
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
S: Full-time students
PR: Part-time related job
PNR: Part-time nonrelated job
FR: Full-time related job
FNR: Full-time nonrelated job
As can be seen in table 7, full-time students have a lower level of occupation, compared to their
peers who combined studies and work in any of the four forms mentioned previously. However, by
adding the internships (which is a form of occupation) to occupied graduates the result changes
significantly in both surveys. It is therefore necessary to review unemployment indicator to see how
this phenomenon behaves.
The three groups that present a higher percentage of unemployment are those who worked in a job
not related to their studies (both part-time and full-time) and full-time students. These three groups
also show an increase of around 5 points in the percentage of unemployment between the two
surveys. On the other hand, students who combined a part-time related job presented a significant
rise of unemployment between the two generations (5.5 percentage points). The smaller increase in
the proportion of unemployment can be seen in graduates who worked at a full-time job and
related with their studies, whom mostly were enrolled at university once they were already working.
5 Typological analysis of occupied graduates
The previous section addressed some general features of the occupational status of graduates. It
could be seen how even with the decrease in the level of occupation and with a significant increase
in the proportion of unemployed graduates, most of the graduates reported to be occupied at the
time of the survey. However, it is evident that the characteristics of the occupations show
differences regarding the quality of jobs (AQU Catalunya 2008; 2011).
The surveys used for this work include a comprehensive list of variables that characterize the
occupation of graduates. In order to perform the typological analysis, we proceeded first to
differentiate the available labour variables according to their main characteristics, which can be seen
in table 8.
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Table 8: Classification of labour variables. Occupational variables Enterprise variables Pathway variables
Request of university degree.
Degree-level job.
Contract type.
Salaried or self-employment.
Full-time or part-time job.
Incomes.
Branch of economic activity.
Enterprise size.
Access way to the labour
market.
Workplace.
Public or private sector.
Job tenure.
Number of jobs (one or
more than one).
Moment of labour market
entry.
Time taken to find the first
job.
Source: Author‘s compilation based on AQU Catalunya (2008; 2011)
The occupational variables are those that allow us to establish the labour basic characteristics of
graduates‘ job. From these variables it is possible to establish a hierarchy of occupational quality,
since it includes variables that have been used for general comparisons among types of
employment, especially in studies about precarious employment (Rodgers, 1989; Duell, 2004;
Santamaría, 2009).
Secondly, five enterprise variables characterize the type of company in which graduates work. It
should be noted that with the information available it is not possible, maybe not desirable, to
establish a hierarchy of enterprises, since there is an enormous complexity with regard to the
different types of companies existing in the labour market.
Despite the fact that we are not analysing surveys on labour trajectories, the third group of variables
provides four indicators that permit us to know some features of their pathways: moment of entry
to the current job with respect to the graduation (previous, during or after university), number of
jobs (one or more than one), job tenure and time spent looking for the first job after graduation
(when applicable).
In addition to differentiate the results of graduates employability, we wanted to know which groups
were better placed than others, according to the available indicators. This explains why we opted to
perform the multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) using as active variables, which define the
axes of factorial analysis, the ones of the first group (occupational variables). The rest of labour
market variables were used to illustrate the composition of groups.
5.1 Results of multiple correspondence analysis
The MCA was applied independently to the two samples. In both cases, the best solution was to
retain the first three factorial axes, which explain the 64% of the variance16 for the 2004 cohort and
66% for the 2007 cohort. The percentage of variance explained by each factor is presented in the
table below.
16
The explained variance calculation was carried out taking into account the Greenacre method (2008).
104
Table 9: Percentage of explained variance.
Axe Percentage of explained variance.
Cohort 2004
Percentage of explained variance.
Cohort 2007
1 35,83 38,83
2 20,42 18,92
3 7,65 8,25
Suma 63,4% 65,9%
A first remarkable aspect of the analysis is the match between the two surveys regarding the
factorization of the space, so that practically the same amount of variance (around 65%) can be
explained with the same number of axes. Also, the amount of variance explained by each axis has
also a remarkable similarity. With regard to the phenomenon that we are discussing in this
presentation, we can mention that despite the economic crisis, the situation of occupied graduates
seen as a whole does not present significant differences between the two cohorts.
Due to space limitation in this paper, it is not possible to analyse deeply the composition of the
axes, nor submit the graphics that illustrate the vectorial space, but generally the three factors are
defined on the following features of the occupational situation of occupied graduates (valid both
surveys): 1) salaried or self-employed job; 2) request of title and graduate/non-graduate level job
and, 3) full-time or part-time job.
5.2 Cluster analysis
After having applied the MCA, we proceeded to perform the cluster analysis in order to obtain a
typology of occupied graduates built from the data on labour market outcomes. Once analysed the
different possibilities of partitions for the two samples, a classification into five groups was chosen.
As expected from the factor analysis, the size and the composition of the groups do not differs
significantly between surveys, reinforcing the idea developed previously: a remarkable change
between the two samples of graduates is not observed.
Table 10: Composition of groups. Cohort 2004 Cohort 2007
Cluster Size Percentage Size Percentage
1. Fixed-term contracts 4.535 42.5% 4.254 41.1%
2. Temporary contracts 2.365 22.2% 2.309 22.3%
3. Non-graduate-level jobs 2.323 21.8% 2.191 21.2%
4. Part-time jobs 808 7.6% 1.044 10.1%
5. Self-employed 633 5.9% 551 5.3%
Total 10664 100% 10349 100%
The names given to the groups come from the main characteristic that defines them. The first
major division is determined by the contract relationship with the work: employed or self-employed
job. The first four groups correspond to salaried workers while the fifth group is exclusively
composed of self-employed ones.
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The first group is mainly characterized by fixed-term contracts, graduates who have a successful labour
market insertion considering the variables used for analysis: fixed-term contracts, in graduate-level
jobs, with incomes that are above the average of the whole group and of course with full-time jobs.
They work in the private sector, in financial o industrial enterprises and they develop "technical
support" or managerial functions. Also, they studied degrees related to engineering/architecture or
law/administration/economy areas. This group is slightly better characterised as a male group.
The second group, called here the temporary contracts group, is characterized by graduate-level jobs,
variable earning levels (there is not a clear trend in this point as in the previous group), and
temporary contracts mostly. In this group we have both full-time and part-time workers. They work
primarily in education and culture in the public sector. In addition, the vast majority get their jobs
after studies, made mostly in social sciences. As might be expected, this group is more represented
by women.
Although employment research in Spain determines that the feature of working with temporary
contracts is the one that best characterizes the labour precariousness, obviously we cannot compare
graduates and non-graduates temporary employments. Even though a temporary contract
represents a disadvantage with respect to the employment security, is well known that the
temporary contract is often the gateway to permanent contracts, especially regarding university
graduates.
The third group is the one we have called non-graduate-level jobs, because the title was not required
and the graduates declare not to be using the skills acquired in the university to perform its labour
activities. Despite this, most have certain stability because of their fixed-term contracts. In this
group we can identify a good proportion of graduates enrolled at university when they were already
in the labour market, and in addition, we find a considerable percentage of graduates with long job
tenures (from five to more than ten years). With regard to the level of earnings, they are below
those who belong to the first group, but have a level very similar to second group.
The fourth group is characterized by having most of the part-time workers. Although it is a small
group, it has increased its size by almost three percentage points from between the two analysed
cohorts. In fact, this is the only group that is significantly different in proportion between cohorts,
it rises from 7,6% to 10,1%. The majority of graduates work with temporary contracts and their
earnings are clearly the lowest of all groups. To sum up, taking into account all of these features, we
can say that it is the group with the worst work conditions.
Finally, the group of self-employment is characterized by autonomous contracts, as it could not be
otherwise. Regarding the incomes, there is no specific pattern that characterized them. They work
mostly in micro enterprises, carry out managerial functions (implying that are small entrepreneurs)
in construction companies and they are mainly men who studied an engineering or architecture
degree.
6 Conclusion
In this paper we review the impact of the economic crisis on graduates‘ employment. A first
important result we emphasize is that the economic crisis has effectively had an impact on
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employment rates: the unemployment rate increased from 3.2% to 8.1% among higher education
graduates. However, if we consider data from the EPAS17 we can see that the evolution of
unemployment rate of all Catalan population increased from 7.6% to 19% (by reference to the first
quarter of 2008 and the first of 2011). Thus, we have an important indicator to confirm that
graduates are one of the groups more protected against unemployment.
Moreover, it has shown a decreased of the proportion of graduates who work full-time (from 80%
to 71%). This is reflected in the typology of graduates proposed in this paper, in which the only
group that presented a significant change was precisely that of part-time workers.
Even so, one of the main findings found was that the general structure of employment of graduates
has not suffered a very strong change between 2004 and 2007 cohorts. It is possible that graduates
in 2007, although they were surveyed in the middle of economic crisis (2011) have found, at the
end of the university studies, a favourable market that could absorb the majority of graduates. On
the other hand, from the year 2010 Spain declined significantly the supply of public employment,
due to intensification of economic crisis, but this impact is not possible to appreciate within the
data available in these surveys.
In future research, it will be important to develop possible related hypotheses to explain these
findings, analysing the role played by the institutions and Governments in the promotion of the
employment of the graduates. In addition, it will be important to incorporate aspects such as higher
educational reforms (Bologna process) in the analysis of the employability of graduates trained
within the reform.
References
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108
GRADUATES WHO FIND JOBS DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN
Ashly H. Pinnington, Faculty of Business, The British University in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Acknowledgement: The data reported in this paper were collected by Nithasha Bhanu as part of her MSc
dissertation research.
Abstract: The literature on careers offers a variety of alternative perspectives on
the transition from higher education to work and the early stages of career
exploration. Many of the differences between these perspectives reflect
changes in labour markets and society. Over recent decades, theoretical models
of career have moved away from a focus on male-dominated patterns of work
with the aim of understanding more of the diversity in working patterns as well
as changing concepts of career.
The paper reports the findings from exploratory interview studies of graduates
in their early stage of career who experience differing degrees of success with
obtaining jobs and work in an area of their choice. The focus is on graduates
who are less successful in their career search. After their graduation award, they
experience difficulty with commencing suitable paid employment and do not
make significant progress in developing a viable career. This is a group of
people who arguably most need active support from HE institutions with their
job search as well as their initial and subsequent career development.
Large scale quantitative survey research and secondary document analyses
presented by researchers at the first DEHEMS conference (WU Vienna
University of Economics and Business, 22nd-23rd September 2011), uncovered
some distinct patterns of employability in various degree subjects and
occupations. Graduates who fail to find employment in their preferred areas of
expertise and who undergo a succession of short-term job contracts which are
comparatively poorly remunerated, present challenges for HE institutions in
terms of how they should be supported. National economies, societies,
employers, graduates and their families all stand to benefit from institutional
initiatives which optimise graduates‘ chances of securing viable jobs and work
experiences. These then provide major opportunities for early career
development, which then require active individual participation and some
degree of improvisation by new graduates.
The particular challenges faced by this group of graduates draw attention to the
role of career guidance, including students‘ skills preparation in job search, as
well as actual experience of relevant job tasks and workplaces prior to
graduation. They also demonstrate the need for more accurate and responsive
information on available jobs and vacancies together with advice on practical
ways that individuals create their job opportunities and career growth. This all
becomes particularly important in the run up to graduation and immediately
afterwards. Parents, as well as other members of the family, are influential on
young graduates, who often need assistance with being properly updated on
the realities and challenges they face. Graduates and their families should be
clear about practical considerations such as going rates of pay for jobs in the
local region and elsewhere, so that they can use their knowledge and
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understanding in ways relevant to the current environment of work. HE,
employers, government institutions and media organisations can all assist with
providing this information.
In addition to HE institutions delivering course-related learning in job seeking
skills, initial work experience, and providing graduates with dynamic
information on employment trends and job opportunities, there is a need to
provide more support that motivates graduates who are being unsuccessful in
their early careers. Much of this work is related to career counseling and peer
group facilitation for helping less successful graduates to remain focused on
their job search and in maximising opportunities that they encounter by active
individual participation and a degree of improvisation.
Keywords: Early Career Exploration, Work Experience, Graduate Employment.
1 Education-Job Mismatch
This paper concerns new graduates who fail to obtain a job in the career of their choice and considers
ways that their employment prospects can be improved. It concentrates on graduate over-education for
individuals who do not appear to be in a state of career transition (Plicht et al, 1994: cited in Van Loo,
2009) but seem to be experiencing a long-term education-job mismatch and hence also a skill capability
mismatch (Dolton and Vignoles, 2000; Schatteman and Verhaest, 2007: cited in Van Loo, 2009).
People who are educated above or below the level of the requirements of their job may experience
negative effects on their rewards, motivation and job satisfaction. Formal education-job mismatch can be
distinguished from mismatch between acquired and required skills, known as skill mismatch (Allen and
van der Velden, 2001, p. 436). Educational mismatch has been found to have a more detrimental effect
on wages than skill mismatch (Allen and de Weert, 2007). In addition, over-educated workers earn less
than matched workers with similar education, but do earn more than matched workers in equivalent jobs
(Brynin and Longhi, 2009; Di Pietro and Urwin, 2006; Galasi, 2008: cited in Van Loo, 2009). Thus, this
research study is relevant to many institutions and economies, for example, it relates to approximately half
the working population in Europe who are over- or under-educated for their job (Van Loo, 2009).
The Middle East region, and specifically the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) country context, is
different from Europe in several ways. A research study conducted by AON Hewitt published in 2012
titled, ‗Qudurat‘, comments on the rapidly growing population in the Arab world which is expected to
increase from 145 to 278 million by 2050. It is estimated that 85 million new jobs will need to be created
by 2020 to accommodate the large number of new entrants to the labour market. Youth unemployment is
high amongst nationals, for example, in the 25-29 years age group, 31% Saudi and 33% of Bahraini
nationals are unemployed. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE) the population (nationals) under 30 is
66%, youth unemployment 23%, female workforce participation rate is 44% (15-64 years old) and the
nominal GDP per capita is $57,884 (IMF, 2011; ILO 2011). The situation is different for expatriate
workers who work on 3 year-long renewable visas, and are temporarily resident for as long as they have
either employment or are dependent on someone who is employed. The GCC countries remain highly
dependent on expatriate labour, and the IMF estimates that over the last decade 5 million of the 7 million
jobs created where filled by expatriates. These labour markets tend to be highly segmented with
expatriates hired to occupy specific roles. In many organisations in GCC countries nationals are more
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mobile changing jobs frequently especially in the private sector which is much less popular for most
nationals than are the government and semi-government sectors.
In this paper we concentrate on Indian expatriate women (some of the largest groups of expatriates
working and residing in the UAE come from India, Pakistan and the Philippines). Qudurat predicts that
attracting, motivating and retaining more women in the workplace will be a growing priority for
employers in the region. Currently, approximately 30% of unemployed women are university graduates
and constitute a low proportion of the workforce compared with those of many other high GDP
countries (Qudurat, 2012, p.14).
2 Early career exploration
There are a range of available theories of individual development and careers to consider for
understanding individuals' early career exploration. In this study we concentrate on the subjective
accounts of individuals and assume that their attempts to develop their work competences and
organisational careers are blocked in ways that create difficulties with individual involvement and
development as well as delimit their social and material relationships with self and others.
Our chosen area of research is relevant to stage theories of careers since it draws attention to arrested
development and incapacity to transition smoothly from one stage on to another. We also view these
specific individual contexts of graduate under-employment and unemployment as relational and
significant for adult development perspectives on careers which 'suggest that individuals are likely to
encounter characteristic concerns about self, career, and family at every life stage‘ (Baird and Kram, 1983,
p.63).
We are not proponents however of stage models of development or career (see Dall'Alba and Sandberg,
2006 for a critique), although evidently in terms of life course the 1-3 years following graduation and
young people's experiences during this time in the labour market, employment, work and leisure is a
distinctive stage in their early working lives. Consistent with life stage and career stage theories, it is a
period then when many people are seeking to establish themselves more firmly in the adult world.
Whereas not everyone during this time in their lives will want to develop a career or for that matter take
on various adult reponsibilities, for those who do it is likely to be a formative and emergent process
characterised by challenges, potential alternatives and a degree of uncertainty.
‗During the establishment phase, at the outset of a career, people are most likely to need guidance and
support to launch their careers. It is generally a period of great uncertainty about one's competence and performance
potential. The person who is in the establishment phase is dependent on others for learning, support, and guidance,
and at the same time is likely to resist dependence as attempts to establish competence are made. It is a
period of building new roles both at work and in one's personal life. Questions about competence,
whether to commit oneself to a particular organization, and what kind of family relationships to develop are primary
concerns at this stage.‘ (emphasis added) (Baird and Kram, 1983, p. 47)
As was mentioned earlier, the time in people‘s life we are concerned with is the period when they have
left the education system to concentrate principally on engaging in remunerated work. The initial
departure from full-time education on to full-time working life undeniably is an objective and structural
situation in the life course of many young adults. In relation to Levinson‘s (1978) life stage development
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model (e,g., Table 1 reproduced in Ornstein, Cron and Slocum, 1989), it is a stage in one‘s life typically
around 23-28 years old, when one is understood by others to be ‗entering into the adult world‘. Levinson
characterised it as a life stage when tasks to be accomplished include the development of a personal
identity in the world of work and non-work. A stage preceded by having already made some transition
from the institutions of youth (parents, school) and followed by evaluating one‘s accomplishments over
one‘s 20‘s and adjusting to the life structure adopted.
From the perspective of career stage models such changes represent a trial stage where the psychological
activities that characterise this particular stage include identifying interests, capabilities, fit between self
and work, and professional self-image. The assumption of Super‘s (1957) career development model is
that the trial stage will be followed sequentially by an establishment stage characterised by increased
commitments to career, career advancement, and growth leading to development of a supposedly ‗stable
work and personal life‘. While the stability and sequence of progression of these stage models has often
been called into question, the starting point and transition from full-time education to full-time
employment is an objective labour market reality for the majority of young people.
Two well-known examples of more recent theories that question some of the normative assumptions of
stage models and address the environmental uncertainty prevalent in external and internal labour markets
are Hall‘s (1996, 2002) Protean Careerists and Arthur and Rousseau‘s (1996) Boundaryless Career
workers. Protean Careerists are said to transfer between more objectively insecure jobs, are flexible and
value freedom, believe in continuous learning, and seek intrinsic rewards. Boundaryless Career workers
are understood to move between separate employers, be marketeable outside of present employers,
sustained by external networks and by valuable internal information, and seek to work across
organisational boundaries. Interestingly, both theories are based on the assumption that people can and
will find work, perhaps even if it is not really of their choosing. Their principal labour market dynamics
assume also that these careerists and workers function from a background of jobs in the past. Our
research though is interested primarily in people who have not been able to find work in their chosen
calling or area of undergraduate study, and have not really got their foot on the first rung of the ladder. It
is focused primarily on people who often have some form of previous work history and have found some
employment that is generally low paid
The significance each individual accords to work and competence development varies and everyone has
other commitments such as friends, families and perhaps other sources of paid and unpaid work and
leisure activities. The development of competence at work necessitates though having access to relevant
work environments, and people‘s understanding of work will only develop comprehensively when
situated within a relational context of self and other people engaging in real work (Sandberg and Targama,
2007). Relational commitments to the community, work organisation and its people including managers,
employees, suppliers and customers, therefore will only develop significantly through young graduates
gaining sufficient access to workplaces.
3 Competence development in contexts of under-employment
A point of departure for this research on competence is the idea that managers and employees
consistently face various physical, technical and social demands at work. These demands vary greatly
across jobs and industries and such heterogeneity in the conditions of work is exacerbated by the
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relational complexity of many aspects of work and home life, meaning that individuals both encounter
and enact multiple and conflicting identities, inside and outside of work.
An area of relative stability, however, within the dynamic social complexity of work we contend is that
competence involves specific ways of being and understanding (Sandberg and Pinnington, 2009;
Pinnington, 2011). Our theoretical perspective draws from the phenomenological tradition
conceptualising competence as an ontological orientation and involved way of being that is integrated
with a specific sense of self. We assume that the existential meaning of ways of being distinguish and
integrate an individual‘s understanding of self, work, other people and tools/things into distinct forms of
competence in work performance (Sandberg, 2000; Sandberg and Targama, 2007)
From a life-world perspective, Sandberg and Dall‘Alba (2009: 1355) contend, ‗.. practices are
conceptualized as specific worlds in which members dwell, made up of an array of activities, people,
knowledge, equipment, concerns and so on ..‘ Their holistic theoretical approach to competence is
especially useful when considering competence development during the early career exploration of young
graduates failing to obtain jobs in their chosen areas of work. Quite simply, young people‘s experience
and development is arrested when they do not have access to work they value, as a result they become
incapable of transition to more involved and integrated ways of working. The individual is ignored, as if
suspended in a social arena of comparative irrelevance, being denied access to work and immersion in its
social-material activities and mainstream communities of practice.
The graduate working in a low paid job can still make the best of the situation and learn some analogous
social and technical skills, as well perhaps as engaging in yet further education study to keep in contact
with the discipline and its areas of knowledge and ways of understanding. However, in several respects
the individual is evidently not entwined in the relevant work practices, is unable to develop more
sophisticated ways of being due to having few opportunities for the exercise of relevant agency and work
practice, is unable to live the workplace reality as an engaged and absorbed self and is prevented from
working with others. This presents a fairly grim reality but one that many people experience at some times
in their lives: on the one hand we do not have the relevant background experience and therefore are not
contracted to do the work, and on the other hand we are consequently unable to develop the requisite
experience, and so we should anticipate to continue to be denied the opportunity in the future. While
there may be various ways forwards in any individual situation, it is clear that as general secondary and
higher education levels continue to rise at a pace much faster than occupations and jobs are readily
available in the world‘s national economies and global labour markets, we suggest therefore that more
creative thinking on the roles of the state, employers and education institutions needs to be undertaken
than hitherto has been the case.
4 Method
The data in this study are based on the thwarted career plans of young Indian graduate women living in
the UAE who embarked on undergraduate studies in a variety of chosen subject disciplines, but since
graduation have felt under pressure to seek, accept and remain in employment working in a job that is
definitely not their first priority. These individuals may be described as somewhat unhappy with their
current job or jobless situation, and are generally de-motivated with the work they are doing. Moreover,
they sense both supportiveness and disappointment from various quarters such as their families, friends,
student peers and past teachers, many who expected they would be doing better than they currently are.
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The interview research methods focus on qualitative, narrative and episodic approaches (Flick, 2009;
Reissman, 1993, 2008; Wengraf, 2001), seeking to characterise interviewees‘ life stories and emergent
career narratives in contexts of disappointment and unfulfilled, early ambitions. The reported interviews
consist of three face-to-face meetings held with the research assistant over a period of two and a half
months (mid-May‒early July 2011) as well as frequent informal communication; these meetings were
supplemented by telephone and email for additional information.
All three participants have known the researcher since early childhood and are longstanding friends. This
relationship has its advantages and disadvantages that have been hotly debated such as Bourdieu‘s
qualitative approach to research interviews which relies on the interviewer being seen by the interviewee
as sharing the same social circumstances and similar life-world (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2008, p.24;
Bourdieu et al., 1999), however, over time we argue that this methodology serves to provide a credible
context for trusting, open communication and collaboration.
Narrative approaches have been used in careers research (Cochran, 1990; Cohen and Mallon, 2001) and
careers counselling (e.g., Bujold, 2004; Christensen and Johnston, 2003; Cochran, 1990, 1997) for over
two decades. For example, Larry Cochran (1997) articulated a counselling approach based on narrative
that casts the individual as the main character in their career narrative in a way that is intended to be
meaningful, productive, and fulfilling. Termed ‗emplotment‘ this approach takes a structural approach to
narrative viewing them simply as composed of a beginning, a middle and an end. Meaning and plot are
key elements used to compose a life history and author a future narrative. Cochran‘s main contribution
rests in transforming narrative research into a practical counselling technique to assist people with
understanding their work and careers (Trevor-Roberts, 2004).
The research assistant asked a number of open-ended questions during several face-to-face, telephone
and email conversations over a three months long period. The questions posed included such topics as
their background, past and current temporary, part-time and full-time work, job position and work
responsibilities, current employment and intended career path, job search in and outside of Dubai, what
jobs were applied for, what job search was completed in the final year of university, what offers and
rejections were received, what advice was given by family and friends, what work friends are doing now
and how often do you socialise with them, and what job search and career development is currently being
undertaken?
After the first set of interviews was completed during early-to-mid 2011, a second set of interviews was
conducted through email and later by telephone in March 2012. The purpose of these follow-up
interviews 12 months later was to analyze changes and developments in the careers of these young
graduates up until March 2012. For the second set of interviews after email communication, a telephone
conversation was held between the researcher and the interviewees.
5 The participants
P1 has a BSc in Biotechnology, MSc in Medical Biotechnology, Postgraduate Diploma in Patent Law and
MBA (Pharmacology Business Management and Marketing). P2 has a BA Commerce and P3 holds a BSc
in Engineering.
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P1 does not have a Ministry of Health licence to practice in her field of specialisation and has been unable
to find work in the disciplines of her qualifications. P1 earns income from an on-line academic writing job
assisting students and companies with their essays and presentations.
P2 is employed as an administrator in an area of work outside of her interests in commerce and
accounting. P2 works in an advertising company engaged mainly in secretarial tasks.
P3 is currently working not as an engineer but deployed on tasks within her father‘s company which is a
software development firm. P3 works in generalist roles including seeking new business, representing the
firm to clients and prospective clients and pursuing non-payment and debt issues.
6 Results
In 2011, all three participants confirmed that they see their qualifications as worthwhile and still hope to
practice in future in the specialised area of their first degrees.
P1 perceives some benefit from her current job in developing her research skills relevant to future
doctoral study. She plans to study for a PhD outside of the UAE, but has not considered employment in
another country. Currently, she is looking for employed work and does not intend to continue with on-
line academic writing.
P2 views her job as an administrator as having developed her skills and as a stepping stone in her career.
She says that she is bound by family values not to work outside of Dubai.
P3 sees the work in her father‘s firm as an interim measure following failure to obtain a job in
engineering. P3 wants to remain living and working in Dubai and does not want to work elsewhere. She is
looking out for vacancies in engineering as well as contemplating studying for an MBA.
None feel under any particular pressure from their families to engage in the work they are currently doing.
They consider their work situation as principally their own choice made under difficult constraints. P1
feels that there are limited vacancies in her area of work whereas P2 and P3 say they are a large number of
vacancies but most require prior work experience.
For competence development related to work, P1 sees her job as developing her writing skills but it is
only part-time work from home. P2 feels her current job is not challenging or developing new skills and is
therefore trying to organize a transfer to the finance department of her current company of employment.
By contrast, P3 believes she has learnt a lot of new things from working in her father‘s company.
Interestingly, all three recall they made few efforts in their final year of study at university to find
employment. They focused on their academic studies during their last year at university.
P1: “I haven‟t really looked for a job during the last year of my university as I was under the impression that I would get a
job really quickly, so was just waiting to complete my education completely to get a job.”
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P2: “I have not done anything during my last year of my university as I was keen in completing my under graduation and
then pursue my MBA in finance and marketing. I was under the impression that my qualification will lead me to the job
that I have always dreamt about.”
P3: “I have not done anything to get a job during the last year of my university as I have heard from others and I have seen
in classifies regarding the job offers that is there in my field therefore I was hoping to get a job soon after my graduation.”
They all assumed that their qualification would lead to readily obtaining a job in their area of
specialisation.
In relation to job search, job interviews and job offers, P1 has turned down some suitable positions due
to the low salary but mainly has been offered jobs without pay, primarily as an unpaid research assistant
working for professors in higher education:
“.., I have been trying my level best to get a job in my research field, but due to lack of experience and
MOH license I have been unable to find one. Offers that I have received for the qualification that I have
got is very limited and these limited ones where either rejected by me because of the salary or because the
organization was not willing to pay me.”
P2 has received a large number of offers from banks and construction companies but she felt the low pay
and working hours obligations outweighed the career benefit of accepting the positions:
“I have got a lot of offers from banks, construction companys, etc but the pay that the companies were
offering was not sufficient enough to take up that job and moreover being the eldest in the family I have
got certain responsibilities towards my family which I would like to fulfill that‟s why I have been waiting
to get a better job with a good pay. … Along with getting a lot of offers I have also been rejected by
various companies some of them reject by saying that I am overqualified or most of the time its lack of an
experience.”
P3 has similarly received a number of offers but in sales and some in computer engineering, but again
reportedly for very low pay:
“I have got a lot of offers as sales engineer but the offers that I have received to work as computer engineer
has been very limited or the pay was really bad. Rejection was numerous because of lack of experience.”
In terms of their immediate family support from families and university peer group, the influence of
parents predominates. P1 describes her parents as very supportive and understanding. P2 says that her
parents did not require her to work and that she does not generally take advice from friends on jobs or
her career. P3 says that she considers suggestions from her family but not really her friends. The final
decision all three explain is theirs and not their parents or friends.
P1 said that her friends were doing a mixture of things, studying for PhDs in other countries, and
working as secretaries, administrators and recruitment consultants rather than in the area of their
qualification. P2 described her friends‘ situations as similar to her own and P3 said that a few are still
looking for a job and some have got married. P1 and P3 said that they socialise frequently with their
university friends and discussed each others careers, while P2 said that she met with her university friends
only occasionally.
P1 hopes in the next 5-20 years to open her own pharmacy firm in Dubai. P2 plans to reach a middle
management position during the same time frame, while P3 is uncertain what will be achieved but hopes
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to progress up the career ladder in engineering. In particular, P1 and P2 appear to be becoming quite
concerned about the lack of development with their early career. P1 says she will now take any kind of
office job with low travel time and P2 is seeking a job as an accountant payable officer or accountant:
P1: “I am still looking out for a job, at times I actually feel that I am ready to take up any job in hand that I get if the pay
is good. For past 2 years now I have been searching for a job in my relevant field but I have been unsuccessful in doing so
that‟s why I think that rather than waiting it‟s best for me to take up a job which is good and which is paid well.”
P2: “Job search is still going on and I am really hoping for the best. I even been thinking about applying in my home country
if I am not getting a job as per my qualification in Dubai.”
Twelve months later the situation had not changed that much in 2012 except for some improvement for
the first one of the three research participants. All three still had not been successful in establishing
themselves in a career of their choice. The only major change that had happened during the course of one
year is that P1 had undertaken a job to gain some work experience as a food and health inspector at a
hotel in Jebel Ali, and P3 who had been in the process of pursuing her MBA was near to completing it.
P2 was still employed in the same field and still looking for a job based on her principal career goal.
P1: “I have got a job as food and health officer in a four star hotel in Jebel Ali were I went through training and obviously
have not let down the desire to do my PhD; still hoping to get to some university to study PhD and in the meanwhile also
working as food and health officer in a hotel in UAE.”
P2: “Still working in the same position nothing much changes has happened in my life still attending interviews, and trying
my level best to attain a position of my choice and also looking for similar position which I am currently working with a
better pay and benefits.”
P3: “Nothing much changes or development in my life, still trying to expand my father‟s business and also is on the verge to
complete my MBA degree as quickly as possible.”
The telephone interviews in March 2012 led to a deeper understanding of their job search, notably, that
out of these three graduates except for P1 they have not been especially engaged with searching for a job
in their preferred career. Rather, they were involved in other family activities and when asked they said
that they were nevertheless still highly frustrated about not finding a position of their choice and wanted
to stick to pursuing the same path as before. The reasons they gave for not being especially active in
seeking alternatives were that they were fearful of their current situation especially P2 who had to take a
day‘s leave and then did not have time to attend the interview on the scheduled time and day because of
her current company‘s ―busy period‖. P3 said that she had not had sufficient time to give to looking for a
job because she had to attend a lot of meetings and was also constantly involved in tasks and activities
connected with expanding her father‘s business where she had an extremely uncompromising schedule.
7 Discussion
It is noticeable that all three participants did not undertake any job search during their final year at
university and their efforts are directed mainly to reacting to advertised job vacancies. Their career
planning is very ad hoc and it is evident that P2 and P3 are benefitting from their employment
circumstances involving social interaction in the workplace rather than operating like P1 in the relatively
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more isolated context of working from home part-time on the internet. P2 is opportunistically seeking an
internal job transfer to the finance and accounting department and P3 has been assigned a broad variety
of sales (winning new business contracts), accounting (debt collection and payments) and promotional
roles (representing the business owner at client meetings).
Possibly, they all were unrealistic about the starting pay that they could command during their first time
working in a full-time job and over the initial few years of their employment. Rates of pay for different
jobs range widely in the UAE although there is generally an identifiable income range typically obtained
by people in specific occupations and job roles. All three participants mentioned that their parents have
been very supportive and further declared that they are much more influential than their friends. While
this may be somewhat of an over-simplification of the situation, it presents several problems since it is
likely that their peer group of friends and past student colleagues engaging in a similar job search have
access to more relevant and current information about local work prospects. Parents often have to rely
upon asking others for information and may tend to generalise too much based on their own previous
experience, which will not always be relevant to current developments in the local labour market.
Taking the research participants‘ viewpoint on face value that their parents continue to be highly
influential, then a way of increasing their adaptation to current circumstances as well as improving their
job seeking and career development activities, is also to inform and educate the parents on precise details
facing their children. Up-to-date labour market and job-related information on a range of job seeking
activities may well be useful to them all such as the current job vacancies in different occupations,
methods of recruitment and selection and contemporary standards of self-presentation and application
(e.g., styles of presenting letters and curriculum vitae), as well as advice on self-disciplined approaches to
job search which sustain positive attitudes, nurture resilience and facilitate coping with rejection.
Other approaches include creation of more internet and local self-help groups composed perhaps of
friends, other job-seekers, junior employees and counsellors. The accounts from these three participants
suggest that they are comparatively isolated socially and possibly even might not be utilising technology
tools such as phones and social media as well as the young generation are generally assumed to be readily
habituated. One area of particular support that can be offered is helping the successful applicant to
appraise the value of various job offers made. All three told stories of not accepting many poorly paid or
unpaid offers. While a number of these offers may best be rejected some of them might have been
opportunities that should not have been so readily turned down. Employment counsellors working face-
to-face, on the phone and over internet can perhaps help with talking over options and assisting with
processes of comparison and evaluation.
These three young adults have all, so far, failed to gain a job in their preferred area of degree
specialisation although they continue to hope to do so in the future. At the time of writing, it is not
known what will happen to each of them, however, it seems clear that they are socially isolated from the
work context of their area of career ambition. This situation may improve either dramatically or gradually
in their favour, but they do not yet appear to be doing enough to make it happen.
Expectancy theory of motivation has long proposed that individuals are only likely to increase their job
search activities if they believe that their efforts will lead to rewarding outcomes in the future (Vroom,
1964). Those who have a strong perception of psychological mobility and tend to believe that viable
transition opportunities are attainable, are more likely to persevere. The perceived quantity and the quality
of job alternatives also will influence both the intention to search and actual job search (Griffin and
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Hesketh, 2005). Additionally, psychological mobility entails a sense of control over job transitions, which
not only increases job search activity (Côté, Saks and Zikic, 2006) but also strengthens the relationship
between turnover intentions and quit decisions (Allen, Weeks and Moffitt, 2005). However, since the
research participants‘ psychological mobility was weak, they seem to be unlikely to engage in job search
due to their low expectations of identifying and securing desirable employment opportunities.
From the theoretical perspectives addressed in the literature review their attempts to develop their work
competences and organisational careers are blocked in ways that create difficulties with individual
involvement and development. P1 experienced highly constrained social and material relationships with
self and others during working from home on the internet, but since training for a job in a hotel her work
situation has improved. For P2 the formative and emergent process of competence and career
development at work is characterised by insufficient challenge, insufficient alternatives and some
uncertainty on how the situation will change. Consistent with Baird and Kram's (1983) adult development
perspective they are in need of greater guidance and support to launch their careers in their preferred
direction of specialisation. Unfortunately, in relation to Levinson's (1978) life stage development model,
they are in a state of limited growth and transition away from the institutions of youth (parents and
school) and are making somewhat interrupted and hesitant moves towards the development of a
satisfying sense of personal identity in the world of work.
From the perspective of career stage models this trial stage of work is not offering sufficient
opportunities for identifying their interests, capabilities, fit between self and work, and professional self-
image. Following the assumption of Super‘s (1957) career development model such slow progress will
delay the establishment stage said to be characterised by increased commitments and stability. These first
two years following graduation do not appear to be typical of Protean Careerists since only one out of the
three has changed their job once over almost two years. Likewise, they do not appear to be consistent
with Boundaryless Career workers since they have few marketable skills to offer employers and they are
not ―job hopping‖.
The significance each individual accords to work and competence development varies and everyone has
other commitments such as friends, families and perhaps other sources of paid and unpaid work and
leisure activities. The development of competence at work necessitates though having access to relevant
work environments, and people‘s understanding of work will only develop comprehensively when
situated within a relational context of self and other people engaging in real work. Relational
commitments to the community, work organisation and its people including managers, employees,
suppliers and customers, therefore will only develop significantly through young graduates gaining
sufficient access to workplaces and, as it was proposed earlier, they seem to be at some disadvantage since
they have fewer opportunities to develop their work competences and advance their careers. P1 appears
to be deferring her career to an uncertain start date for doctoral study although the hotel position offers
new career horizons, P2 is not especially active in seeking to make a job transfer into the desired area of
work and P3 has been developing a number of entrepreneurial business management skills, but is unable
to relate these to technical and career development in an engineering occupation.
Competence development in these contexts of relative under-employment is problematic since their
competence as an ontological orientation and involved way of being is integrated with a specific sense of
self that they partly want to disown. Their difficulties are compounded by the incompatibility of their
limited knowledge and understanding of what they should be doing with what they are doing, leading to
ways of being that are not developing a positive and motivating understanding of self, work, other people
119
and tools/things. A consequence of this limited and dissatisfying way of being is under-developed
distinctive forms of competence in work performance (Sandberg, 2000; Sandberg and Targama, 2007). In
summary, P1 first settled for improving her writing abilities but now is developing new work skills in the
food and hospitality industry, P2 is bored and seems less hopefully about making a job transfer, and P3 is
less hopeful that the collection of entrepreneurial skills will in some way contribute to technical
development as an engineer. P3‘s work involves slightly alienated orientations to self, work and clients,
whereas P1 and P2 are predominantly focused on self and a modicum of disenchantment with their work.
Their life-worlds at work are comparatively unrewarding ones involving insufficient social-material
entwinement with relevant practice worlds, consequently they can exert only very limited human agency
in their job situation leading to under-developed ways of being. The implications for practice are a lack of
material, technical and social development in work competences. However, the situation may change for
all three. P1 may embark on successful PhD research and obtain a relevant job afterwards; P2 may make
the move into accounting and finance and thrive in this new functional work environment and P3 may
find a position as an engineer and develop rapidly in project teams partly by having already obtained
relevant entrepreneurial and small business management skills.
8 Conclusion
We conclude that these three participants require more support in establishing and developing their
careers. While they may not all be able to obtain work in their area of undergraduate specialisation, it is
clear that they could have increased their opportunities to do so through a focused initial job search
during their final year at university, a clearer system of appraising job opportunities and job offers, and
once in their first job deploying a less ad hoc and more structured approach to finding employment of
their choosing. Recommendations for future practice include provision of more systematic careers
guidance, advice on relevant selection and recruitment practices and data on current local labour market
opportunities should be made more available to young graduate job seekers and their families.
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TRANSITION FROM HIGHER EDUCATION TO LABOUR MARKET IN POLAND
ON THE BASIS OF GEOGRAPHY GRADUATES18
Danuta Piróg, Pedagogical University of Kraków; Institute of Geography, Poland
Abstract: The paper presents a fragment of empirical studies on the transition process
of geographers in period of six months from completion of higher education. The
purpose of the research was to diagnose the situation of geography graduates at the
labour market in reference to prior aspirations, expectations and plans with the
respect to the labour market. The verification includes planned and actual work places,
planned and actual criteria of work place selection, expected and actual recruitment
criteria, expected and received amount of remuneration.
The study shows that the transition of geography graduates to the labour market is a
difficult and complex process in Poland, ending in partial success and that it is quite
distant form aspirations and expectations registered by such persons at the moment of
completion of university education.
Keywords: geography graduates, labour market, recruitment criteria, remuneration,
transition, work places
1 Outline of Transition Conditions of University Graduates in Poland
The transition of university graduates in the 21st century from the stage of education to employment seems to be
one of the most complex and difficult processes taking place at the labour market. The transition paths of people
who finish studies in individual countries are mainly an effect of differences in economic level and economy
conditions, social and cultural disparities and system differences, including the teaching systems (cf. Allen, 2007;
Jacob & Weiss 2008; Noworol 2010; Plugor 2009; Rożnowski, Markowski, Łobocki & Konefał 2007, Rożnowski
2009; Schomburg & Teichler 2006; Teichler 1997, 2011; Wolbers & Maarten 2007).
In Poland, the efficiency of this process, apart from demographic and macroeconomic trends which are not
friendly for the contemporary youth, is also influenced by huge supply of graduates with higher education
(Jakubowska & Rosa, 2011).
Economic transformation in Poland and changes in the employment structure related to it caused common
perception of higher education as a factor strongly increasing chances at the labour market in the aspect of
finding jobs and receiving much more advantageous conditions (in particular with respect to pay and position) of
employment. This general tendency for increase in the correlation between education and the amount of
received remuneration, revealed in the period of transformation, characteristic for market economies (and visible
in Poland only after 1989), has shaped in the society a very strong and durable conviction that completion of
higher studies determines the possibility of procuring attractive work and, in extreme circumstances, at least
constitutes a guarantee for any type of employment (Domański, 2004). Thence, there was a dynamic increase in
the number of people commencing higher studies and currently, the level of commonness of higher education in
Poland is one of the highest in Europe. Poland is in the group of European Union countries with one of the
largest numbers of students per 10,000 inhabitants and occupies 5th place in this hierarchy. Higher indices were
only recorded in Lithuania, Finland, Slovenia and Latvia (Rocznik, 2000).
18 Study financed from budget funds for science between 2010 and 2012 as research project No. N N114 076739
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The consequence of such commonness of academic education was a constant and dynamic growth in the
number of university graduates. In the academic year of 1990/ 1991, 56 078 persons completed tertiary
education. Within six years, the number of graduates was doubled to 115 868 persons (1996/ 1997) and another
doubling took place in just three years (1999/ 2000: 215 423 graduates). Acceleration in the growth rate of the
number of graduates was significantly influenced by mass establishment of non-public schools which, in the
academic year of 1997/ 1998, promoted their first graduates and which, even quicker, multiplied the number of
their students and therefore graduates. At the turn of the century, the greatest increase in the number of
university graduates was recorded in the entire discussed period (the number of graduates in the academic year
2000/ 2001 amounted to 303 966 persons, i.e. 41% more than in the preceding year). The continuous growth
trend in the number of graduates in the 21st century persisted, resulting in over 400,000 graduates in the
academic year of 2006/ 2007 (410,107); currently, it amounts to 478 916 (2009/ 2010) (Szkoły 2006; 2010;
Rocznik 2001).
The growth measures for the number of students are scholarisation indices. In the last twenty years, these indices
in Poland grew almost four times: the gross scholarisation index grew from 12.9% in the academic year of 1990/
1991 to 53.8% (2010/ 2011) and net from 9.8% to 40.8%.
Availability of higher education resulting from acceptance of a substantial number of applicants for extramural
studies or non-public universities (frequently with unsatisfactory level of teaching), aggravated the situation of all
university graduates at the labour market. A large surplus of people possessing higher education with respect to
market needs with a simultaneous frequent absence of actual compliance between the level of possessed
specialist and psycho-social competences and the degree of education specified on the diploma devalued the
academic education and undermined the trust of employers with respect to higher level teaching (Diagnoza
2009).
For young people, academic education is frequently both a manner of adjusting to the observed changes at the
labour market and a certain attempt at escaping the challenges of the labour market, at least during the time of
studies (usually, 5 years) and it is not really related to the hope of procuring competitive competences in the
course of studies at a prestigious university, but to the general improvement of the situation at the labour market
during the period of studying.
The result of the observed trends was devaluation of university diplomas at the labour market and excess of
people possessing higher education, which was manifested by a significant, almost four-fold, increase in the
number of unemployed university graduates - from 4.4% of the general number of unemployed graduates of
schools in 199619 to 15.1% in December 2011 and an almost three-fold increase in the percentage of people with
excess education among working people: from 7.5% in 1998 to 19.1% in 2008 (Kiersztyn, 2011, p. 11).
In spite of the above-described worrying trends in the transition from the stage of education to the stage of
employment among graduates of higher studies in Poland after the period of transformation, studies of the fate
of university graduates at labour markets were sporadically conducted. The situation is changing very slowly
because the Ministry of Science and Higher Education introduced the obligation of monitoring the professional
paths of graduates by individual universities only in October 2011: Art. 13a ―the university monitors professional careers
of its graduates for the purpose of adjusting the study majors to the needs of the labour market, in particular after three and five years
from completion of studies.‖ However, it is necessary to emphasize that these studies are conducted individually by
career offices of specific universities with the use of various study strategies, various questionnaires, therefore
comparison of results of such studies is not obvious: there are universities which publish the results of such
studies, but a definite majority treats them as confidential documents, which are used by university authorities for
19 In Poland, statistics of unemployed graduates started to be maintained in 1996.
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the purpose of optimizing the didactic offer, planning the recruitment policy, etc. or they publish selected,
frequently only optimistic, fragments of reports to promote a given university. Studies of scientific literature
and analysis of available reports preparedby career offices allow for ascertaining that there is a research gap
regarding professional fate of university graduates in a national approach and a complete absence of studies on
the transfer of this group of people to the labour market, whereas scientific interest in the transfer of university
graduates to the labour market at the time of market economy in Poland is just starting (Piróg 2010). What is
more, universities are slowly beginning to accept the need of taking into account the pro-market preparation of
their graduates, which is manifested in implementing new programme concepts, emphasising the aspect of
employability in the description of graduate profiles and constitutes a certain revolution in perceiving the role of
universities in Poland (Piróg, 2012).
The observed tendencies at the labour market which are unfavourable for university graduates in Poland and the
ascertained gaps in the scientific and research approach to this issue induced the author of this study to
commence research on the transition process of graduates exemplified by study major in geography. Selection of
this group of graduates resulted primarily from the fact that the author is a geography graduate and, since 1999,
has been involved in the teaching of geography students – both in the scientific and didactic aspect. Moreover,
geography as a study major is currently undergoing very intense changes. After a dynamic increase in the number
of geography students, recorded between the beginning of the 1990‘s and the middle of the 21st century, one can
currently observe a significant crisis in young people‘s interest in studying this subject, in spite of the fact that
almost all universities propose more and more attractive programme offer and specializations (Piróg, 2011).
The results presented in this study were obtained from the conduct of research on graduates of one study major
on a national scale. This is the first such study in Poland after the transformation period20.
2 Research Methodology of Transition of Geography Graduates
This study presents a fragment of results of empirical studies which was conducted between May/ June 2011 and
January/ February 2012, with the use of the diagnostic poll method and the questionnaire study technique in the
form of paper questionnaires (1st stage of studies) and online questionnaires (2nd stage of studies).
The proper research was preceded by the testing of tools which, after optimization. studies. The first stage was
addressed to all persons completing full-time geography studies in the academic year of 2010/ 2011 at all
fourteen universities teaching geographers in Poland. Official letters were sent to directors of individual
geography units with a request for approval for the conduct of a poll among geography students at a time closest
to the moment of completion of studies (last classes, defending the B.A. and M.A. theses, separate meetings with
students). The purpose of this stage of studies was to register the planned manners of looking for work, desired
work places, financial expectations, willingness of self-employmen and to evaluate familiarity with the labour
market and satisfaction with studies in the context of looking for work. Written approval for the conduct of such
studies was obtained from authorities of twelve out of fourteen universities and in each of them, studies were
conducted in the period of May – June 2011. These were: the Pomeranian University in Słupsk, the Adam
Mickiewicz University in Poznań, the Jagiellonian University, the University of Lodz, the University of Warsaw,
the University of Wrocław, the Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, the Nicolaus Copernicus University in
20 Similar, with respect to scale, studies among graduates of other study majors (never geography) were conducted in
Poland in the 1960‘s and 1970‘s; a detailed analysis of the status of studies in this respect was published by the author as a chapter in a book entitled: Piróg D., Studia wyższe a rynek pracy w Polsce – zarys stanu badań [in:] B. Sitarska, K. Jankowski, R. Droba (ed.) Studia wyższe z perspektywy rynku pracy, Wyd. AP, Siedlce 2010, p. 67-80
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Toruń, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, the University of Gdańsk, the Pedagogical University of
Cracow and the University of Silesia (cf. Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Universities teaching geographers in Poland
At this stage, esearch conducted mainly with the use of paper questionnaires. The author personally, with the
assistance of directors and academic employees of selected units, met with students at every university at
previously arranged special meetings or weekly classes, explaining the purpose of the research and asking for
participation in the poll. Only 17% of questionnaires were received via e-mail, mainly from persons who were
not able to come to the university on the day when the test was conducted and expressed their willingness to
participate in it. The research was confidential, yet not anonymous, due to fact that the respondents were asked
to provide their e-mail address on the completed questionnaire. In this manner, questionnaires were received
from 1 347 persons, which constitute approx. 78% of all alumni who finished full time geography studies in the
academic year of 2010/ 2011. The respondents were representatives of all types of studies: i.e. first degree (B.A.)
– 46.2%; second degree (supplementary M.A. studies) – 35.4%, as well as uniform M.A. studies which, at the
moment of the poll, still functioned at some universities (e.g. the Pomeranian University in Słupsk, the
Pedagogical University of Cracow). With respect to the gender structure, women were dominant (64%).
Another, second stage of the research took place approx. half a year after completion of studies by the
respondents, i.e. January/ February 2012. At that time, electronic questionnaires were sent to all people who,
during the first stage, declared that after completion of geography studies they were immediately planning to look
for jobs or look for jobs and continue studies at the same time. 597 respondents expressed such plans and
electronic invitations were sent to all of them to participate in the poll (a personalized link with an individual
password necessary to log in the database). The purpose was to diagnose the actual situation of specific
geography graduates at the labour market in reference to prior expectations and plans; the reference is possible
solely when this status is known after several months from completion of studies and the degree of
implementation of plans and aspirations is checked individually in every person included the study. A basic
innovation of the study was its personalization. A pair of questionnaires of every respondent (questionnaire of a
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given person completed in June 2011 and in February 2012) was a basis for analyses, determination and
hierarchisation of factors increasing efficient and satisfactory transfer to work after completion of geography
studies. Plans of specific persons were registered, and such persons were followed at the labour market for the
purpose of finding out whether and in which degree such plans were implemented. For this purpose, the
statistical material collected in two databases was used to generate a final database which was a relational
combination of both. The basis for a one-to-one relation in the final database was the e-mail address attribute
provided in both questionnaires. The e-mail address constituted the unique key, unambiguously identifying the
same polled person at the moment of completion of geography studies and approx. half a year after completion
of studies. The advantage of a relational database is the possibility of a separate analysis of answers of
respondents provided in 2011 and in 2012 with a simultaneous quick possibility of referring the results from one
database to the answers collected in the second database. The relational database also allowed for maintenance of
data from ―June‖ questionnaires which are not related to the ―February‖ questionnaires for the purpose of using
them for basic analyses.
The combined databases were subjected to formal and substantive control for the purpose of discovering
potential errors and discrepancies. In formal respect, completeness and fullness of the set was checked. With
respect to substance, logical and arithmetic control was performed.
In this manner, a set with complete data from 375 graduates was separated, i.e. response rate of 68.2% was
obtained and this personalized set of graduates constituted the study group for further in-depth statistical
quantitative and qualitative analyses. The study group represented all types of full-time studies in a quite equal
manner, i.e. questionnaires were received from 32.5% graduates of 1st degree studies (B.A.); 32.0% of second
degree studies (supplementary M.A.) and 35.5% of graduates of uniform M.A. studies. At this stage of study,
women were even more clearly dominant (64.3%).
3 Transition of Geographers to Labour Market: Selected Research Results
The transition process of geography graduates to the labour market in a period of approx. six months from
completion of studies was varied. At the moment of the second stage of the study (January/ February 2012),
almost half of the respondents were employed or worked for their own account (48.5%). The remaining 51.2%
were people who did not work and looked for employment, who were supported by others or who were
studying.
In a traditional approach, the percentage of people having gainful employment was the measure of successful
transition. Currently, the transition is perceived in a wider context, inter alia via analysis of employment
conditions (type of contract), stability of work, possibility of using the competences acquired in the course of
studies at work, level of satisfaction with work in reference to aspirations and expectations with which a graduate
commenced searching for the first job (Gajderowicz, Grotkowska, Wincenciak, 2011).
In this study, on account of restrictions related to the text volume, references were mainly made to the transition
of geographers from the point of view of fulfilment their plans and aspirations with respect to the labour market.
The verification was conducted in reference to:
1. planned and actual work places;
2. planned and actual criteria of work place selection;
3. expected and actual recruitment criteria;
4. expected and received amount of remuneration.
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3.1 Work Places: Expectations vs. Reality
The examined population, upon complementation of studies, indicated diverse work places as desired; however,
all graduates wished to work in closely-related professions, both with respect to the study major and the type of
specialization selected by them in the course of academic education. The most numerous group of respondents
wished to work in state and local government administration (12.7%); subsequently, in spatial planning offices
(11.4%). The third place was occupied by the educational system (10.9%). Just after schools, there were land
survey and cartographic companies (10.1%). Relatively many students (9.5%) declared their willingness to create
work places by establishing their own companies. Geography students were also clearly interested in work in
tourist traffic servicing, because in total 9.4% of them indicated hotels and tourist agencies as desired work
places. A slightly lower percentage of declarations referred to institutions dealing with environmental protection
and meteorological stations and observatories (5.7% and 6.2%, respectively).
Unfortunately, the recorded intentions of geographers were fulfilled in a slight degree. Over half (58.3%) of
working graduates performs work not related to the study major and not even requiring higher education; only
one-fifth works in line with the completed study major.
Graduates employed at positions not related to their study major (and also frequently to the educational degree)
mainly work in broadly-understood trade (25.5%) and services (22.7%). Persons employed in trade are sellers in
various types of stores, warehouses, bookstores; they are trade representatives. Respondents who are providing
services have varied areas of operation, encompassing mainly gastronomy, and, in individual cases, financial
counselling, accounting, medical services, postal services and construction services. Persons who practice
professions closely related to the completed studies work mainly in the educational system as teachers (14.4%);
they are employees of land survey and cartographic companies (7.7%), local government (7.2%) and tourist
industry: tourist agencies, hotels (4.5%) and scientific units, mainly universities (3.3%). No graduates were
recorded dealing with spatial planning or environmental protection. Persons working in administration are
mainly employed in commune offices, city offices, marshal offices, starosty offices, the Central Statistical Office
and province labour offices. Graduates related to tourism work in tourist agencies as full time employees of
agencies and tour guides for foreign trips and as hotel personnel (work at reception desks, in administration).
Geographers who use their competences in the area of cartography and systems of geographic information work
mainly in private companies providing services in this area.
Therefore, as evidenced by the research results, unexpectedly, the most satisfied are people who wanted to work
in education (even 3.5% more people found work there than expected). In other groups, a larger (among those,
who wanted to work in land survey and cartographic companies) or a smaller (in the case of desire to work in
administration and tourism) population received work in the desired industry. Surprise by procuring work in
education results from the fact that in Poland, on account of the drop in the birth rate and reforms in the
educational system, which definitely limit the number of geography classes at all levels of teaching, we are dealing
with numerous dismissals of geography teachers. Therefore, what is the reason of such successful transition to
employment in the educational system? The genesis of this phenomenon will be quickly explained when we
proceed to the analysis of answers of geographers to another question regarding the type of contract on the basis
of which they are employed. Only individual persons working as teachers had contracts for a specific period of
time and all others worked as fill-ins, which means that they can lose their jobs at any moment if the full time
teacher comes back to work. This relatively high commonness of work as fill-ins results both from significant
feminization of the teaching profession in Poland (81%) and, which is related to it, more frequent maternal
leaves and care leaves of women and, more importantly, the right to the so-called paid health leave in this
professional group. In line with Art. 73.1 of the Teachers‘ Charter Act of January 26, 1982, a teacher employed
on a full time basis, having worked for at least seven years at school, may be granted health leave by the head
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master of the school for the purpose of pursuing recommended treatment, not exceeding one year at one time
(Journal of Laws, 2006). Many teachers in Poland make use of this right and in this manner graduates may be
employed as fill-ins. Almost no geographer, in the period of six months from completion of studies, fulfilled the
plan of establishing one‘s own company; only two persons declared willingness to conduct their own economic
activity.
Persons who are satisfied by the scope of duties at work constitute 17.5% of employed graduates, where almost
90% are graduates working in professions that are closely related to geography studies. The most numerous
group (44.3%) declares partial satisfaction; the others (38.3%) are not satisfied with the nature of work that they
perform.
3.2 Selection Criteria of Work Place: Plans and Fulfillment of Plans
Expectations and stances of young people with respect to the labour market show, to a large extent, the criteria
which they were planning to be guided by whils choosing the place of employment at the moment of completion
of studies. The respondents were asked to indicate three criteria, assigning index 1 to the most important
criterion and subsequently 2, 3 to less important criteria when making such decision. For the purpose of
determining the hierarchy of criteria, weights were applied21.
In general, absolutely dominant planned criteria for selection of a work place for graduates were: amount of
remuneration (20.4%). Possibility of professional development (16.7%) and compliance of tasks to be
implemented at a work place with the profile of completed studies (11.3%). The prospect of long-term
employment was also important for them, along with interesting tasks at a given position and good atmosphere
at work. Least important criteria were social utility of work and reputation of the place of employment.
When analyzing answers to this question at the moment of entry to the labour market, it is necessary to state that
the instrumental and autotelic aspects occupied almost parallel leading position in the examined criteria. The
instrumental criterion was represented by the amount of remuneration for the performed work. In the group of
immaterial criteria, dominant aspects were the amount of work related to the comfort resulting from practicing
the profession for which one is feeling professionally prepared and a relatively high level of peace with respect to
continuity of employment. Almost non-significant for geographers at that time were the issues of prestige of a
work place, its location or social utility of performed work. Exceptions were persons ready to work at positions
below their qualifications, which valued convenient location of their work place.
In the course of actual work searchers, the declared criteria evolved intensely. Employed persons conceded that
the dominant criterion for commencing the performed work was definitely the desire to have any type of
employment (28.3%) and subsequently, even though with less impact on the decision was work time
(standardized or flexible) – the criterion which was practically not listed by the geographers at the moment of
graduation (15.0%). The third place was occupied by the amount of remuneration (11.1%) and the next position
in the criteria hierarchy was connected with by convenient location of a work place. All other criteria had
relatively small significance (e.g. the prospect of long-term employment) or were almost not taken into account
(reputation of a work place or its social utility). A definitely unimportant criterion for commencing work was the
possibility of rapid promotion (cf. Fig. 2).
21 Weight 3 was assigned to the first position, weight 2 to the second position and weight 1 to the third position in
the hierarchy of indications.
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Figure 2: Planned and actual criteria for selection of a work place
As shown by the study, the experience of looking for jobs rapidly verified the graduates‘ expectations in the
discussed period and their determination to transfer from the study stage to the employment stage was so great
that it resulted in reorientation of the discussed criteria or even complete relinquishment of them. At the end of
studies, young people – when declaring their criteria for selection of work – revealed their expectations about the
conditions and the nature of employment. Therefore, at that time only a small group of persons selected the
answer ―desire to commence any type of work.‖ Actual efforts to find work greatly deprived the graduates of
such, slightly idealistic, convictions about selecting a work place among several offers and on the basis of
personal criteria (especially in the case of it being the first work). As a result of it, geographers prioritized
procurement of employment in general, even if the performed work did not comply with any or with the
majority of criteria indicated by them several months earlier. Thence, in the group of key criteria indicated by the
graduates who had work, in principle no autotelic criteria were recorded. For a definite majority of graduates, the
current work is a temporary solution; therefore, almost nobody expected promotion or interesting tasks for
implementation.
3.3 Expected and Actual Recruitment Criteria
In Poland, no comprehensive studies are published which would indicate the criteria used by the employers in
the process of recruiting new employees. However, it is worthwhile getting to know the convictions of persons
entering the labour market with respect to the expected important factors which may, in their opinion, influence
procurement of employment, because such convictions may condition strategies of searching for employment.
The respondents, just like in the case of criteria of choosing the place of work, were asked to indicate three
criteria, assigning index 1 to the most important criterion and 2, 3 to less important criteria when making such
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decision. For the purpose of determining the hierarchy of criteria, weights were applied in a manner discussed in
a prior section of the study.
The examined youth, when completing their studies, believed that the employer, in the recruitment process,
primarily pays attention to previous professional experience of a candidate (31.5%). This conviction probably
results from common opinions regarding this issue and personal reflections of young people becoming
acquainted with job offers placed on the Internet, press and in other media. Partially, the respondents‘ conviction
about the role of experience in procurement of work is confirmed by studies based on analysis of press offers
which were focused around three themes: acquired features (e.g. good organization of work time), characteristics
related to personality type (enthusiasm, optimism, etc.) and professional experience. Subsequently, according to
people completing their studies, employe s value familiarity with foreign languages (13.6%), personality traits and
character of a candidate, i.e. the so-called soft skills (13.3%) and recommendations of third parties (11.3%). The
fifth place in the hierarchy was holding a university diploma and the completed study major. Other criteria,
including experience acquired abroad, legal form of a university, prestige of a university, IT skills, have, according
to the respondents, slight significance in the recruitment process. Lowest position in the hierarchy is occupied by
the grade on the graduation diploma (1.2%). These data clearly testify to young people‘s conviction that
completion of higher studies in Poland, selection of a study major, place of study, renown of a university and
quality level of acquired knowledge and skills expressed by the grade on the diploma have small or even very
small impact on who is employed in a given company. This sad conclusion is probably the aftermath of
numerous undesired activities of employers and unsatisfactory (for the labour market) profile of competences of
university graduates. Extreme marginalization of the grade of studies by the respondents is not accidental, but it
probably results from numerous experiences of people with higher education looking for employment and
sharing their experiences in this respect, from which it clearly follows that this criterion was not an object of
interest on the part of employers. The collected answers provoke to putting forward a risky thesis i.e. that in
Poland, there is almost a complete lack of trust of the world of business and employers to reliable evaluation of
graduates‘ skills by the academic environment. This split has numerous causes; one of them seems to be mutual
conviction about absence of common areas of activities, depreciation of the role of employers in constructing
study curricula by the academic staff and the employers‘ conviction that academic education is frequently
extremely non-pragmatic.
The repsondents' premonitions proved to be partially accurate. In their opinion, in the actual recruitment
process, the employers were primarily guided by personality traits of a candidate (27.3%), subsequently by
recommendations of third parties and then by their prior professional experience and study major. Employers
also took into account (even though this was of lesser significance) the IT skills, familiarity with foreign
languages and holding a university diploma. In the graduates‘ opinions, prestige of a university and their grade on
the diploma had no significance for employers (cf. Fig. 3).
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Figure 3: Expected and real recruitment criteria
It is unfortunate that the respondents' presumptions with respect to the important role of connections in
procurement of work were confirmed, along with marginal significance of diploma quality. It is probable that
lack of significance attached to the quality of diplomas in the recruitment procedure resulted from the fact that a
significant group of graduates work at positions which do not require completion of higher studies. However, it
is worrying that information about the quality of work of a graduate in the course of studies (specified on the
diploma) is underestimated, in particular in professions which are closely related to the study major in geography.
Definitely more worrying is the fact that a significant percentage of working persons, i.e. 19.7% (in line with their
expectations) received their positions thanks to non-substantive criteria, i.e. connections.
3.4 Remuneration: Expectations vs. Actual Situation
The respondents, when completing their studies, had rational, thought-out and not exaggerated financial
expectations with respect to the remuneration in their first job. On average, they wanted to earn PLN 1,956 net;
over half of respondents were hoping for a net pay ranging between PLN 1,501 and 2,000. A significant group of
students (18.4%) was ready to commence work for remuneration ranging from PLN 1,001 to 1,500, whereas
20% of graduates expected their pay to be between PLN 2,501 and 3,000. Quite high and unrealistic financial
expectations of pay higher than PLN 4,000 net were voiced by only 1.9%.
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The registered expectations were clearly different in the group of women and the group of men. On average, the
population of female students wanted to earn PLN 1,875 net, whereas male students counted upon remuneration
of PLN 2,101 net. Definitely lower average financial aspirations of women are partially a result of their
preferences with respect to work place, including employment in education, which, especially at the beginning of
a career, is badly paid.
Working geography graduates received, on average, PLN 1,516 net; therefore, the pay was lower by almost one-
fourth with respect to their expectations. As many as 80.3% of respondents earn less than they expected. A
group of 12.0% has remuneration compliant with their expectations, and only 7.7% earn more than they
expected. Among working geography graduates, only one-third declared remuneration between PLN 1,001 and
1,500 and it should be remembered that this financial range was most expected by young people at the end of
studies. Almost one-fourth earns less than PLN 1,000 in their first job after studies and only few receive a net
pay between PLN 2,001 and 2,500 (4.9%). A slight impact of sex was noticed on the amount of pay: on average,
women earn slightly less than men (PLN 1,478 and 1,581, respectively).
According to Sedlak & Sedlak, it follows from the National Remuneration Poll that in 2011 highest pays were
received by graduates of technical studies – the median in this case was PLN 3,000 net (PLN 3,155 gross).
Graduates of humanities received lowest pays: half of them earned between PLN 1,800 and 3,000. Their pay
expectations were not exaggerated, because in their first job, they wanted to earn PLN 1,920 net
(http://wiadomosci.nf.pl/News/33419/Ile-chcialby-a-ile-zarabia-absolwent/praca-po-studiach-zarobki-
absolwentow/). Therefore, we can see that pay expectations and real remuneration of geographers are close to
remuneration of graduates receiving lowest pay.
4 Conclusions
The study conducted among geography graduates shows that in Poland, their transition to the labour market is a
difficult and complex process, ending in a partial success and that it is quite distant from aspirations and
expectations registered by such persons at the moment of completion of university education.
In a half-year period from completion of studies, only approx. half of respondents were employed and their
work frequently did not correlate with their academic preparation or was performed on the basis of not
advantageous or unstable contracts. Only every fifth graduate performed work related to the completed study
major and these were mainly persons employed in education, in the cartographic industry and land survey and in
administration. The remaining respondents most frequently worked in trade and services at low positions.
According to geography graduates, holding of higher education influences procurement of work Poland in a
small degree, whereas the prestige of a university and the grade on the diploma have almost no impact. Key role,
in their opinion, is played by the candidate‘s personality traits, prior professional experience and connections.
The first job brought limited satisfaction to young people; both in the material and non-material sphere, because
every third person did not want to work in a given industry, but commenced such work solely to have some
source of subsistence. The above-mentioned limited satisfaction with the nature of work changes into almost
complete absence of satisfaction with respect to pay. Every fifth graduate receives less than PLN 1,000 net (with
the current EUR exchange rate this amounts to approx. EUR 230). Such low wages prevent complete financial
independence expressed by, e.g. separate place of residence than the parents, starting a family.
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At the same time, it is not possible to state clearly whether commencement of any type of job, distant from the
subject of the completed studies or even addressed to people with lower education is a consequence of the so-
called over-education and related smaller number of work places for employees with high qualifications and
competences than the supply of such potential employees in Poland. It is possible that the examined proceedings
of graduates of geography studies are only a proof of their adaptation skills to constantly changing conditions,
understood as willingness to change qualifications, place of employment and adapt to non-standard forms of
employment, non-typical places of work (Kryńska 2008, 2011) or a stage of building the so-called transition
capital (Bańka, 2005). Thence, it seems indispensable to monitor both the professional careers of people who
accepted unsatisfactory conditions of work and positions, as well as those who after studies were employed in
line with the study major and level of education. This monitoring may show whether and - if yes - how far does
the professional career of geographers depend on the first step made along it.
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in International Conference on Employability of Graduates & Higher Education Management Systems – DEHEMS
Proceedings, Vienna 22-23 September, 2011, p. 34, available at: http://www.dehems-project.eu/en/past-contributions/
(last access 12 May 2012)
Jacob, M., Weiss, F. (2008), „From Higher Education to Work Patterns of labor market entry in Germany and the US‖
Working Papers no 110, Universitat Mennheim,p. 30.
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Polsce in Dworak J. Jaworski J. (Eds.) Zarządzanie szkołą wyższą. Dylematy i wyzwania, Zeszyty Naukowe WSB,
Gdańsk, tom 14, pp. 29 -43.
Kiersztyn, A. (2011), „Racjonalne inwestycje czy złudne nadzieje: nadwyżka wykształcenia na polskim rynku pracy,
Polityka społeczna, no 1, pp.7-14.
Kraśniewski A., (2008), „Efekty kształcenia a konkurencyjność polskiego szkolnictwa wyższego‖, Konferencja in: UW-
FRSE, Warszawa, available at www.bjk.uw.edu.pl/files/ppt/krasniewski.ppt, (last access 12 May 2012)
Kryńska, E. (2008), „Młodzi ludzie a rynek pracy i edukacja‖ in Sulima E (Ed.) Rynek pracy a edukacja , Wyd.
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Kryńska, E. (2011), „Absolwenci szkół wyższych na rynku pracy. Oczekiwania i rzeczywistość‖ in Jedralska K., Bernais J.
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THE ISEKI_FOOD PROJECTS AND NETWORK: STRATEGIES AND
ACTIVITIES TO IMPLEMENT SKILLS AND ABILITIES OF THE FUTURE
GENERATION OF GRADUATES IN FOOD STUDIES
Pittia P., Faculty of Agriculture & Department of Food Science, University of Teramo, Italy
Silva C.L.M., Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Catholic University of Portugal, Portugal
Costa R., Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra - Escola Superior Agrária, Portugal
Schleining G., Department of Food Science and Technology, BOKU, University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences Vienna, Austria
Dalla Rosa M., Department of Food Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy
Abstract: Food studies networks started in 1998 with a long term objective of
creating effective tools and guidelines that promote the EHEA (European
Higher Education Area) for food studies, and has also been disseminating it at
an international level, through constant renewing networks at European level
with Erasmus programme support and at International level with Erasmus
Mundus programme support. All the activities, tools and materials developed
are sustained by a non-profit organization, the ISEKI Food Association (IFA)
that has now a worldwide network, reaching all the Continents. A variety of
tools have been created which the most significant are: a number of databases
of curricula, teaching materials and food industry stakeholders; an International
journal and regularly published books in an international publisher; a periodic
international conference on bridging education, research and industry; a quality
assurance label for Food Science and Technology curricula (EQAS);
partnerships in other research and education projects.
1 Introduction
The European SMEs in the food sector represent €450 billion of turnover, €95 billion of value added, 2.9
million employees and 308,000 enterprises. They account for: 48% of the F&D turnover, 48% of the
F&D value added, 63% of the F&D employment and 99% of the 308,000 F&D companies
(http://smes.ciaa.eu/; visited Dec., 2011).
Labour productivity and percentage of higher-level skilled and better paid staff is considerably lower than
in most other industry sectors. Moreover, in terms of innovation performance ranking, investment in
research and export/import Europe has been loosing position, compared with other regions of the world.
Academic studies in Food Science and Engineering are strongly multidisciplinary comprising chemistry,
biochemistry, physics, microbiology, process engineering and technology, management, logistics, market
studies, informatics, etc. (Dumoulin, 2012).
Therefore, the need for well prepared food professionals, with the right skills and competencies, is a
continuous challenge. Professionals in this field have to have a multidisciplinary view at European level,
and good knowledge on safety, health and preference, and environmental aspects. Moreover, actual
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conceptions of Lifelong Learning are focused on employability, flexible career and qualifications paths and
strong connection among qualifications providers and society.
To comply with the needs and innovation demands of the food industry and to fit the job market
requirements of modern skills and expertise, food studies and careers cannot be static along the time but
have to progressively adapt contents and disciplines, educational approaches and methodologies.
The European Commission has been financing several international academic networks, which the
objectives are towards topics related with education/training, research, industry and governments.
Particularly in the food field, the ISEKI_Food (Integrating Safety and Environment Knowledge In Food
towards European Sustainable Development - http://www.iseki-food.eu/ and - http://www.iseki-
food4.eu/) network was initiated eleven years ago.
ISEKI_Food was designed as a network of University and Research Institutions, Professional
Associations, Industrial partners and Students Associations to foster collaboration on a variety of joint
interest projects. Seven European and world wide academic networks projects received funding between
1998 and 2014 from the European Commission.
The main objectives of the network are to contribute to the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) in
the field of Food Studies by internationalization and enhancement of quality.
This network has been progressively expanding, demonstrating that the interconnection between research,
industry and academia on food technology and engineering is more and more important for the
implementation of the whole food chain, through the setting of a modern and qualified education and
training framework in an international dimension.
To support the identification of the training and career requirements of future European food
professionals the ISEKI_Food network was promoter of a project under the FP7 that was positively
approved. The TRACK_FAST project (https://www.trackfast.eu/), a KBBE support action currently
ongoing (2009-2013), has as main objective the identification of the educational, training and career
requirements of the next generation of food scientists and technologist and the implementation of a
European strategy to recruit the next generation FST leaders.
To ensure the sustainability of the network activities the ISEKI_Food Association (http://www.iseki-
food.net/ ) was founded in 2005 to be a leading network for all stakeholders in the food supply chain with
regard to education, legislation and communication.
2 The ISEKI_Food Projects And Network
The ISEKI_Food network, project by project, developed a series of activities aimed to network university
and research institutions, professional associations, industrial partners and students associations and
develop mutual knowledge, exchange of ideas, at a European and International level to contribute to the
development of all countries, locally and everywhere, to give right answers to an international changing
market (Dumoulin, 2010, History of the Food Network before ISEKI Food - https://www.iseki-
food.eu/node/277).
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The following figure (figure 1) presents the updated history of the ISEKI_Food network projects.
Figure 1: History of ISEKI_Food network projects
The ISEKI_Food projects initiated with the start-up FoodNET project (1998-2000) and the 56 partners
have focused their activities aimed to promote initiatives that could pool together experiences from all
over Europe and adapt teaching and training programmes to the future needs.
The main issues that were developed in the following editions of the projects were aimed at:
- (i) to tune and align curricula in Food Studies. Main output of this activity was the agreement on
food studies minimum requirements, a document that nowadays is a reference to the set up of
new curricula in Food technology or Food engineering in EU, as well as at international level. A
database of curricula in Food science and technology in EU has been also developed,
- (ii) to support the European and international cooperation and mobility of students, teachers and
researchers: a platform to support international cooperation and mobility (PICAM_Food -
https://www.iseki-food.net/picam), several web databases for curricula, teaching materials and
stakeholders (https://www.iseki-food.net). The aim of the latter is to maintain a worldwide
network of all stakeholders in the food supply chain, who can be searched and contacted, to
promote synergies between research, education/teaching and industry and to stimulate the
development of joint projects or trade opportunities,
- (iii) to develop innovative teaching materials and methods; including the ISEKI-Food book series
published by Springer, A training platform including tailor made e-learning courses, web seminars
and workshops facilitating Lifelong Learning,
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- (iv) to develop a quality evaluation system for Food curricula. A quality label was developed – the
European Quality Accreditation System for Food Studies (EQAS-Food; https://www.iseki-
food.net/EQAS_Food_Award). This label, managed by the ISEKI Food Association, aims to be
a means of identifying high quality food studies programmes, first and second cycle, of any higher
education system, European or International. To promote this quality label, the ISEKI Food
Association co-founded the European Alliance for Subject-Specific and Professional
Accreditation and Quality Assurance (EASPA; www.easpa.eu), an association of sector specific
international quality assurance networks and international organisations with established or
developing soon quality labels for their sectors,
- (v) to favour lifelong learning through the promotion of the recognition of prior experiential
learning and employability aligned curricula and supporting the Bologna reform on the change of
a student-centred education, through the dissemination of good practices; and to develop efforts
for the tuning of 3rd cycle studies (https://www.iseki-food.eu/wp7).
An important step of the ISEKI_Food network history was its internationalisation through the
ISEKI_Mundus (2007-2008) and ISEKI_Mundus 2 (2008-2011) Erasmus Mundus projects, whose main
objectives were to ―foster the internationalization and enhance the quality of the European Higher
Education Food Studies‖ and ―Promotion of good communication and understanding between European
countries and the rest of the world‖ (https://www.iseki-food.eu).
This allowed the ISEKI Food network to contribute towards the European Higher Education in a Global
Context (http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/actionlines/global_context.htm), and
today the ISEKI_Food network is one of the most successful EU networks, achieving significant impact
through its internationalisation and communication with the rest of the world.
The currently ongoing ISEKI_Food-4 (2011-2014, www.iseki-food4.eu) is strongly committed to the
modernization of the food studies and academic sector, to contribute to the innovation of the industry
involved in the entire food chain, and to favour the internationalisation of the European Food studies.
The current project involves a network of 89 partner from 27 EU eligible countries and 3 no-EU
countries (Israel, Brasil and United States) as well as 40 associated partners 25 countries around the world.
The project based its rationale on the fact that food studies and careers have to progressively adapt
contents and disciplines, educational approaches, and methodologies in order to allow the training of the
food engineer of the current and future generations with innovative scientific knowledge and soft skills
while keeping the peculiar multidisciplinary character of the profession. This requires (i) the development
of a constructive academia-industry-research interaction to implement the educational programmes and to
meet the job market skills requirements; (ii) the qualification of the academic teaching staff; and (iii) the
enhanced use of innovative educational methods and ITC training tools.
Thus, the project is highly focused at the development of activities within a framework of stakeholders to
lead innovation in Food studies education & training, fitting enterprises‘ needs, and promoting innovation
in the FS&T academic sector. In particular, the activities planned are aimed to lead to the:
- Modernisation of the education in the Food Studies by the identification of the learning outcomes
fitting the current industry and research needs and the implementation of training and FS&T
courses. Main output of the activities developed is a toolbox on the Virtual Network
Environment documents and materials along with a series of tools to implement and modernize
Food Studies programs and promote their internationalization,
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- Implementation of the labour market role in the 3rd level of education and promotion of the
employability & entrepreneurship of the FS&T graduates and food professionals. A Virtual
Platform for doctoral candidates to favor their networking and training with material useful to
acquire knowledge and technology transfer skills, is currently under development.
- Lecturing qualification in particular for the teaching staff involved in the professional FS&T
disciplines. Main outcome will be a qualification frame for Higher Education Teaching Staff
including a Summer school.
Innovative teaching materials including smart books for students in Food studies, e-learning training
courses, an a pilot Virtual lab on food processing will be also developed with the contribution of all the
partners of the network.
Important exploitation outputs of the projects developed in the course of the various projects include:
- The International Journal of Food Studies (IJFS - http://www.iseki-food-ejournal.com/ojs/ -
ISSN: 2182-1054) that is an international peer-reviewed open-access journal featuring scientific
articles on the world of Food in Education, Research and Industry. This journal is published
twice per year and is mainly directed to scientists, technologists, researchers, teachers and students
working in the food sector. All the manuscripts get a DOI through CrossRef and IJFS is being
indexed in all the major scientific databases, directories and websites specific to the publishing
area and of journals in Open Access.
- The International ISEKI_Food conference (http://www.isekiconferences.com/) already
organized in 2008 and 2011, in Porto and Milan, respectively. The general aims of the
ISEKI_Food conference series are to contribute to the creation of an "open" international forum
for researchers, education scientists, technologists and industry representatives as well as food
consumers, to promote constructive dialogue and collaboration on topics relevant to Food
Science and Technology, Industry and Education and to present and disseminate the results of
the activities developed by the ISEKI_Food network projects.
3 Identification of the Training and Career Requirements of Future European Food
Scientists and Technologists (FST), the FP7 ‘TRACK_FAST’ Project
Employability is a vital concern of the Bologna process and is a important subject for both the education
and the employment environments. In fact, the knowledge of the employment market needs is an essential
information for the Universities to define curricula and pedagogical approaches on the development of
specific and personal competences that are of particular value for the employers.
Modern food and drink enterprises are now aimed to develop products with high quality and food safety
standards, bringing them to the market with new added value, to invest in technology and research as well
as to incorporate best practices and to foster new job profiles and new competencies in the industry.
Moreover, global supply chains have developed as both a consequence and a driver of global food and
drink supply, production and distribution.
This implies a continuous training and curriculum development as crucial factor for the career of food
professionals and, more in general, employees at all levels in the food sector.
Thus the overall objective of the TRACK_FAST project is the: ―Identification of the training and career
requirements of future European food scientists and technologists (FST), and implementation of a
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European strategy to recruit the next generation FST leaders‖ (https://www.trackfast.eu/). This has been
achieved through:
- Identification and definition of personal skills requirements in food job market
(https://www.trackfast.eu/node/284). It was possible to identify the current skills of European
Food Scientists and Technologists (FSTs) in the EU, using data from 16 countries and
Brainstorming Workshops were conducted in these countries to assess the skills that employers
consider their FSTs currently lack. An FST Market needs report is being prepared, which is a
proposal on the needs of employers in the various segments of the food profession in Europe
including where and when such competencies should be learned, summarizing conclusions from
the brainstorming workshops,
- Developments for the regulation of food science and technology professions in Europe
(https://www.trackfast.eu/node/284). The regulated food professionals in Europe were
identified and a wide discussion has been launched regarding the pros and cons of a Europe wide
regulation. For this, several European entities were invited (for example, the European consumers
Association (BEUC) and the ETP Food for Life). A Europe wide survey to the food
professionals was launched in 13 languages, which will allow verifying the relation between
qualifications and other variables and the job-position in the careers of food science and
technologists – the report will be available soon,
- Establishment of a framework for continual professional training and career development for the
FST professional. A guidance document for a portfolio for continual professional training was
created and a web portal developed. (https://www.foodcareers.eu/). A certification scheme for
continual professional development (CPD) has been developed. The CPD scheme examines
measures, procedures and standards for the implementation of a European Continual
Professional Development certification system for food professionals. The scheme builds on the
CPD Portfolio and the review of the needs of current European FST Employers.,
- Motivation of young people to enter and pursue of a career in food science and technology in
Europe. A public discussion was made on good examples in disseminating Food Science and
Technology courses and attracting students. Also, relevant material has been collected and is
available on the website developed and aimed at young people (http://www.foodgalaxy.org/).
TRACK_FAST is built on the assumption that restoration and maintenance of EU‘s food industry
leadership in the global economy can only happen through promoting a higher degree of innovation and
competitiveness in the food sector. This will be achieved by a profound change in Europe‘s food
workforce and in its employers.
TRACK_FAST is focused on training food professionals and supporting their career development as a
way to: i) boost industry competiveness and ii), in the long run, to attract high potential young individuals
to careers in Food Science and Technology.
4 The ISEKI-Food Association (http://www.iseki-food.net/)
This association is an outcome of ISEKI_Food projects, founded in 2005 to guarantee the sustainability
of all the results from several projects after the financial support of the European Commission. The
organization currently has more than 226 individual and 36 company members from 61 countries around
the world, and focuses on promoting synergy between research, education/teaching and industry with
respect to Food Science and Food Technology, promote global food quality assurance, development of a
virtual community of experts in the field of food, with communication to the general public, establish a
framework of agreements among partners, fostering the mobility of students and staff, and create internal
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bodies that promote the integration of science and engineering knowledge into the food chain and to
recognize outstanding achievements in food sciences through the ISEKI Academy (https://www.iseki-
food.net/node/2891).
Several Special Interest Groups SIGS have been developed inside IFA Association. The SIG‘s are offering
a forum for IFA members -and non-IFA members- with similar goals, to stimulate the development of
new projects and activities, and to establish a network of experts from Universities, research institutions
and companies in the food chain. Objectives are both oriented to research and education fields
(https://www.iseki-food.net/sigs). At the moment there are 4 SIG‘s operating: 1) Food Structure and
Physical Properties; 2) Bionanotechnology; 3) Networking (Promotion of Information and Networking on
Research and Education Programs; and 4) Bioactive compounds. Examples of the outcomes are projects
(http://www.foodstructuredesign.net/), workshops, and webinars (https://www.iseki-food.net/List-of-
Webinars).
IFA is also open to subsections outside Europe. The first one, the IFA-Indonesia subsection
(https://www.iseki-food.net/Indonesia), began in 2011 when a group of Food Technologist met at
Universitas Pelita Harapan in Tangerang, Indonesia to discuss the formation of a professional Indonesian
association under the main Iseki- Food Association Europe. The Association was established as a
networking association to become an organization that provides information about Food technology and
its associated industries in Indonesia and/or in Asia. The association also aims to promote and encourage
research and interest in the food technology fields, and also to introduce the food science and technology
in Indonesia to the world.
References
Dumoulin, E. (2012). Changes and perspectives in Food Studies. International Journal of Food Studies. In
press.
142
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREER CENTRES AS MEDIATORS BETWEEN HE
STUDENTS AND THEIR POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS
Darka Podmenik, Institute for Developmental and Strategic Analyses, Slovenia
Ivana Čančar, Institute for Developmental and Strategic Analyses, Slovenia
Abstract: First part of the paper documents an increasing trend of uncertain
graduates´ employment prospects, especially those from so-called soft HE
programs, although the objectives of the Bologna Reform about a convergent
structure of study programmes have been implemented relatively successfully.
Data from two very different research projects are used - large scale
international project HEGESCO and a small case study of Slovene students-
are used for the analysis of HE educator and students investment into
―matching the proper job.‖ The results show that the investments are relatively
inadequate.
The second part focuses on career centers as for some countries, including
Slovenia, a new form of training students to enter the labor market. The
presented case study research on CCs is based on two premises: that the main
purpose of CCs is today, beside to inform, counsel and support career
orientation, to connect students and employers and that the innovative
practices aimed at connecting employers with students are very important.
Semi-structured interviews were done with the representatives of career centres:
5 so-called ―average‖ ones and 3 so-called ―good practices‖. Two criteria were
used in this categorization: the run time of each and the content of each
centre‘s activities. Those with long-lasting practices including inventive
activities are presented as good practices. The emphasis is on inventive
activities that enable or improve the networks among students/graduates and
(potential) employers.
1 Introduction
Over the past two decades, some important obstacles have influenced the (proper) employment of young
highly educated first job seekers, not only in Slovenia, but also in the majority of other EU countries.
Namely, the altered competitive conditions in the labour market mainly influence less competitive
individuals (Coleman, 1991; Sprangers, 1992), including young first-time job seekers. On the one hand,
employers have increased their demands with regard to competences of potential employees. In addition
to certificates, which confirm formal education, employers have begun to pay great attention to additional
skills and experience needed to start work efficiently upon entering the workplace. On the other hand,
young first-time job seekers have no work experience compared to their older counterparts on the labour
market, nor extra skills and competences exceeding the education programmes they graduated from.
With regards to higher education in EU countries, the population of youths with the highest education
degrees has been rising relatively quickly over the past two decades; over-qualification is becoming evident
in some segments of highly educated people (OECD, 2000). Over-qualification may be ascribed to the
massive expansion of higher education (Trow, 2000), and to the fragmentation of academic disciplines
(Clark, 1996, Barnett, 2000). For some authors, although over-qualification is not taken for granted, it is
143
still the subject of discussion (Teichler, 1999; Allen, van der Velden, 2011). But in light of the new
perspectives on so-called knowledge society, a higher education degree no longer guarantees a proper job
with opportunities for professional career development and a high standard of living. It has become
obvious that the supply of graduates exceeds the demands of labour markets,22 which is particular
significant for ―soft‖ education fields, where the incidence of unemployment (Reimer et al, 2008), as well
as the risk of job mismatch (Halaby, 1994, Wolbers, 2002), has grown.
First part of the paper documents an increasing trend of uncertain graduates´ employment prospects for
first employment seekers, especially those from so-called soft HE programs. Data from two very different
research projects are used - large scale international project HEGESCO-REFLEX and a small case study
of Slovene students. The second group of data is used to expose the marginal position of students and
graduates who still insist on studying in fields that offer no employment opportunities. To improve
students and graduates´ prospects we also present some proposals.
The second part focuses on career centers. So far these centers have been successful forms of assistance
to students preparing to enter the labor market under these new, severe conditions. Small comparative
study of Slovene, German and British career centers focuses on centers´ activities, which support
cooperation between students/graduates and their (potential) employers. These activities could be
considered good practices and implemented on a wider scale.
2 Do Educators and Students Invest Enough in Matching the Proper Job After
Graduation?
According to Allen and van der Velden (2011), in new circumstances, highly educated professionals find
themselves in a confusing situation; on the one hand they are asked to master top-notch and highly
specialised knowledge, while on the other, they should be adaptable and flexible, able to perform
professional tasks that are close to their area of specialisation. In today's highly sophisticated knowledge-
based society, higher education is a prerequisite, albeit insufficient to achieve key positions in the work
environment.
These findings pose two questions: are university educators responding to changed conditions on the
labour market and through adapting study programmes allowing students to obtain additional knowledge,
skills and experience sought by employers, and, are the young people enrolled in university education
informed and aware of the conditions they will face when entering the labour market. And, are they ready
and willing to contribute additional individual efforts, to allow them to become part of the ―elite‖23 on the
labour market? We will endeavour to answer these two questions in part by presenting a selection of the
results of two different studies: one large-scale European research HEGESCO – REFLEX of graduates'
22 EUROSTAT data on unemployment rates of graduates (ISCED 5-6) by age groups 20 - 24 years and 25 - 29
years shows the general upward trend during the period from 2000 to 2011: EU 2000 - 12,3% (20-24years) and 8% (25-29 years); EU 2011- 16,5% (20-24y.) and 9% (25-29y.) In regard to individual country members some have had stable rates during this period,like Belgium, Czech Republik, France, Sweden (around 11% for both age groups together). The largest increase shows the data for Great Britain (4% in 2000 and 8% in 2011), Hungary (8% in 2005 and 14% in 2011), Portugal (16% in 2005 and 22% in 2011). Some coutries exceed with high rates all over the period, like Italy (25% in 2000 and 22% in 2011), Portugal (16% in 2005 and 22% in 2011), Spain (22% in 2000 and 28% in 2011). (EUROSTAT,2012)
23 The ―elite‖ on the labour market are those seeking jobs for which demand exceeds the supply, who find suitable jobs and earn above-average income and have strong career potential.
144
transition from the university education to employment and a Slovene micro-extreme case study of third
and fourth year students of study disciplines for which demand has fallen over the past decade.
3 REFLEX-HEGESCO responses
European projects HEGESCO and REFLEX24 describe some of the most important factors affecting
graduates' transition to the relevant employment within five years of graduation. Bearing in mind the
scope of this article, we shall limit our overview to only those that show the efforts of both educators and
students to overcome the above obstacles on the labour market and contribute to the relevant
employment after graduation through preparing for future work and making contacts with employers.
Namely, one of the results of all studies, i.e. the large scale EU studies as well as the Slovene extreme case
study, is that work experience relating to the field of studies during studies, as well as connections with
employers‘ needs or/and with them personally, improve the chances of graduates, newcomers to the
labour market, finding proper jobs in a shorter period of time.
The results of the REFLEX-HEGESCO study showed that only a small number of surveyed graduates
found themselves amongst the ―elite‖ upon entering the labour market. Most found employment that
required additional and advanced studies at the post-graduate level. Two factors proved to be most
significant for becoming a part of the ―elite‖: study discipline (doctors, lawyers, managers and engineers
were most frequently placed among the ―elite‖) and the educational level (higher education graduates had
better prospects of finding employment than more junior graduates).25 Results showed that additional
competencies and experience the graduates gained during studying either in formal university programmes
or through occasional work experience, were highly influential in securing better employment (Allen, van
der Velden, 2011).
In general terms26 the authors assessed the transition of the surveyed graduates from education to the
labour market in 2005 and 2008 (five years after graduation) as successful (ibid.). However, as regards
career prospects, the results were much less positive: only a small number of those interviewed (25-33%)
stated that their ―current employment offers good career opportunities‖ (Allen, Coenen, Humburg,
2011/a, p. 53).
In terms of individual countries included in the REFLEX- HEGESCO research, results were less
satisfactory as they show significant differences with regards to the success graduates have when finding
employment. Figure 1 shows the shares of inappropriate employment including horizontal and vertical
unsuitability as well as graduates' unemployment rate by country.
24 The REFLEX-HEGESCO projects conducted large-scale surveys on a representative sample of graduates.
The REFLEX research was carried out in 16 member countries. The HEGESCO project included, in addition to the sample of countries included in the REFLEX project, another 5 countries, amongst them also Slovenia. In each of the countries, research was conducted using a unique questionnaire on a sample of graduates with educational level ISCED 5A and who graduated 5 years prior to the research.
25 Level two graduates (ISCED 5A), with direct access to doctorate studies, earn more than their colleagues who completed level one studies.
26 Against the expectations of the authors, the group of new EU members did not show standard characteristics. In Hungary (as well as Turkey), the results showed a prevailing pattern of unemployed students that is characteristic of ―south European countries‖ (as designated by the sample REFLEX project). The lowest unemployment rate of students (five years after graduation) among all the countries included in the study was recorded in Estonia and Poland (Allen, Coenen, Humburg, 2011/a, p. 53).
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Figure 1: Graduates´ Job Mismatch five years after graduation in EU countries from the REFLEX Project.
Source: Allen, Coenen, Humburg (2011), Figure 3.8, Figure 3.11, Figure 3.12
The table shows major deviations of individual countries from the average in terms of high
unemployment (Turkey, Spain, Italy and France), as well as in terms of high job mismatch of graduates
(Great Britain, Turkey, Latvia, Hungary and Italy). Slovenia‘s unemployment rate is almost 1% below
average, while horizontal job mismatch is more than 3% lower and vertical more than 1% lower. Slovenia
is among the group of countries with a solid job mismatch structure of employed graduates 5 years after
graduation.
The following factors proved to significantly reduce the risk of job mismatch and unemployment: using
social networks; work experience relating to the field of studies during studies, and completing studies at
prestigious and vocationally-oriented study programmes. University degree of at least one parent reduced
the risk of vertical job mismatch and unemployment; however, at the same time this slightly increased the
risk of horizontal unemployment27 (Støren, Arnesen, 2011).
Regarding completed study programmes, job mismatch and unemployment are most frequent in graduates
of humanities (35% job mismatch and 7% unemployment), while high job mismatch and unemployment
rates were recorded also in studies in the area of ―services‖ and sociology (around 30% job mismatch and
4% unemployment) and natural sciences (26% job mismatch and 7% unemployment). (Støren, Arnesen,
2011).
The results of the REFLEX- HEGESCO research show that most study programmes are not practically
oriented as they focus on theory and paradigms; lectures are the most frequently used teaching method
and students are not involved in research work. Most employers are not informed of the contents of the
27 Støren and Arnesen (2008, p. 232) explain the gap between the social networks of children whose parents
have a high level of education, which opens up interesting employment opportunities also outside the framework of the completed study programmes.
29 18 22 18 21 18 15 17 16 16 15 14 15 11 11 12
6 10 6
20
20 12 23 25
23 22 15 12 11
19 13 15
14 13 17
10 10 14
4
9
2
11 3 5 8
4 2 1
2 8 5
4 5 5
6 4 2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Job Mismatch: Horizontal, Vertical, Unemployment, by country, 2005 and 2008, in %
Horizontal Vertical Unemployed
146
study programmes; this also applies to vocational study programmes (Allen, Coenen, Humburg, 2011, p.
26, 27). With regards to how successful the programmes are in ensuring that students are sufficiently
qualified to enter the labour market and obtain suitable jobs, the data shows that the suitability of these
programmes is assessed as relatively low; only 53% of interviewed graduates stated that the completed
programmes made a sufficient contribution to preparing them for employment.
Ratings of vocational orientation of completed study programmes and their recognition by potential
employers vary significantly. Only 30-40% of graduates from all countries stated that employers were
familiar with the content of study programmes, with the exception of Norway (60%) and Turkey (20%).
(Allen, Coenen, Humburg, 2011). Slovenia is somewhere in the middle as regards both the rating of
vocational orientation of study programmes and familiarity of employers with the content of the study
programmes.
Involvement in work and work experience as part of higher education programmes varied by country with
the highest recorded in the Netherlands (60%), Hungary (about 57%), France (almost 45%), and the
lowest in Latvia (less than 10%) and the Czech Republic (around 17%). In Slovenia, involvement stood at
around 30% (Ibid.).
In terms of the study programmes' flexibility to adapt to conditions on the labour market demonstrated by
the ratio of how much practice work and potential job positions are part of the study programme, there
are major differences between countries included in the research with the Netherlands topping the list
with a ratio of 60 and Latvia at the bottom with a ratio of 3. There are, as well, major differences with
regards to on-the-job work experience associated with studies: 100% of Turkish graduates stated they took
part in both, while only 22% of Italian students were included in on-the-job work experience. 54% of
Slovene graduates stated they gained work experience through on-the-job experience as part of the study
programme or through doing occasional jobs during their studies. According to Allen, Coenen and
Humburg (2011, p. 23), the emerging pattern shows that in the countries such as the Netherlands,
Hungary and France with high rates of vocational work and on-the-job experience included in study
programmes, a high proportion of graduates actually gain work experience and knowledge during their
studying. In contrast, graduates from the Czech Republic and Italy where study programmes do not focus
on knowledge for work, are less likely to be involved in practice and work experience.28
The results show that Slovenia ranks among the group of countries with relatively high inclusion of
opportunities to gain ―knowledge for employment‖ as part of formal study programmes and the actual
involvement of students in activities aimed at gaining work experience and knowledge during their studies.
60% of Slovene graduates stated that study programmes included learning ―knowledge for employment‖
and that they were actually involved in work experience or work associated with their studies during
higher education.
4 Slovene Small-Scale Case Study responses
Starting from the general statements on the changing conditions for young highly educated first job
seekers over the last two decades, some of which are mentioned above, the small-scale national case study
28 However, the authors point out large inconsistencies in the pattern with regards to Turkey and Latvia, namely the high share of
actual involvement in work experience and at the same time low share of statements that study programmes included obtaining knowledge required for suitable employment (ibid).
147
research began in Slovenia in 2004. It focused on investments during the period of HE study among the
population of final-year students and graduates of academic disciplines that are not truly in demand in the
Slovenian labour market,29 following the hypothesis that greater individual investments in higher
education and especially in extra-curricular and work activities could reflect students‘ adapting to the new
challenges. According to statistical data for Slovenia and some other EU countries the cohort of graduate
first job seekers, who did not find proper job began increasing already in the 1990s and expanding among
the study fields. Namely, this unemployment trend among graduates in Slovenia began with the
unemployed cohort of humanities and social sciences graduates and expanded to management, law,
economics and IT studies in 2010. In light of these findings, the extreme case study research method was
chosen to focus on these graduates, who were and still are the most vulnerable group among other first
job seeking graduates.
The first study was performed in the 2005/2006 academic year and was repeated in 2010/2011.30 The
results of both studies show the following: analysed students are insufficiently prepared for the problems
awaiting them once they step into the job market; during their studies, they do not sufficiently participate
in extra-curricular work and they do not find employments or work practices complementing their studies
and future professional careers. Rarely do they have a clearly outlined career path, ideas and skills, and
rarely have they established professional networks that could help them during the process of finding the
proper job. They are also not oriented to search for possibilities for employment and career-building
abroad.
Both studies examined also educators´ investments into improving their students‘ and graduates´ (future)
position on the job market. Respondents, both students and graduates, evaluated educator investments
into training for successful employment as insufficient. The results suggest that HE institutions do not
perform this task successfully, neither in regard to providing information and skills31 nor in regard to
providing contacts with future employers.32
5 Comparative Case Study on Career Centres (CC)
In light of the results presented above, which show that students do not invest enough into additional
work skills and networks, needed for (successful) employment in future, on one hand, and on the other
that HE formal programs do not prepare the graduates for entering the labour market and meeting
employers demand, career centres should be put under the spotlight as a bridge, which could mitigate this
double insufficiency.
29 Podmenik, D., Ivančič, A., Černigoj Sadar, N. (2006). In the framework of the research project titled
Evaluation of Investments in Educational Capital and Youth Labour Market, the survey was done on the target sample consisting of 150 senior students, finishing their studies of HE programmes, for which a lack of demand on the Slovene labour market had been documented. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 graduates who had been searching for a (proper) job for more than 1 year.
30 Repetition of the survey from the research Evaluation of Investments in Educational Capital and Youth Labour Market (Podmenik et al., 2006) on the target sample consisting of 180 Slovene students, chosen by the same characteristics as in the previous sample, is based on the proposition, that after five years of crises the marginal group of students has changed the pattern of investments in obtaining knowledge and skills. (Research work in progress. IRSA Institute, Ljubljana)
31 40% of respondents replied that their study program did not provide them with sufficient information on employment possibilities and only 11% of respondents stated that they got sufficient knowledge as regards their employment possibilities.
32 To a certain degree, such contacts were provided to one quarter of the respondents, while only 7% were of the opinion that sufficient contacts were established.
148
The presented research on CCs is based on two premises: 1) that the main purpose of CCs is today, beside
to inform, counsel and support career orientation, to connect students and employers. According to
Dizdarević and Tuńar (2011), the attitude of employers towards employment improves when they are
included in the contents of the education process. And: 2), that the innovative practices aimed at
connecting employers with students are very important.
The presented research focuses on two types of career centres, the ―average‖ ones and ―good practices‖.
Two criteria were used in this categorization: the run time of each and the content of each centre‘s
activities. Those with long-lasting practices including inventive activities are presented as good practices.
The emphasis is on those (inventive) activities that enable or improve the networks among
students/graduates and (potential) employers.
Semi-structured interviews were used as the research method. The sample consisted of 8 career centres;
four of them are considered good practices. Four Slovene CCs were selected as representatives of four
Slovene universities: the CC of the University of Ljubljana, the CC of the University of Maribor, the CC
of the University of Primorska and the CC of the University of Nova Gorica, while four good practice
centres were selected in advance: the CC of the Faculty of Economics of the University of Ljubljana, the
CC at the Free University of Berlin, the CC at the Zeppelin University of Friedrichshafen and the CC of
the University of Bristol.
The majority of Slovene Career Centres were established as part of an EU initiative. Universities applied
to the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology33 for funds for developing and
implementing CCs in higher education. The project was partly funded by the European Social Fund under
the Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.
With regards to the umbrella EU project, ―by 2006, the incentives at Slovene universities for creating a
formal system of career services were ever more frequent and nowadays, all the largest universities have
their own career centres on the level of the rector‘s office, whereas some of the faculties of the Ljubljana
and Maribor universities have their own separate career centres‖ (Zadel, et al., 2011). The CC of the
Faculty for Economics represents a model of Slovene good practices, since it was the first Slovenian CC
and presented good practice for all subsequent CCs. With regards to inventive activities, other Slovenian
CCs follow foreign practices and have some of their own innovative ideas.
6 Common Characteristics of Career Centres
All 5 Slovenian career centres provide services that can be divided into three groups: (1) information,
advising and counselling services, (2) workshops (3) contacts between employers and students, organizing
events (See table 1).
33 As part of the project, the Ministry provide funding of up to € 1,187,201.72, of which 85% will be
contributed by the European Union's European Social Fund and 15% by the Republic of Slovenia.
149
Table 1: Comparative characteristics of career centres Comparative
characteristics
of Career
Centres
University of
Ljubljana
EF Ljubljana University of
Maribor
University
Primorska
University
Nova Gorica
University
Berlin
Zeppelin
University
Friedrichshafen
Bristol University
UK
Established 2008 2000* 2011** 2008 2011 1997 *** app. 35 years ago
Employees 9 3 4 2 1 3 1+1 student 1234
CC Information
services
- CC web site
-
Presentations35
- CC web site - CC web site
- Presentations14
- Introduction
week36
- CC web site
- Presentations14
CC web site CC office
directly
Brouschures22
CC Web site CC web site
Presentations14
CC
Workshops37
38
Counselling YES39 YES18 YES18 YES18 YES18 YES18 YES18 YES18
Cooperation
with University
staff
Cooperation in
planning40
Active
cooperation41
Active
cooperation42
Active
cooperation21
CC is passive43 CC is isolated44 *** Permanent
connection with
departments45
Internship NO46 NO47 NO25 NO25 NO25 YES YES NO25
34 In career guidance section. 35 CC Self presentations to students, potential employers, companies and stakeholders. 36 CC University of Maribor pays special attention to present themselves to students at the introduction week at the beginning of study year. 37 All career centres highlighted following workshops, which we consider as AVERAGE: CV and concerning letter writing, Job searching, job interview simulation, internship
promoting, Rhetoric/ public performing skills workshops. 38 Bristol PLUS Award whish helps students gain extra-curricular skills. 39 CC offers Individual and group counselling. 40 Sometimes CC ask University staff for ideas, suggestions. Sometimes professors join presentations and it is obvious they are more and more aware of graduate
unemployment. They have some future plans for cooperation. 41 Each of the lecturers has a guidance steering committee Quality Department, to include training for employment in their subject Professors have contacts with companies
and invite guests from the practice. 42 Mostly Interested to cooperate 43 As told the representative of CC: they do not have the authority to encourage professors to integrate careers issues in classes. 44 The CC representative minded that: Professors usually think of their subjects and do not want to integrate our activities in their curricula. 45 As told the representative the professors are mostly interested to cooperate with CC, which keeps in touch with one of the professor from each department. 46 Only non-compulsory internships, encouraging and presenting internship programmes abroad, help finding internship, if employers shows interest they connect them to
faculty internship coordinator
150
Students need
analysis
YES48 *** NO49 YES50 *** *** *** YES
Cooperation
between CC
YES51 YES30 YES30 YES30
YES30 YES52 / YES53
Student using
the CC services
** 1 %54
app. 10% of
students
up to 600
students/
workshop
20-30 students/
workshop
5000/ year in
workshops
850 students 100
consultations/day
Alumni club NO55 YES YES NO YES NO NO YES
Networking CC
with potential
employers and
employers with
students
Regular
Intraction and
promotion56
Excursions to
companies
Career fair
Regular Intraction
and promotion35
Career fair
Meeting company
representatives57
―Job
opportunities‖58
Regular
Intraction and
promotion35
Career fair59
Excursions to
companies
Round tables60
Regular Intraction
and promotion35
Career fair
Round tables39
Excursions to
companies
- Round tables39
- Meeting
company
representatives61
Organising
workshops62
Regular Intraction 63
Career fair
Brouschure64
Regular Intraction
and promotion35
CC promotion
Career fair65
47 CC can help, but students have to find company where they will do compulsory internship by themselves. 48 Analysis has been done before CC started to work. 49 Not yet, but planning to. Activities are currently planned by following other CC practices. 50 Survey is annual at the end of year. 51 With other Slovenian CC. 52 Meeting at conferences and under Career service network in Germany 53 Association of Graduate Careers Advisory is Association of all CC, where they are connected, get educated, get literature… 54 1% of 6000 students. 4000 students registered in CC portal. 55 Not at the University level: except some faculties separately. 56 CC employees are in contact with potential employers, companies. They take care of student promotion in the labour market and company presentations to students. 57 Professors have contacts with companies and many times invite guests from practice. 58 Job opportunities is the event when company representative presents type of workplace and company expectations, students can apply for workplace or just get information. 59 As well participation in career fair in Austria. 60 With company representatives. 61 CC informs employers about their activities and hold presentations of occupations of their graduates. 62 Often they do not have money to organise workshop so they work together with companies or other supporters who give some money or offer free activities. 63 Contacting companies all around the world as potential employers. 64 CC has brochures and information that students can send to companies where »Tandem coaching« is explained. 65 Employee fairs to recruit students (admission fee) Fair Organization for companies to present themselves to students
151
Innovative
practice
/ / Volunteer
student help
Cooperation
with partners
abroad66
―Couching‖67
Cooperation with
partners abroad68
―Entrepreneurial
Challenge‖
/ / - Student fair
organisation69
- ―Tandem
coaching‖
Bristol PLUS
award70
CC Funding
3-day graduates
workshop
66 Career fair in Austria. 67 Is the only one in our sample that is introducing »couching«, but actually they are following US practices. 68 Univerza na primorskem je ravno v navezovanju stikov z eno od italijanskih multunacionalk, ki želi soledovati s fakulteto FAMIT in FM Koper. 69 Team of 20 students that helps organise employee fair.
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The CCs in our sample were established from similar reasons but in different periods. The first Slovene
CC began operating at the Faculty for Economics in 2000, while the others were established between 2008
and 2011. The main goal was to spread information on the importance of timely planning and career
counselling among students and graduates, and to prepare them for the transition to the labour market
and employment. The CC at the University of Bristol is the oldest career centre as it was established nearly
35 years ago like as the CC from Frei Uni, have a long history and were opened with the aim of
overcoming increasing graduate unemployment. In the words of the representative of the CC Frei Uni:
“Career centres in Germany as we know them nowadays, started in the early 1980s, as the labour market was down at that
time, we had a lot of students and they were all worried about unemployment. Researchers tried to create practical programmes
for students besides regular studies.”
With regards to employed professionals, nearly all interviewed CCs are understaffed. Bristol University
Career Centre, for example, has the highest number of employees. In the words of its representative: “The
CC is divided into 3 sections: Career Guidance, Information Service, Contact with Employers. Each section has part-time
and full-time employees. At my department- Career Guidance, there are 5 full-time and 7 part-time employees‖. In
contrast, at the Zeppelin University CC, only one full-time professional and one part-time student take
care of 850 students. However, in the words of its head, they bridge the lack of employees with inventive
integration of Uni students, ―I use student teams for organizing and this also represents a kind of contact we have… I
have a team of 20 students who organize career fairs. They are organized just like a company.” As the case of Zeppelin
illustrates, also some other CCs seem to be quite innovative in their inclusion of volunteers. A Slovene
example is the CC at the University of Maribor; in the words of its representative, ―We try to get volunteers,
students that already have experience, and in return we give them a letter of recommendation or inform them of free positions
before others…”
With regards to cooperation with professors the interviewees emphasized that cooperation mainly
depends on professors‘ willingness and is mostly not organised or formalized. The practice of the
University of Bristol, where networking is established at the department level, can be highlighted as the
best cooperation. In the words of its representative, ―Usually they are prepared to involve some CC activities in
their classes, but it depends of each professor‟s personality”. The Faculty of Economics in Ljubljana is also a good
example of organised cooperation between the CC and professors, as: ―…each of the lecturers has a guidance
steering committee at the Quality Department, which strives to include training for employment in their subject. Professors
have contacts with companies and they sometimes invite guests from practice.‖
As the representatives of Ljubljana University CC stated, those CCs that are financed by the project that
ends in 2013 are in financial uncertainty after the end of EU financing. They all have a vision of their
future existence, but are unsure about funding. The representative´s of the CC of the University of
Primorska comment: “… this is going to be very difficult because we provide services to our students free of charge. If we
focus only on obtaining funds from projects, we may forget our fundamental mission, which is to work with our students.” All
Slovene CCs are in favour of future free services for students. They hope that theirs services will become
a University priority and will be financed by it, such as is the case in Germany.
7 Main CC activities
The structure and content of activities of the researched CCs are quite similar. All of them offer
information services, both in-person and through their websites. The information they provide students
includes: career centre services, internship presentations, providing information on free positions, events,
153
organising the alumni club. All career centres in our sample offer group and/or individual counselling,
career fairs, and exchange programme presentations (e.g. Erasmus, Leonardo Da Vinci, ISAC). CCs also
promote themselves to the students.
Another indispensable activity are workshops, which can be divided into two categories (1) skills
workshops (e.g. rhetorical skills workshops, job interview simulation workshops) and (2) useful learning
workshops (e.g. CV writing workshops, cover letter writing workshop, appropriate job searching
workshop, internship searching workshop). Nearly all CCs have workshops where they promote non-
obligatory internship, especially abroad and provide help with finding internships home or abroad.
Namely, motivating internships in students who are not yet decided on what they would like to do after
their studies helps kindle an interest, motivates and even provides a source of spontaneous career
guidance. Students who during their studies gain at least some experience in the field of their studies have
much less difficulty contacting potential employers (Dizdarević, Tuńar, 2011).
Establishing connections among students and (potential) employers is carried out through organized
career fairs, where potential employers and students/graduates can meet. The Bristol University CC
organizes thematic fairs, such as the law fair. The CC of the University of Maribor organizes a career fair
abroad in Austria, as described by the representative, ―As part of our cross-border cooperation with Austria, we
offered a Career Centre accompanying activity, namely the »Career Day", which included three sets of workshops related to
career development. At Zeppelin University CC, they contact companies all around the world if they want to
recruit their students. ―Sometimes employers come to the University and inform students of special career paths within the
companies.” At the Faculty of Economics, they encourage employers to examine students before
graduation.
8 Inventive activities
The CC of the University of Primorska is introducing ―coaching‖, with which it aims to follow US good
practices. The ―Entrepreneurial Challenge‖ competition, which challenges students to show their skills
and rewards them through employment, is also very innovative. As the representative said, ―…we are
searching for a company to implement the “Entrepreneurial Challenge”. The company would publish a challenge and
students/graduates would have the opportunity to solve the company‟s problem. The author of the best solution would then be
employed by the company as a reward‖.
The CCs at the University of Primorska, and, as we already mentioned, the University of Maribor organize
cooperation with partners abroad; the former with Italian and the latter with Austrian partners. Currently,
the University of Primorska is aiming to find an Italian multinational interested in working with the
FAMIT and FM faculties in Koper. As stated by the representative of the CC, they regularly monitor the
implementation of career counselling abroad. In his own words, “we ensure we monitor what activities are
implemented and transfer some examples of best practice into our won environment”.
Zeppelin University offers so-called ―Tandem Coaching‖, which connects each student with one
―important other professional‖. The connection is completely voluntary and based on agreement; the
coaching professional chooses the student in regard to his study and career preferences and introduces
him to his professional experiences and networks. As the head of the CC told us, ―…we have this mentoring
program and they meet at least twice a year. The aim or the goal is to get in contact with companies to help find a mentor who
also tries to provide the student with a job.
154
At Bristol University Career Centre, they organise a 3-day workshop for graduates. The coordinator
noticed that often students become aware of their situation with regards to the labour market after
graduation and when they start searching for a job.
As mentioned above, innovative practices are introduced also with the intention to resolve staffing
problems.
9 Analysis of student and employer needs
The interviews show that CCs meet the problem of disconnectedness between students/graduates and
potential employers needs and demands. The question remains how career centres know what the needs
of students and potential employers are. It could be said that student and employer needs should be
analysed more often and widely. Most interviewed CC are aware of this problem and organize roundtables
with potential employers to discuss theirs needs for potential highly educated employees. Some CCs
(Bristol University, University of Primorska) conduct annual surveys (or are planning to) or have regular
contacts with employers (See Table 1). At Bristol University Career Centre, one section is responsible for
discussing with employers the skills they miss in graduates. As the representative said: “…students are
lacking extracurricular activities, non-academic skills… from this point of view we introduced BRISTOL PLUS
AWARD, which helps students get non-academic skills from different fields.”
Various forms of regularly monitoring and reconciling the needs of students and employers should also be
highlighted as examples of best practice. Informing employers with regards to their involvement in CC
activities and the resulting expression of their needs and being informed with the needs of highly educated
potential job seekers is also often successful. At the same time, networking among employers and
potential job seekers via the CCs could also potentially contribute to including employers as potential
sources of CC fund. In summary, employers should more broadly be informed of the fact that as
mediators, CCs also operate in their benefit.
10 Conclusion and discussion
All interviewees are fully aware of the severity of the problems with which the graduates are confronted
with and are willing to help. All express a great deal of enthusiasm, as well. The younger ones were more
excited about interesting work and those more experienced feel the need to fulfill their professional
mission. The representative of the CC Uni Maribor reflects both motivations: » At our CC we have a vision to
become the most successful CC… CC essential activity should be to support the students… our vision is to provide students
with what they are missing… what study programmes don't give them«. Most of them also reported that the number
of students who are looking for help increase every year, even the first-year students have begun using
CC´s services regularly.
Both parts of the presentation document that we are dealing with very complex issue, which should be
discussed and solved with the participation of various actors, who are involved in production,
dissemination and efficiency of HE knowledge. Maybe the innovativeness which some CCs from
described sample have used to overcome their problems could be a good example for starting the
discussion.
155
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R. (Eds.), Competencies and Early Labour Market Careers of Higher Education Graduates in Europe. University of
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Higher Education. Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg, London, New York.
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satisfaction, and on-the-job search‖, Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 53 No. 3, pp. 434–452.
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2012).
156
PROMOTING THE USE OF GRADUATE SURVEYS. CATALAN UNIVERSITY
QUALITY ASSURANCE AGENCY TALE.
Anna Prades, Àrea d'Avaluació de la Qualitat, Spain
Abstract: There is no discussion about the fact that graduate surveys provide
valuable information for higher education institutions regarding their
effectiveness and the context in which they are involved. But once the data is
collected, once the reports are printed, do Higher Education Institutions use
these data to make decisions? Information on the results of graduate
employment does not generate change in itself. Based on 10 years of experience
(and 4 graduate surveys), this paper will explain how a Quality Assurance
Agency (QAA) tries to promote the use of graduate survey results. Three key
points are stressed: 1) A survey designed to make decisions, 2) Reports ad hoc
for key stakeholders and 3) The embedding labour market results in quality
assessment and accreditation. These points are necessary but not sufficient
condition for data-informed leadership in higher education institutions or
career services. The challenge is to foster a data-driven culture at all levels and
to assure that key stakeholders have the appropriate framework to interpret and
complement data, including between others, employment indicators.
In this paper is firstly discussed how employability fits in the quality assessment
framework. Secondly, the context and characteristics of the Catalan Graduate
survey is presented. Finally, the paper continues outlining three necessary steps
towards a data-driven culture that include employment indicators: designing,
reporting and embedding indicators in quality assurance processes.
1 Employability as a quality issue
The European quality evaluation movement began during the nineties as a consequence of the
massification of the university system, together with budgetary cutbacks and increased pressure on
institutions of higher education for accountability, in return for an increase in the autonomy of higher
education institutions. Since the beginning it became clear that quality was a polysemous construct, that
changed according to the different stakeholders and their interests, which raised the question ―whose
quality?‖ (Harvey & Green, 1993:10), and even the same person may adopt different conceptualisations at
different moments. To Van Kemenade et al quality needs first a clarification about the object: the quality
of ―what‖ are we talking about? (2008:176).
According to Vroeijenstijn it is a waste of time to look for a definition; quality is a matter of negotiating
between all parties concerned (1995:12). The author argues that Higher Education has always paid
attention to quality, the difference, Vroeijenstijn continues, is that formerly the attention to quality was
intrinsic and inward-oriented, leaving the outside world out.
Barnett (1994, cited in Tam 2001) describes the quality debate by different groups of actors in HE as a
power struggle, where each group tries to fight for their voices to be heard and taken into account when
assessment of quality are undertaken. Each of the different voices is valid, but none can be the only
legitimate voice to be heard. The Association of Dutch Polytechnics established, in 1993, at least six of
157
these legitimate voices: the formal or legal one (quality as complying with the legal regulations); the subject
discipline perspective (quality as what experts agree about in relation to their special field); business
economic perspective (quality in terms of results-oriented approach, effectiveness and efficiency),
consumer perspective (quality as matching the requirements and expectations of students), labour market
perspective (quality as relevance to the labour market, innovation and flexibility), organisation innovative
(quality as the ability to implement policy). Note that employability indicators, while more suitable to the
labour market perspective, could be useful in several of these perspectives, such us consumer perspective
or business economic perspective.
As the recent debates towards rankings, performance indicators or learning outcomes show, there has
been a progressive shift in the quality assurance movement from inputs and process towards outcomes,
towards measures about the efficiency of the system. This movement is evidence of changes in the
balance of power between different higher education stakeholders. Over the past two decades, the focus
has gradually expanded to include student success and outcomes, spurred on by the push for greater
efficiency. In the USA, the National Governors Association states that after years of investing in
information systems, now it is necessary to shift focus from input to outcome metrics and use those
metrics to make and evaluate policy decisions (NGA, 2011:4). There have been numerous attempts to
link funding to those metrics (performance indicators). However, history shows that despite the
undeniable interest in funding with the ability to demonstrate the quality of academic programmes
(performance funding), previous attempts have failed71. OCUFA (2006) attributes this phenomenon to the
fact that the desirability of performance funding in theory is matched by its difficulty in practice: there are
problems with them in terms of data reliability, and they do face the same challenges as rankings with
regard to offering valid information on the quality of higher education.
The real challenge of this shift is whether there is a real link between the outcomes measured or the
performance indicators and quality. Which is the link between an employment rate or permanent contract
rate and quality of teaching? Moreover, the expectations of the labour market will play a totally different
role in assessing philosophy or assessing electrical engineering. The criteria of the different partners may
actually be in conflict (Vroeijenstijn 1995:17).
This shift towards outcomes converges with the raising interest the European Union is paying to
employability. The employability is one of the pillars of the European labour strategy: the term
employability was introduced in the Regulation of 1988 about the structural funds and in the related
Regulation of 1988 of social background. Employability has also been underpinning the Bologna process:
the Sorbonne Declaration of 25th of May 1998 emphasised the creation of the European area of higher
education as a key way to promote citizens' mobility and employability and the Continent's overall
development. While employability is mentioned in almost all the Ministerial Conference Declarations and
Communiqués, it is particularly stressed - together with the need for data collection and transparency- in
the last two Ministerial Declarations. In the declaration of Louvain 2009 of the ministers responsible for
higher education, employability of university graduates is the third of the ten distinguished priorities in
71 In 1979, Tennessee was the first state of the USA where performance funding was started (Banta, 1985), and
the model then spread to other states with a peak just after 2000, when the balance began to tip towards the use of the performance reporting model, which does not link funding with results.
Another much recent example can be found in Australia. In 2009 the Government announced its intention to introduce performance funding of universities, one of which was the University Experience Survey, but in November 2011 the Australian Government announced that it would no longer allocate performance based founding based on student experience or quality of learning outcomes, including the University Experience Survey (Radloff et al, 2011).
158
higher education for the next decade. In the Bucharest Communiqué employability is the second out of
three main goals for the next years.
As a Quality Assurance Agency, the main aim of a graduate survey should be to be a useful tool to assist
degree programs and institutions in managing and enhancing the quality of university education.
Jeliazkova & Westerheijden highlight that the ultimate goal of all (quality) policies is to have target groups
―internalise‖ the modes of thinking these labels represent, so the objective would be to foster ―quality
awareness‖ or ―quality culture‖ within HEI (2001). In fact, the first basic principle of the Standards and
Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education states that ―providers of HE have
the primary responsibility for the quality of their provision and its assurance‖ ENQA (2005:13), which is
evidence of the belief that vesting greater responsibilities in HEI institutions should translate into
improved strategic leadership and management (EUA, 2006). Research on the field of HE shows that
―quality awareness‖ and ―quality culture‖ are becoming more or less mainstream modes of thinking.
Graduate feedback is crucial because of the need for an ―understanding of one‘s present market and
relative performance in key dimensions (to) enhance departmental planning and programme
development‖ (Martin et al, 2000). However, the complexity of the process of transition to the labour
market means that the results of employment surveys should be taken as a source of different types of
evidence, they should in no way be used out of context nor be used as determining factors for the
university‘s actions.
2 The Catalan Graduate Survey
Graduate surveys began to spread in Catalunya in the 80s. During the nineties, a total of six Catalan
universities surveyed in overall terms more than 21,000 graduates (Figuera and Vivas, 2000). Despite the
undeniable value of these studies, different methodologies were used (population definition, instrument,
etc.), making it impossible to obtain an overview of the Catalan university system or to establish a
benchmark to evaluate the results regarding graduate employment (Prades & Rodriguez, 2007).
In 2000, AQU Catalunya consequently set up a committee made up of experts on graduate employment
from each Catalan university which designed a common graduate survey and methodology (telephone poll
three years after graduation), based on the universities‘ prior experience.72 The first graduate job
placement survey coordinated by AQU Catalunya was carried out in 2001. The results (overall, at
program level and disciplinary areas) were published online. The database was sent to universities. The
favourable assessment given by all of the universities involved in the study on graduate job placement, as
well as the administration and media, led to a repetition of the joint survey with a periodicity of three years
(2005, 2008 and 2011). Table 1 shows population and sample figures of the 4 studies carried out so far.
72 Calculations were made to obtain the necessary sample with a sampling error per degree and university no
greater than 8%.
159
Table1: Population and sample according to different Graduate survey editions Population Sample Response rate Sample error
Survey 2001
(promotion 98)
21.146 9.766 46.19 0.70
Survey 2005
(promotion 01)
21.767 11.456 52.63 0.64
Survey 2008
(promotion 04)
23.023 12.258 52.24 0.61
Survey 2011
(promotion 07)
26.620 15.228 57.21 0.53
The transparency policy towards both the results and the database has prompted a considerable amount
of research. This has stretched considerably our knowledge of transition to labour market in Catalunya
(see, for example, AQU, 2008a ; AQU, 2008b; Corominas et al, 2010; Planas & Fachelli, 2010; Barà et al,
2010; Prades et al 2012)73.
Three Necessary Steps: Designing, Reporting and Embedding Indicators in Quality Assurance
Processes
Below three necessary steps are outlined in order to fulfil the main objective of graduates survey from a
quality assurance perspective: to be used to make (informed) decisions. These steps are necessary but are
not enough for themselves to assure a quality driven culture. The collaboration of HEI is necessary to
accomplish this ultimate goal.
2.1 Designing to make decisions: identifying stakeholders and indicators
The Catalan Graduate‘s surveys was designed to be valuable to the following four stakeholders (Prades &
Rodriguez, 2007):
a) The academic institutions themselves as a basic benchmark for university planning, assessment
and innovation at two levels:
- At the institutional level, graduate surveys can be used as a mechanism to collect
information on the development of and trends in the labour market.
- At the faculty or departmental level, programme specifications need to be compared with
the job functions of graduates, and the perceived gap in skills. Results should as well be used
to reflect upon the practical dimension of the curricula (coherence between student
internship and the actual situation in the labour market).
b) Career and employment services. Graduate‘s survey are a key information source (ways of
access to employment, main competency gaps, etc.). Career services need to have a good
understanding of how the transition to labour market works, both locally and internationally in
order to guide students in defining their professional careers.
c) Future students, students themselves and graduates; all of whom have the right to make
informed-decisions.
d) And finally, the government or the administration. As has been commented above Higher
Education efficiency regarding employability has been a priority of the European Higher
Education Area. Graduate surveys provide information about, whether there are too many
73 Currently under way research projects are listed in the following website:
http://www.aqu.cat/insercio/projectes_recerca_en.html
160
graduates, or which is the value added of higher education compared to other studies, or the
relative success of different kind of degrees, for example.
Therefore, the survey items were carefully selected taking into account these stakeholders needs, which
questions graduate surveys data answer.
2.2 Reports. When transparency is too much information.
Besides the overall report that AQU presents with the survey results to society, AQU Catalunya has
developed an application running in an SQL platform that generates massively reports in excel and pdf
format. As a whole, 320 reports are produced, which can be accessed through a menu selection (by degree
subject and university, by subarea or disciplinary areas or global results)…Each report has 20 sheets of
descriptive statistics (tables). All of them are available online
(http://www.aqu.cat/uploads/insercio_laboral/enquesta2011/index.html ). These reports provide useful
information to any stakeholder… who actually dares to analyse 20 sheets crammed with data. That
probably explains that in spite of the availability of data there has been a limited use of it: even the media
seems unaware of its existence. As Reed asks in a recent number of Education Nortwest Magacine
(2011:2) ―what good are all these data if (stakeholders) can‘t access them or don‘t know what to do with
them?‖. Considering the amount of money this kind of surveys cost this is not an idle question.
In the last edition AQU tried to overcome this problem by designing targeted reports, not longer that 4
pages, that include more graphs than tables, selecting and writing down main questions that were relevant
to stakeholders74. Table 2 shows the evolution of the reporting of Graduate survey results.
74 See, the following examples: A report designed to people in charge of the degrees of one specific university:
http://www.aqu.cat/uploads/insercio_laboral/enquesta2011/grafics_subarea/dega/urv/URV_Tecnologies_Avancades_de_la_Produccio.pdf.
One designed to career services of one specific university: http://www.aqu.cat/uploads/insercio_laboral/enquesta2011/grafics_subarea/serveis/urv/URV_Tecnologies_Avancades_de_la_Produccio_Tecnica.pdf
One for future students (regardless of university): http://www.aqu.cat/uploads/insercio_laboral/enquesta2011/grafics_titulacio/tecnica/Eng_Tec_Industrial_Quimica_Industrial.pdf
The universal report, with 20 sheets of tables and with the results of all universities who have in place the set degree: http://www.aqu.cat/uploads/insercio_laboral/enquesta2011/informes_titulacio/tecnica/Eng_Tec_Industrial_Quimica_Industrial.pdf
161
Table 2: Catalan Graduate Survey Reporting
2001 2005 2008 2011
Database
Descriptive data*
Executive summary
Techinical report
Report targeted to deans
Report targeted to career services
Report targeted to future students
Although AQU has been congratulated for the new ―digest‖ reports, we have no evidence whether this
information is actually used when making decisions. The National Governors Association, in the USA,
shares the same concern and wonders about accountability usefulness: ―Most states simply gather
accountability information and make it available without any clear plan for making it meaningful (2001:5).
Some of the Institute of Education Sciences recommendations on Using Student Achievement data to support
instructional decision making (2009), could be endorsed by Higher education institutions such as:
- Develop an information system: involve a variety of stakeholders in selecting a data system,
clearly articulate systems‘ requirements relative to users‘ needs, etc.
- Establish a clear vision of data use: develop a written plan, provide ongoing data leadership, etc.
- Make data part of an ongoing cycle of instructional improvement (collect, interpret and modify
accordingly).
- Provide supports that foster a data-driven culture within the institution: designate a facilitator who
meets with teacher teams to discuss data / dedicate structured time for staff collaboration //
Provide targeted professional development regularly)
2.3 Embedding Labour market results in Quality assessment and accreditation.
AQU Catalunya is currently implementing the Framework for the ex-ante assessment, monitoring, and
accreditation of recognised awards, the purpose of which is the life-long quality assurance and continuous
enhancement of degree courses. At the moment only the first two processes are fully developed and
accreditation is being drafted. Below can be found how employment indicators are used in each of these
three quality assurance processes:
a) In the ex-ante assessment of recognised degree programmes, in the Criterion II, justification
of the degree, the institution is encouraged to use professional outcomes of graduates in order to
show the social relevance of the degree75.
b) The monitoring of recognised degrees must enable the university to evaluate the development
of its degree programmes from the use of evidence such as learning outcomes and other
indicators (access, enrolment, satisfaction of the students, academic outcomes such us success or
drop-out rates, academic staff and graduate labour market outcomes). AQU Catalunya provides
the institution a set of labour market indicators (employment rate, match rate, stability/short-term
rate, earnings, etc.). The institution is asked to reflect upon the figures and draw up, if necessary,
proposal plans for improvement. Most of these indicators are available online in a web AQU has
75 See more information of this process at: http://www.aqu.cat/universitats/verificacio/index_en.html
11p
4p 11p
55p 101
4p 4p
4p 4p
4p
162
developed (http://winddat.aqu.cat/) that guarantees both their reliability and availability to all the
stakeholders76.
c) In the ex-post assessment (accreditation process) the employability is one of the criteria
sustainability of programs. The employability assessment will be based on the analysis of four
indicators: employment rate (as compared with LFS for the same range age), job suitability in
relation to university studies (as compared with similar studies), and the utility of both theoretical
and practical training between those who have university-level job functions (as compared with
similar studies)77.
The inclusion of these indicators, especially in the accreditation process, is feasible on account of the
Catalan Graduate Survey and its continuity. Nonetheless these indicators will be used, as Vroijenstejn
suggests, in order to raise questions, not to make decisions on the quality of the program. Of course, that
poses the dilemma whether these data will be taken seriously. Which only prompts the answer that
whether or not these indicators are used properly depends on the institutions themselves.
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Association of Dutch Polytechnics and Colleges (1993). The sectoral quality assurance project in the Netherlands.
The Hague: Association of Dutch Polytechnics and Colleges.
Banta, T., 1985, ‗Use of outcomes information at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville‘, New Directions for
Institutional Research, 47, pp.19-32.
Barà, J.(Coord); Rodríguez, S.(Coord); Prades, A.; Cazalla, C.; Bernáldez, L.; Castañeiro, S. (2010). Gender and the
labour market outcomes of the university population in Catalonia. Available in English
at: http://www.aqu.cat/doc/doc_26112694_1.pdf.
Corominas, E; Saurina, C; Villar, E (2010) The match between university education and graduate labour market outcomes
(education-job match). Barcelona: AQU Catalunya. Available in English at:
http://www.aqu.cat/doc/doc_12987231_1.pdf .
ENQA (2005). Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area. Helsinky: European
Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education.
EUA (2006). Quality culture in European universities: a bottom-up approach. Brussels: European University Association.
Available at: http://www.eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/quality_culture_2002_2003.1150459570109.pdf
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Harvey, Lee; Green, D (1993). Defining Quality. Assessment and evaluation in higher education, 18 (1), 9-34.
HSV (Swedish National Agency for Higher Education) (2011). The Swedish National Agency for Higher
Education‘s quality evaluation system 2011–2014 Stockholm: Swedish National Agency for Higher Education
(Högskoleverket). Available at: www.hsv.se/download/18.328ff76512e968468bc80004249/1103R-quality-
evaluation-system-2011-2014.pdf
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164
THE ROLE OF THE LEADERSHIP BY RUNNING A UNIVERSITY UNDER
UNCERTAIN CONDITIONS
Victor Pushnykh, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia
Abstract: Coping with new challenge requires the university to improve all the
processes inside a university including the ways on how the university is run.
For improving of those ways it is necessary to understand how the university
leadership works, to take a look at the roots of the leadership decision making.
In this paper a model of the leadership decision making under uncertain
conditions is presented. The model assumes the decision making as a way of
cultivating of the organisational culture corresponding to the values of the
leadership. Experimental results illustrating the mechanism of this cultivating
are displayed.
1 Introduction
Employability of the university graduates can be examined from various points of view. Very often
university graduates are treated as the parts of an economic mechanism, so their characteristics are
described similarly to ones for the machine parts being aimed to match the structure and the functions of
the particular enterprise or sector of industry. But the complexity of the modern world requires a graduate
to leave from the space of knowledge to the space of professional self-realization and life values. It creates
a new challenge for the universities.
Coping with this challenge hinges as well as any other sides of the university being on the university
organisational culture. One of the most important parts of this culture is the way on how this university is
run, other words, on the activity of the university leadership.
Corporate culture of an organization is the key element of the organisation‘s existence, and it gets a special
significance at the periods of instability and deep changes in the environment. There are many evidences
of this phenomenon. K. Cameron and R. Quinn quote data from the Fortune magazine (Cameron &
Quinn, 1999) according to which the most successful companies are neither the most well-known ones
nor the biggest or richest ones, but the ones which pay special attention to the development of their
organisational culture (Table 1).
Table 1: (data of 1995).
Company Financial return during 20 years, %
Southwest Airlines 21775
Wal-Mart 19807
Tyson Foods 18118
Circuit City 16410
Plenum Publishing 15689
These authors quote also one of the Ernst & Young researches. Ernst & Young has studied 584
automobile, computer, banking, and health care companies in the USA, Japan, Germany and Canada
which tried to implement the Total Quality Management system. The research showed that most of the
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companies studied failed in their attempts to implement the Total Quality Management system because
the implementation was not supported by the corresponding programs of the organisational culture
change.
B. Clark supposes forming a strong entrepreneurial organisational culture to be one of the key elements of
changes at a university targeted to cope with the challenges of the present epoch (Clark, 2004).
J.J. Duderstadt, under whose leadership the University of Michigan was transformed into one of the best
American public universities, writes that the main challenge by university transformation is change of
organisational culture rather than financial or structural problems (Duderstadt, 2003).
These and other authors (Bolman & Deal, 2003) highlight the special role of the leadership in the
formation of organisational culture of universities and give many examples confirming this role.
E. Schein (Schein, 1985) suggests that just reaction of the leader and his/her team to environmental
challenges forms the basic assumptions of an organisation. Duderstadt confirms the Schein‘s thesis
(Duderstadt, 2003) and demonstrated the critical role of the university president in deep changes at a
university.
M. Shattock shows that the personal leadership is of less importance for the university success than
creation of the organisational culture encouraging achievement of the common goals (Shattock, 2003).
Also, Shattock underlines importance of a balance between administrative goal-based culture and
academic value-based culture within a university. His opinion is that properly balanced organisational
culture provides a university with a substantial advantage over universities where such a culture is absent.
2 Theoretical approach
The leadership creates and develops the organisational culture by cultivating both explicitly and implicitly
of the certain values within the organisation. This cultivating is brought about by the decisions which are
made and are implemented by the leadership. In this context it is interesting to take a look at the roots of
the leadership decision making especially under uncertain conditions.
As a rule a university finds itself in uncertain conditions due to the deep changes in environment the
reaction to which cannot be logically defined on the basis of the previous experience of the university
being.
A leader has to trace the environmental changes with the special attention inasmuch as it is of great
importance for the strategy development. He/she is just that person within the organisation who is
bothered by environmental changes to the greatest extent. As the result the leader becomes some kind of
a barrier which protects personnel from uncertainty caused by new environmental challenges. The
corresponding decisions are developed and are made by a leader to response to these challenges
adequately. A process of the decision development can be organized by many various ways but the final
choice of the decision to be made belongs to the leader as well as responsibility for results of this decision.
If the decision was successful the organisation follows the same way in the similar situations. Being
repeatedly used this way of behavior imprints in the organisational mentality as a behavioral stereotype for
the certain situation, other words, it becomes an element of the organisational culture.
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Another question appears in this context: ―Why does the leadership choose just this decision among many
similar ones?‖
The answer to this question is that the decision to be chosen corresponds to the greatest extent to the
personal values of a leader, his/her internal way of the environment perception. So, we could say that the
decision making process of an organisation in uncertain conditions is the process of cultivation of the
leadership personal values into organisation. These leadership personal values become the values of the
organisation. Those members of an organisation who share the leader‘s values and vision approve the
decision made and realize it. Those who do not share implement the decision formally or struggle against
either explicitly or implicitly. Finally, it forms the organisation as a community of like-minded persons.
This circumstance is used very often by appointment of a new leader for an organisation or its subdivision
(since everything mentioned above can be applied not only to an organisation as a whole but also to the
subdivisions of the organisation).
If by changing of the leader it is supposed that the organisation (subdivision) performance is good and the
organisation shall follow the same way, the new leader are usually chosen from the working individuals of
the organisation (subdivision) because he/she is already integrated into organisational culture, share the
values of other people within the organisation, and, hence, he/she will be understood and accepted by
personnel.
If it is supposed that the organisation (subdivision) has to be changed revolutionary the new leader is
appointed as a rule outside of the organisation (subdivision). New leader will impose on the organisation
its own system of values which is different from the system existing within the organisation. It will
inevitably lead to the conflicts within the organisation resulted in changing of the organisational culture,
hence, in changing of the organisation as a whole.
3 Methodology
The crucial influence of the new leader on organisational culture and on organisation as a whole was
proved during the study of the organisational culture of Tomsk Polytechnic University and its
subdivisions. The Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) developed by K. Cameron
(Cameron & Quinn, 1999) was chosen for this research.
The model of organizational culture proposed in the OCAI presumes that the organisational culture of
any organisation consists in some proportion of four subcultures: ‗Hierarchy‘, ‗Adhocracy‘, ‗Family‘, and
‗Market‘. According to this model, the content of each subculture can be shortly described in the
following ways:
3.1 The Hierarchy culture
Organisation is concentrated on internal problems, stability, predictability, controllability, and efficiency.
All kinds of work are formalized and structured. Everything is governed by procedures, guidelines,
instructions that are mainly in writing. Orderliness is especially encouraged. Any employee can be passed
over for a reward if he/she achieved a success by violating the procedures, and can avoid penalty for a
loss by following all procedures precisely. Any changes in organisation are absolutely impossible without
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official changes of corresponding procedures, guidelines, and instructions. Leaders are proud of being
good coordinators and organizers.
3.2 The Market culture
Organisation is a result-oriented entity that is concentrated on interaction with the external environment,
stability, and controllability. The main task of both an organisation as a whole and each employee
individually is the achievement of planned goals by the fixed time. And these goals, as well as striving for
their achievement, hold an organisation together. As a rule, these goals are defined in quantitative
economic terms. For instance, to increase a profit by 15% by the end of the year, or to expand a market
niche twice. In this culture, the organisation emphasizes competition both outside and inside. Leaders are
tough and demanding competitors. Success is defined in terms of market winning.
3.3 The Adhocracy culture
This organisation is concentrated on flexible interaction with the external environment. It is characterized
as a dynamic, creative workplace where entrepreneurship and individual results are especially encouraged.
Employees incline to take initiative and risk, and independence and freedom are highly respected. Leaders
are also innovators and experimenters, and are respected for their creativity. The main task of both an
organisation as a whole and each employee individually is to be on a cutting edge of a problem and leader
in their area of expertise. Commitment to innovation holds an organisation together. Organisation feels a
need for complex challenging tasks. The criterion of success is in the possession of unique technologies,
products and services. It is supposed that readiness for changes and innovations are able to open new
resources and to increase a profit.
3.4 The Family culture
An organisation manifesting the family organisational culture looks like an extended family with perpetual
employment that has an informal approach to a work, a weak hierarchical structure, and an emphasis on
team management. The organisation focuses on internal problems and concerns of individuals. It is
sensible to the needs of a customer who is considered as a partner. In fact, it is a friendly-oriented place of
work where people share a part of themselves. Leader is perceived as paterfamilias with almost unlimited
rights and charges. The organisation is held together because of traditions and devotion to the family
values. Team work, commitment and consentaneity are encouraged. Great attention is given to the
development of personnel, solidarity, and a moral climate. Success is defined in terms of concern for
people and sympathy to customers.
In order to measure the portion of each of the four subcultures within the organisational culture,
personnel of an organisation are asked to complete the questionnaire developed by K. Cameron and R.
Quinn and adapted to the research of a university (Pushnykh, 2010).
4 Research results
University members have been questioned twice: first time in 2002 and second time in 2007. Just before
the first questioning the leaderships of two Schools at TPU – The Electrical Engineering Institute and The
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics - have been changed. It is worth mentioning that previous
leaderships worked for a long period of time and formed the certain organisational culture within their
Schools. So, the picture of the organisational cultures obtained during the first study showed the state of
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the cultures formed by former leaders while the second study showed how the cultures were changed
under influence of values of new leaders.
Organisational profiles demonstrating portions of each subculture in the whole organisational culture are
given on Figure 1 for the Electrical Engineering Institute and on Figure 2 for the Faculty of Natural
Sciences and Mathematics. On the figures the ―present‖ condition of the culture is shown by solid line,
the ―desirable for personnel‖ condition – in dashed line.
Figure 1: Organisational profiles of the Electrical Engineering Institute.
As one can see from the Figure 1 at the moment of changing (2002) of the director of the Electrical
Engineering Institute the organisational profiles were almost homogeneous and the difference between
―present‖ and ―desirable for personnel‖ conditions was small. It means that personnel was in general
satisfied with the existing situation though the academics would prefer lessening of Hierarchy and
increasing of Adhocracy that is lessening of administrative pressure for benefit of creativity.
New director of the Electrical Engineering Institute was invited outside. He was a famous researcher who
has dealt with higher education many years ago. He brought new market-oriented values which were not
apprehended by the academics of the Institute. It is illustrated by the Figure 1 (2007) which shows
organisational culture of the Institute after five years of new leadership. There are two main differences if
to compare with 2002. The first one is that the culture has been changed from the almost homogeneous
to the culture with very strong emphasis on Hierarchy which means per se a shift to dictatorial style of
leadership. This style came to contradiction with the way on how the personnel perceive the Institute (big
difference between ―present‖ and ―desirable for personnel‖ conditions` on the Figure 1 (2007). This
example shows the revolutionary changes within the organisations under influence of the outside invited
leader. It resulted in arising of a visible tension and conflicts among academics, worsening of the
psychological climate and other negative consequences in spite of the fact that the ideas which new
director had been trying to introduce were perhaps progressive. The academics being interviewed
mentioned their dissatisfaction with psychological atmosphere within the Institute as compared with the
previous leadership and directly connected this worsening of psychological atmosphere by the decisions
made by new director.
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Another situation emerged at of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics (Figure 2). There are
very small differences with organisational profiles for 2002 and 2007. New dean of the Faculty was elected
from the academics of this Faculty. He had been working for the Faculty all his life. He was highly
integrated into existing system of values at the Faculty.
Figure 2: Organisational profiles of the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics.
His leadership was based on long-term traditions, established relationships among academics, and other
attributes of the existing organisational culture. His colleagues being interviewed especially underlined
continuity of the leadership style; so, nothing has been changed under new leadership.
5 Conclusion
An influence of the leadership‘s decisions on organisation and its culture is a fact going without saying.
But all known evidences of this fact are narrative; they do not allow estimating the extent to which this or
that decision changes the organisational culture.
Now the direct experimental demonstration of influence of the leadership‘s decision on the organisational
culture of a university is presented for the first time. These experimental results allow not only proving the
influence of the leadership‘s decisions on organisational culture but also identifying the directions in which
the culture is changed as well as estimating the extent of change for the particular direction.
The methodology could be recommended for the university leadership as an instrument for assessment
and correction of the decisions aimed to the university advancing.
References
Cameron, K. S. and Quinn, R. E. (1999), Diagnosing and Changing Organizational Culture: Based on the
Competitive Values Framework, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, New-York, NY.
Clark, B.R. (2004), Sustaining Change in Universities: Continuities in Case Studies and Concepts, Open University
Press, London.
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Duderstadt, J.J. (2003), A University for the 21st Century, The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.
Pushnykh, V.A. (2010), Organizational Culture of the Russian and American Universities: comparative study, VDM
Verlag Dr. Mueller GmbH & Co. KG., Saarbruecken.
Schein, E. H. (1985), Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass Inc. Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
Shattock, M. (2003), Managing Successful Universities, Society for Research into Higher Education & Open
University Press, London.
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DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER QUALITY: RISING ABOVE STRUCTURES,
STANDARDS AND STEREOTYPING
Oon-Seng Tan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Abstract: Quality education through quality teacher has an issue of much debate
in recent years. Education researchers and policy makers have been looking at
educational reforms internationally to learn from the best performing
educational systems such as Finland, Korea and Singapore. How do we develop
teacher quality? Is it about creating structures for entry requirements,
recruitments and compensation? Is it about raising standards of accreditation
and accountability? In learning from the best systems can we replicate
successful types of practices and policies. This presentation provides a
perspective of teacher education and development from Singapore and
successful East Asian countries and argue that secrets of success in developing
teacher quality goes beyond the structures, standards and stereotypes. Using
case illustration the presentation focuses on the importance of teacher
symbolism, teacher calling, subcultures of professional care and development as
well as teacher leadership and inspiration. The paper conclude with
recommendation on how balance the big picture management of policies and
practices with the logos, ethos and pathos of teacher symbol.
1 Introduction
Almost fifty years ago, Singapore was a picture of poverty, insufficient natural resources and warring
ethnic populace. Today, it is one of Asia‘s great success stories with a leading finance industry, a global
hub for trade and transportation and listed as one of the world‘s high performing education systems. For
the past five years, Singapore has ranked among the top four countries in the world on the Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) science and math tests and the Progress in
International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) reading test. National assessments tell a similar story.
Ninety-seven percent of its students passed their sixth-grade ―leaving‖ exam in 2011. In 2007, McKinsey
& Co. released a study recognizing Singapore as one of the top performing educational systems in the
world. The said report highlighted three important factors that set top 10 performing school systems
apart: (1) getting the right people to become teachers; (2) developing them into effective teachers; and (3)
ensuring that the system is able to deliver the best possible instruction for every child. Its universities are
at par with the world‘s best. According to a survey by Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), both the Nanyang
Technological University (NTU) and the National University of Singapore (NUS) have improved on their
positions in a global ranking of universities in 2011.Oftentimes this city-state is frequented by educators
from around the world to learn how Singapore achieved its level of performance. The answer: developing
high-quality teachers.
Policymakers in Singapore have recognized early on that since it has few other resources, its viability as a
country depends on its people‘s ability to contribute meaningfully to the world. To achieve this, a solid
education is being invested to every Singaporean child. From the cornerstone of that system are effective
school leaders, good teachers and wise policy choices. Thus, Singapore has successfully developed a
comprehensive approach for recruiting, training, evaluating and compensating teachers.
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2 Teacher Symbolism and Calling
In 2009, NIE initiated a new Model of Teacher Education for 21st Century (TE21) in its endeavour to
develop a strong teaching force for the 21st century. TE21 presents recommendations that are intended to
enhance the key elements of teacher education, including the underlying philosophy, curriculum, desired
outcomes for teachers, and academic pathways. The new V3SK model, which stands for values3 (V), skills
(S), and knowledge (K), underscores the requisite knowledge and skills that teachers must possess in
meeting the challenges of the 21st century classroom. First, placing the learner at the centre of the
teacher‘s work. Second, building a strong identity as a professional. Third, service to the profession and
community.
Strong academic accomplishment is a pre-requisite for entry into the Singapore teacher training
programmes so it is understandable for many student teachers to be pre-occupied with learning the basic
skills of teaching. While such philosophy is important, having good classroom management skills or
content knowledge is not enough. Beginning teachers soon realise that they need a strong sense of inner
purpose and drive for the long haul. As a result Singapore‘s Ministry of Education (MOE) and the
National Institute of Education (NIE) have invested heavily to build up a strong sense of professionalism
among teachers. Perhaps the most challenging aspect of becoming a teacher involves understanding and
acting on the position of privilege and responsibility in nurturing the child. Learning to ―lead, care, and
inspire‖, as a vision for Singapore‘s teaching service, promotes and acknowledges that. By words and
deeds, teachers touch and shape the lives of their students. Teachers inspire their students to believe in
themselves and be the best they can be.
3 Teacher Leadership and Inspiration
Along with 188 other states, Singapore signed the Millennium Declaration on 8 September 2000, which
stipulated eight goals, universal education included, to be achieved by year 2015. Government leaders and
policymakers have acknowledged that for a nation to succeed members of the society must be encouraged
to achieve their full educational potential to prepare them citizens for a knowledge-based dynamic
technological society. Since 1950, teacher education in Singapore has been defined by its relevance,
responsiveness to changing local and global educational landscapes and is committed to ensuring the
highest standards of quality and excellence. Educational developments are geared towards responding to
the economic and social needs of the people and have continued to keep abreast of the latest
technological innovations. But beyond just the economic pursuit of developing individuals, according to
NIE Director Professor Lee Sing Kong, Singapore tries to maintain an educational system that adopts a
holistic approach that preserves national culture, identity, values rooted in family and community.
Teacher education in Singapore attempts to engage education with its multifaceted challenges by a matrix
of connectivity and alignment allowing for a balance of autonomy and optimal monitoring and resourcing.
Teacher education builds on MOE‘s well-grounded vision on education, which is the vision to become a
nation of thinking and committed citizens capable of contributing towards Singapore‘s continued growth
and prosperity, and capable of becoming creative thinkers, lifelong learners, and leaders of change. Having
recognized that the quality of teachers determines the quality of education, a strong strategic partnership is
needed between the key stakeholders - MOE, NIE, and schools - where each plays a distinct yet
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harmonizing role in achieving the desired outcomes of education. The collective strength of the three,
forming the Enhanced Partnership Model, aims to provide the necessary collaborative framework of
shared values and goals which are aligned to a unified outcome. It gives support as beginning teachers
transition from campus to schools, while enhancing the continued learning and professional development
pathways available to the teaching workforce. Another factor that has pushed for Singapore to excel in
education is its teacher evaluation system. The Enhanced Performance Management System (EPMS)
measures individual competencies to assess performance outcomes to evaluate career track, promote and
pay teachers. The EPMS represented an important shift from focusing teacher evaluation on observable
characteristics, such as subject matter expertise, classroom management, and instructional skills, to
emphasizing the underlying characteristics, or ―competencies‖, that lead to exceptional performance.
When Singapore‘s MOE uses the term ‗competencies‘, it is referring specifically to the underlying traits
and habits – patterns of thinking, feeling, acting or speaking – that cause a person to be successful in a
specific job or role. In short, it spells out the knowledge and skills requirements as well as professional
characteristics appropriate for each of the three tracks namely, the teaching track, the leadership track, and
the senior specialist tract.
4 Conclusion
The preparation of teachers in Singapore is regarded as a lifelong process. Singapore has achieved what
many countries have hoped for. It was able to attract the highest calibre of young people to the teaching
profession; train them at both the pre-service and in-service levels; and encourage a professional working
environment that propagates community respect and service. Furthermore, the TE21 framework
strengthens teacher education along the whole continuum from initial teacher preparation to teacher
professional development. These include reinforcing the learner-centred, professional-identity, and
service-orientated values that act as a scope for teachers; developing a set of initial teacher competencies
that articulate and commit what NIE will deliver to the schools; creating better nexus between theory and
practice, extending mentoring, and involving NIE faculty more deeply in schools; extending teachers‘
pedagogical repertoire to promote depth and engagement and use of new technology; and enhancing
teachers knowledge of assessment so that they can use best practices in developing and evaluating both
traditional and 21st century student outcomes.
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POVZETKI VSEH PRISPEVKOV
Paul Serban Agachi, Univerza Babeş-Bolyai, Romunija
Carmen Loredana Pop, Univerza Babeş-Bolyai, Romunija
Sonia Pavlenko, Univerza Babeş-Bolyai, Romunija
Camelia Moraru, Univerza Babeş-Bolyai, Romunija
Ukvarjanje z zaposljivostjo skozi strateško odločanje – izkušnja univerze Babeş-Bolyai
Razprava o zaposlitvenih moņnostih je na univerzah postala ključni dejavnik pri sprejemanju strateńkih
odločitev, ki stremijo k bolj kakovostnemu in ńtevilčnejńemu vključevanju diplomantov na trg dela. V
pričujočem prispevku bi radi predstavili ńtudijo, ki temelji na delovanju Univerze Babeş-Bolyai, s
poudarkom na treh temeljnih korakih v procesu strateńkega sprejemanja odločitev v povezavi z
zaposlitvenimi moņnostmi. Ti koraki so:
a) ozadje sprejemanja odločitev (ugotavljanje mnenj in izhodińč deleņnikov - diplomantov in
delodajalcev, stanja na trgu dela, zaposljivosti diplomantov, itd.);
b) odločitve sprejete z namenom izboljńati zaposljivosti diplomantov (odpiranje specializiranih
centrov, uvajanje novih tem v učni načrt, poudarjanje praktičnih sposobnostih, itd.);
c) preverjanje učinkov teh odločitev na diplomante.
Ta trojna perspektiva bo upońtevala kako univerze, trg dela in diplomanti s skupnim sodelovanjem
sooblikujejo izobraņevalno okolje, ki ponuja nadaljnji vpogled v proces sprejemanja odločitev posameznih
univerz, npr. Univerze Babeş-Bolyai.
Alenka Braček Lalić, Nacionalna agencija RS za kakovost v visokem šolstvu, Slovenija
Vzpodbujanje izboljšanja zaposljivosti diplomantov – vloga agencij za zagotavljanje
kakovosti
Predstavitev se osredotoča na raziskovalni doprinos agencij za zagotavljanje kakovosti k izboljńanju
zaposljivosti ńtudentov. Namen predstavitve je odgovoriti na naslednja vprańanja:
a) Kakńna je pri izboljńevanju zaposljivosti diplomantov trenutna vloga Nacionalne agencije
Republike Slovenije za kakovost v visokem ńolstvu?
b) Katere aktivnosti Nacionalne agencije Republike Slovenije za kakovost v visokem ńolstvu bi
lahko pripomogle k izboljńanju zaposljivosti diplomantov?
c) Kakńna bi bila lahko vloga Nacionalne agencije Republike Slovenije za kakovost v visokem
ńolstvu v prihodnosti?
Neda Bokan, Univerza v Beogradu, Srbija
Petar B. Petrović, Univerza v Beogradu, Srbija
Miša Ţivić, Študentska konferenca srbskih univerz, Srbija
Kako izboljšati zaposljivost diplomantov
Globalizacija trgov, tehnolońki razvoj, hitre spremembe gospodarskih in poslovnih okolij ter
povprańevanje po visoko izobraņenih posameznikih s specializiranim znanjem so povzročili premik na
trgu dela po vsem svetu. Ńtevilo diplomantov z različnimi akademskimi ozadji, sposobnostmi, veńčinami
in praktičnim znanjem narańča iz dneva v dan ter s tem dviga standarde in tekmovalnost na trgu dela.
Vendar v tem tekmovanju, diplomanti iz različnih drņav ne igrajo iste vloge. Navkljub tekmovalnosti pa
moramo vedeti, da je eden izmed osmih milenijskih razvojnih ciljev Zdruņenih narodov vzpostaviti sistem
globalnega partnerstva vseh drņav z namenom doseči načrtovani razvoj. V pričujočem prispevku
175
razpravljamo o nekaj vidikih razvoja gospodarstva in visokega ńolstva v Srbiji, ki so močno povezani z
zaposljivostjo diplomantov in izboljńavami na tem področju, govora pa je tudi o moņnih načinih za
dosego tekmovalnosti v okviru uresničevanja prej omenjenega razvojnega cilja.
Yuzhuo Cai, Univerza v Tampereju, Finska
Yulia Shumilova, Univerza v Tampereju, Finska
Zaposlovanje in profesionalne zmožnosti mednarodnih diplomantov finskih
visokošolskih ustanov
Po bolonjskem procesu in njegovih politikah, usmerjenih v povečanje privlačnosti evropskega visokega
ńolstva, postaja zaposlovanje mednarodnih diplomantov vse večji problem – tako v smislu vzpodbujanja
mednarodnih ńtudentov k visokońolskemu izobraņevanju kot tudi v smislu podpore razvijanju nacionalnih
trgov dela in gospodarske rasti. Vendar pa na področju zaposljivosti mednarodnih diplomantov v
kontinentalni Evropi ńe vedno obstaja raziskovalna vrzel. Ta članek predstavlja glavne rezultate raziskave
VALOA, ki je v letih 2011 in 2012 potekala na Finskem, osredotočala pa se je na prehod mednarodnih
diplomantov iz izobraņevanja v svet dela, prepoznavanje nekaterih ńibkih točk mednarodnega
visokońolskega izobraņevanja ter oblikovanje predlogov za nadaljno raziskovanje.
Julien Calmand, DEEVA, CEREQ, Francija
Jean-François Giret, IREDU, Univerza v Burgundiji, Francija
Christine Guégnard, IREDU, Univerza v Burgundiji, Francija
Diplomanti poklicnih šol v Franciji: Vključevanje v trg dela in družbena mobilnost
Vse večja poklicna usmerjenost visokega ńolstva na francoskih univerzah je prinesla narańčajoče ńtevilo
diplomantov in ustvarila nove priloņnosti. Naval poklicno usmerjenih diplomantov na trg dela odpira
vprańanje njihovih profesionalnih obetov v spreminjajočih gospodarskih in druņbenih okolińčinah. Ta
prispevek se osredotoča na prehod poklicno usmerjenih diplomantov na trg dela v obdobju gospodarske
krize, ńe posebej na druņbene koristi te vrste diplom v Franciji: kakńni so vplivi spreminjajočih
gospodarskih razmer in navala poklicno usmerjenih diplomantov na trg dela na njihov prehod in njihove
moņnosti druņbene mobilnosti?
Carmen Delia Davila Quintana, Univerza v Las Palmasu na Kanarskih otokih, Španija
Jose-Gines Mora Ruiz, Izobraţevalni inštitut, Univerza v Londonu, Velika Britanija
Luis E. Vila Lladosa, MC2, Univerza v Valenciji, Španija
Vzpodbujanje tridimenzionalnega vodenja pri delu s pomočjo razvijanja kompetenc v
visokošolskem izobraževanju
Raziskava skuńa ugotoviti vpliv delovanja visokońolskega izobraņevanja na kasnejńe vedenje diplomantov
na delovnem mestu v treh ključnih razseņnostih vodenja, ki so: v naloge usmerjeno vodenje, v odnose
usmerjeno vodenje in v spremembe usmerjeno vodenje. Profesionalne kompetence tu razumemo kot
mehanizem prenosa iz visokońolskega izobraņevanja v svet dela. S pomočjo večnivojskih modelov
meńanih učinkov (»Multi-level mixed-effects models«, MLMEM) in modelov strukturne enačbe
(»structural equation models«, SEM) na vzorcu 3500 diplomantov ńpanskih univerz ocenjujemo učinke
visokońolskega izobraņevanja in začetnih delovnih izkuńenj na razvoj profesionalnih kompetenc, ki
oblikujejo tridimenzionalno vodenje diplomantov pri delu. Rezultati kaņejo, da so posameznikove
sposobnosti v treh opazovanih dimenzijah vodenja odvisne od razvoja določenega nabora profesionalnih
kompetenc, ki so izbrane iz seznama 19 točk. Kompetence, povezane s tridimenzionalnim vodenjem,
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delno zagotavlja visokońolsko izobraņevanje, nadalje pa se razvijejo z začetnimi delovnimi izkuńnjami.
Analiza prispeva tudi k prepoznavanju tistih načinov poučevanja in učenja, ki močneje učinkujejo na
razvijanje veńčin tridimenzionalnega vodenja. Glavna ugotovitev je, da primerna količina prakse pri
visokońolskem ńtudiju lahko pozitivno vpliva na razvoj vodstvenih sposobnosti diplomantov v času
zaključka ńtudija, to pa nato izboljńa moņnosti nadaljnjega razvoja vodstvenih kompetenc v zgodnji karieri
in s tem poveča nagnjenje diplomantov k delovanju v skladu s tremi razseņnostmi vodenja v organizaciji,
v kateri se zaposlijo.
Alenka Flander, CMEPIUS, Slovenija
Kaj delodajalci iščejo, ko zaposlujejo naše diplomante?
Glede na to, da v Sloveniji primanjkuje analiz mnenj podjetij o mednarodni mobilnosti, smo v Centru RS
za mobilnost in evropske programe izobraņevanja in usposabljanja (CMEPIUS) pripravili raziskavo na
podlagi Finskega modela (CIMO, 2005). Namen je bil ugotoviti, ali mednarodna izkuńnja (ńtudij ali praksa
v tujini) v času ńtudija dejansko vpliva na odločitve slovenskih delodajalcev glede zaposlovanja. Spletni
vprańalnik smo poslali na 520 naslovov in prejeli 144 odgovorov (27,7 %).
38,6% odgovorov predstavlja javni sektor, 61,4 % pa zasebni sektor. Med prejetimi odgovori jih je bilo
največ iz področja izobraņevanja (28 %); trgovine in storitev (25 %) in drugih javnih, socialnih in osebnih
storitev (11,4 %).
Sodelujoče organizacije so bile predvsem podjetja (v skupnem 39,5 %), od tega 29,5 % majhnih in
srednjih podjetij (SME) z manj kot 250 zaposlenimi ter 10,7% velikih podjetij. Preostale vključene
organizacije so bile izobraņevalne ustanove (16,4 %) in druge javne ustanove (5,7 %).
Pri ocenjevanju kompetenc, ki so povezane z zaposlovanjem, so sodelujoči kot zelo pomembne ali
pomembne navedli naslednje: sposobnost kandidata (80,33 %); delovne izkuńnje ali praksa kandidata na
strokovnem področju (64,06 %); opravljanje ńtudijske prakse kandidata v podjetju v tujini (53,13 %);
splońne delovne izkuńnje (50,00 %); primerna stopnja izobrazbe (47,62 %); ńtudij v tujini (41.27 %); ter
izobrazba iz ustrezne ńtudijske smeri (39,68 %).
Skoraj tako pomembno kot izobrazba iz ustrezne ńtudijske smeri je dejstvo, da delodajalec kandidata
pozna (37,10 %) ali da pozna nekoga, ki je kandidata priporočil (43,55 %)
Pri ocenjevanju pomembnosti veńčin mladih diplomantov, so respondenti kot najpomembnejńe navajali:
odgovornost in sposobnost prenańanja odgovornosti (75,81 %); zanesljivost (75 %); sposobnost iskanja
informacij in njihove uporabe (73,44 %); sposobnost apliciranja znanja na drugačne in nove situacije
(79,97 %); sposobnost sodelovanja (69,35 %); ter proaktivnost (67,19 %).
V nadaljevanju bomo predstavili nekaj primerjav med nekaterimi skupinami delodajalcev (npr. med
malimi in srednjimi podjetji in javnimi ustanovami), da vidimo, ali so njihova pričakovanja glede zaņelenih
kompetenc podobna ali različna.
Primerjali bomo tudi nekatere rezultate iz slovenske in finske raziskave.
Christelle Garrouste, JRC - Evropska komisija
Margarida Rodrigues, JRC - Evropska komisija
Zaposljivost mladih diplomantov v Evropi
Izobraņevalni Svet je maja leta 2012 sprejel novo kategorijo (ET2020) v zaposljivosti diplomantov, ki
vključuje diplomante med 20. in 34. letom, ki trenutno niso vključeni v nadaljnjo izobraņevanje ali
usposabljanje in se zaposlijo v obdobju od enega do treh let po končani diplomi. Z uporabo istih
podatkovnih virov, t. j. letnih mikropodatkov Raziskave delovne sile (LFS) med letoma 2004 in 2010 in
»ad-hoc« podatkov iz leta 2009, to poročilo prikazuje oceno verjetnosti tovrstne zaposlitve glede na
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drņavo, drņavo in spol ter drņavo in ńtudijsko področje, in sicer posebej za obdobje pred krizo in po njej
ter ob upońtevanju individualnih in institucionalnih okolińčin vključno z reformami v izobraņevanju. Da bi
lahko razumeli naravo zaposlovanja mladih, smo za ņe zaposlene izračunali oceno verjetnosti, da je
njihovo delovno razmerje sklenjeno za nedoločen oz. določen čas in verjetnosti, da delajo s polnim
delovnim časom oz. z delovnim časom, krajńim od polnega.
Bénédicte Halba, Univerza Panteon – Sorbona v Parizu, Francija
Premoščanje vrzeli med univerzo in skupnostjo: ključ do zaposljivosti in kariernega
uspeha diplomantov – od projekta VAB do projekta ALLinHE
Mnoge evropske drņave se soočajo z visoko stopnjo brezposelnosti, ńe posebej med mladimi. Na eni
strani so diplomanti podvrņeni nepričakovanim teņavam na trgu dela, na drugi strani pa si ljudje brez
izobrazbe ali diplome prizadevajo za dostop do visokońolskega izobraņevanja, da bi izboljńali svoje
profesionalne moņnosti.
Namen Bolonjskega procesa, ki poteka na evropski ravni, je predvsem oblikovanje Evropskega
kvalifikacijskega okvira (EQF), ki s ciljem povezovanja nacionalnih kvalifikacijskih sistemov deluje kot
prevajalni aparat za laņje branje in razumevanje kvalifikacij v različnih drņavah in izobraņevalnih sistemih
v Evropi pa tudi med delodajalci. Vsaka posamezna evropska drņava si prizadeva predstaviti vsebino
diplomskih nazivov, vključno s pridobljenimi kompetencami in spretnostmi ter njihovo povezavo s trgom
dela (s predlagano vrsto zaposlitve)
Istočasno je Kopenhagenski proces predstavil Evropsko strategijo za povečano sodelovanje pri
poklicnem izobraņevanju in usposabljanju. Začetni in nadaljevalni program poklicnega izobraņevanja in
usposabljanja si delita isti cilj prispevanja k večji zaposljivosti in gospodarski rasti ter hitrejńemu odzivanju
na ńirńe druņbene izzive, predvsem vzpodbujanju druņbene povezanosti. Splońni cilj tega programa je
izboljńati kvaliteto poklicnega usposabljanja in spodbujanje posameznikov k ńirńi uporabi poklicno –
izobraņevalnih priloņnosti, naj si bo to v ńoli, visokem ńolstvu, na delovnem mestu ali na privatnih tečajih.
S tem delom ņelimo prikazati, da lahko premostitev vrzeli med univerzo in skupnostjo predstavlja izziv za
vzpodbujanje zaposljivosti in kariernega uspeha. Za diplomante je vključevanje neformalnega in
priloņnostnega učenja v prilogo diplomi eden od načinov lajńanja prehoda na trg dela. Za »potencialne«
diplomante je vrednotenje znanja, pridobljenega z neformalnim in priloņnostnim učenjem pot do
moņnosti vključitve v visokońolsko izobraņevanje in nadgradnje svojih izkuńenj z diplomo za izboljńanje
svojih poklicnih moņnosti.
Premostitev vrzeli med univerzo in skupnostjo je dvosmerni proces. Po eni strani bi morali imeti
diplomanti moņnost opremiti svoje diplome z ostalimi izkuńnjami (profesionalnimi, druņbenimi,
osebnimi), pridobljenimi kot dopolnitev njihovega ńtudijskega programa. Vztrajali bomo pri obvezni
podpori, ki mora biti ponujena diplomantom, da bi olajńala njihovo poklicno integracijo in karierni uspeh
z uvajanjem/uvedbo projekta Leonardo da Vinci, Valunig Experience beyond University (VAB).
Po drugi strani bi moralo biti vključevanje v visokońolsko izobraņevanje pri javnosti vzpodbujeno s
posebnimi profili za povečanje jasnosti in dostopnosti strategij VPL. Sledi predstavitev Erasmus projekta
ALLinHE, ki se osredotoča na večnamenski VPL model (ki vključuje tako formativni kot sumativni
pristop) in predlog primerjalne analize VPL metod in pristopov k (ciljnim) skupinam, ki so slabo
zastopane v visokońolskem izobraņevanju.
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Anna Horvath, EACEA - Eurydice
Merjenje zaposljivosti na področju visokega šolstva v Evropi: viri, omejitve in možnosti
V predstavitvi se ukvarjamo z vprańanji, ki izhajajo iz poglavja o učinkih in zaposljivosti v poročilu o
izvajanju Bolonjskega procesa. Poročilo, pripravljeno za letońnjo ministrsko konferenco v Bukareńti, je
rezultat skupnega dela organizacij Eurostat, Eurydice in Eurostudent pod nadzorom skupine za
spremljanje uresničevanja bolonjskega procesa (Bologna Follow-up Group). Prispevek predstavlja nekaj
glavnih ugotovitev tega poročila ter izpostavlja nekatere probleme in dileme, s katerimi so se srečali
avtorji, ko so poskuńali opisati zaposljivost diplomantov v Evropi. V teh okvirih bomo skuńali odgovoriti
na naslednja vprańanja: Kaj dejansko merijo obstoječi podatki? Kakńne so omejitve in ńibke točke
obstoječih podatkov? Kaj v kolektivnem razumevanju zaposljivosti manjka? Na koncu bodo predstavljene
moņnosti nadaljnega poročanja o tej temi na evropski ravni.
İnci Kayhan Kuzgun, Univerza Hecettepe, Turčija
Usposabljanje študentov pri delu kot instrument za vzpodbujanje zaposljivosti
diplomantov: predlog za Turčijo
Usposabljanje na delovnem mestu za ńtudente je bilo uporabljeno kot tradicionalno sredstvo za
povečevanje zaposljivosti diplomantov v povezavi s povprańevanjem na trgu dela. Čeprav je pripravnik
koncept, ki je povezan s s trgom dela v Turčiji, vseeno nima celovito izdelane pravne podlage. Ńtudija je
razdeljena v tri odseke. Prvi odsek predstavlja kratek pregled obstoječe literature povezane z
zaposljivostjo diplomantov. V drugem odseku je regulacija usposabljanja na delovnem mestu za ńtudente
predlagana kot sredstvo za povečanje zaposljivosti diplomantov v Turčiji. S tako postavljenim okvirom,
smo značilnosti, izvedbo in sestavo predloga preučili v pod–sekcijah. Značilnosti predloga so bile
obravnavane kot sledi spodaj:
a) sredstvo aktivne zaposlitvene politike
b) celostna strategija za vzpodbujanje ńtudentov h gospodarskim aktivnostim
c) utemeljenost na modelu dinamičnega povprańevanja
d) utemeljenost na prostovoljnem sodelovanju med univerzami in podjetji v Turčiji
e) ujemanje s konceptom javno-zasebnega partnerstva.
Uspeńnost predlaganega instrumenta je bila obravnavana na individualni, institucionalni in druņbeni ravni.
Usposabljanje pripravnika lahko obravnavamo kot model za oblikovanje usposabljanj za ńtudente na
delovnem mestu:
a) kot kriterij se uporablja velikost podjetja
b) strońke izvajanja financirajo podjetja
c) premije dveh vej socialne varnosti so bila plačana iz proračuna univerz.
Glavni zaključek je bil obravnavan v tretjem poglavju.
Mareike Landmann, Univerza v Kölnu, Nemčija
Zahteve profesije učitelja in sposobnost diplomantov, da te zahteve izpolnijo – potencial
rezultatov sledilnih raziskav za evalvacijo izobraževanja učiteljev v zvezni deželi North-
Rhine-Westphalia v Nemčiji
Ta članek opisuje zasnovo za evalvacijo izobraņevanja učiteljev v Nemčiji v povezavi s standardi za
izobraņevanje učiteljev. Te standarde je leta 2004 in 2008 objavila nemńka Stalna konferenca ministrov za
izobraţevanje in kulturne zadeve. Članek se nadaljuje z razpravo o učinku zasnove raziskave na moņnosti in
omejitve rezultatov za evalvacijo ńtudijskih programov na področju izobraņevanja učiteljev na univerzah v
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zvezni deņeli North-Rhine-Westphalia. Za obdelavo teme standardov izobraņevanja učiteljev in ustrezne
kakovosti ńtudijskih programov na tem področju s pomočjo sledilnih raziskav v Nemčiji, je bila v okviru
nemńkega Projekta sodelovanja raziskav s sledenjem diplomantom (KOAB) razvita lestvica zahtev
učiteljske profesije. Ta članek predstavi drugo in končno različico lestvice ter rezultate druge različice. Ti
kaņejo, da se pripravljanje diplomantov na izpolnjevanje zahtev učiteljske profesije razlikuje na različnih
področjih učiteljskih aktivnosti. Ujemanje med zaznanimi zahtevami in samo-ocenjenimi sposobnostmi za
izpolnjevanje teh zahtev na različnih področjih je odvisno tudi od ńtudijskega programa oziroma vrste
ńole, za katero ńtudijski program pripravlja učitelje. Za osvetlitev vprańanja o dejanski stopnji uporabnosti
teh rezultatov za evalvacijo izobraņevanja učiteljev ali prilagajanje ńtudijskih programov, je raziskovalna
metodologija evalvacije preučena na podlagi splońnih značilnosti evalvacije kot jih je opredelil Chelimsky
(1997). Razumevanje vrste izvedene evalvacije, definirano z njenim namenom, naj bi izpostavilo potencial,
a tudi omejitve tega projekta evalvacije izobraņevanja učiteljev v zvezni deņeli North-Rhine-Westphalia v
Nemčiji.
Giunio Luzzatto, Univerza v Genovi, Italija
Stefania Mangano, Univerza v Genovi, Italija
Roberto Moscati, Univerza Bicocca v Milanu, Italija
Maria Teresa Pieri, Univerza v Genovi, Italija
Zaposljivost in kompetence univerzitetnih diplomantov v Italiji
Iz podatka, da se 60 odstotkov italijanskih diplomantov vpińe neposredno na programe magistrskega
ńtudija, javnost pogosto domneva, da je to posledica zelo omejenih zaposlitvenih moņnosti teh
diplomantov. V prispevku dokazujemo, da tej domnevi nasprotujejo obstoječi podatki o stopnjah
zaposlenosti, ki kaņejo zelo majhno razliko med stopnjami zaposljivosti po pridobitvi dodiplomske in
podiplomske izobrazbe. Stopnja zaposlenosti diplomantov, ki po zaključku ńtudija ińčejo delo, je visoka,
delajo pa tudi mnogi od tistih, ki so vpisani na podiplomske ńtudijske programe. Vendar pa delodajalci
pogosto pripomnijo, da so univerzitetni diplomanti dobro pripravljeni na svojem strokovnem področju,
manjka pa jim splońnih kompetenc. S pomočjo analize odgovorov na vprańalnik, ki je bil poslan
vodstvom univerzitetnih ńtudijskih programov, smo raziskali splońne competence, ki jih kot rezultat
ńtudija opisujejo učni načrti italijanskih univerz. Tu predstavljamo nekatere ugotovitve.
Gregory Makrides, Univerza na Cipru, Ciper
Razvoj pisarn za odnose med akademsko in gospodarsko sfero na univerzah na Cipru –
kakovost delovne prakse in pripravništva – rezultati projekta INENTER
Eden izmed velikih projektov Evropske znanstvene fundacije (ESF), v katerem vse ciprske univerze
sodelujejo v Konzorciju, je zgoraj omenjeni projekt, ki se je začel leta 2009 in naj bi bil zaključen do
konca leta 2014. Projekt koordinira Univerza na Cipru, ki je glavna javna univerza v drņavi.
Cilji projekta obsegajo negovanje tesnejńih povezav z gospodarstvom za skupne projekte, promoviranje
nadgrajevanja raziskovalnih prizadevanj gospodarstva in nadgrajevanja infrastrukture ter podpiranje in
promoviranje izvajanja ńtudijske delovne prakse, pripravnińtva in vključevanja mladih raziskovalcev v
industrijo.
Ker je povezava z industrijo na področju raziskovanja in usposabljanja omejena, je projekt usmerjen tudi
v povečanje prilagodljivosti podjetij in zaposlenih spreminjajočemu trņnemu okolju ter povezovanju z
akademsko sfero. To naj bi pripomoglo tudi k restrukturiranju gospodarske in akademske sfere v skladu s
prihodnjimi izzivi na trgu dela ter k razvoju inovativnih metod snovanja poslovnih in zaposlitvenih praks
na drņavni ravni.
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Na evropski ravni so pričakovani učinki projekta prispevanje k povečanju ńtevila in kakovosti delovnih
mest, izboljńanju spretnosti in inovativnosti z namenom razvoja ter prilagoditvi sistemov izobraņevanja in
usposabljanja novim potrebam na trgu dela.
Ciljna skupina so ciprska podjetja v vseh sektorjh in na drņavni ravni, ciprski raziskovalci in ńtudenti ter
ciprske visokońolske ustanove. V prispevku bo predstavljena struktura projekta, njegova vsebina in načrt
izvajanja, izzivi s katerimi se srečuje, napredek v izvedbi ter rezultati.
V povezavi s cilji uradov za podporo delovne prakse ńtudentov je evropsko financiran projekt
INENTER, ki poteka do konca septembra 2012, prinesel rezultate, ki bodo predstavljeni v prispevku.
Minoru Nakayama, Tokijski inštitut za tehnologijo, Japonska
Študija primera vplivov ekonomskih dejavnikov na zaposlovanje japonskih diplomantov
inženirstva
Na zaposlenost univerzitetnih diplomantov lahko vplivajo gospodarsko okolje, panoņna struktura in
druge okolińčine. Navkljub ugotovitvi, da diplomanti inņenirstva ińčejo zaposlitev v proizvodnji in
sorodnih panogah, njihovo zaposlovanje ni omejeno na ta sektor. Z uporabo zaposlitvenih statistik
diplomantov različnih znanstvenih in tehnolońkih ńtudijskih programov japonske drņavne univerze na
diplomski, magistrski in doktorski stopnji se je med letoma 1985 in 2010 v petletnih intervalih izvajala
ńtudija primera. Rezultati kaņejo, da določena podjetja nadaljujejo z zaposlovanjem diplomantov, v
spremenjenih poslovnih razmerah pa so se spremenile preference diplomantov glede industrijskega
sektorja. Letne statistike diplomantov inņenirstva in industrijski sektorji, v katere ti vstopajo, so bili
preučeni s pomočjo multivariantne analize. Glede na panoge in ńtudijske oddelke so bile oblikovane
dvodimenzionalne lestvice. Izkazalo se je, da so se razmerja med univerzitetnimi oddelki, industrijskimi
sektorji, ńtudijskimi stopnjami in letom zaključka ńtudija skozi leta spreminjala. O dejavnikih, ki so to
povzročili, razpravljamo v kontekstu sprememb in razmerja med njimi.
José Navarro, GRET – Avtonomna Univerza v Barceloni, Španija
Sandra Fachelli, GRET – Avtonomna Univerza v Barceloni, Španija
Od rasti do krize: univerzitetne poti in vstop na trg dela
Ta članek se osredotoča na ugotovitve tipolońke analize prehajanja diplomantov katalonskih javnih
univerz v zaposlitev v letih 2004 in 2007. Podatki izhajajo iz periodične raziskave o rezultatih
diplomantov katalonskih univerz na trgu dela, ki jo je izvajala Agencija za zagotavljanje kakovosti
katalonske univerze (AQU). Za razlikovanje med diplomanti iz leta 2004 (intervjuvanimi v prvem
četrtletju 2008), ki so na trg dela prehajali v času gospodarske rasti v Ńpaniji, in tistimi iz leta 2007
(intervjuvanimi v začetku leta 2011), ki so diplomirali pribliņno leto pred začetkom gospodarske krize, je
bil v raziskavo vključen primerjalni element. Čeprav lahko lahko v splońnem zaznamo upadanje stopnje
zaposlenosti, med ņe zaposlenimi diplomanti prve in druge kohorte nismo odkrili razlik.
Ashly H. Pinnington, Britanska Univerza v Dubaju, Zdruţeni Arabski Emirati
Diplomanti, ki najdejo zaposlitev, ki jo je težko dobiti
Literatura o karierah ponuja ńiroko paleto različnih pogledov na prehod iz visokońolskega izobraņevanja v
svet dela in zgodnje stopnje kariernega raziskovanja. Mnoge razlike med temi pogledi odsevajo
spremembe na trgih dela in v ńirńem druņbenem okolju. Tekom zadnjih desetletij so se teoretični karierni
modeli odmaknili od osredotočenosti na ―mońke‖ vzorce dela s ciljem boljńega razumevanja raznolikosti v
vzorcih dela in spreminjajočih konceptih kariere.
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Prispevek predstavlja ugotovitve raziskav med diplomanti v zgodnjih fazah kariere, ki doņivljajo različne
stopnje uspeńnosti pri pridobivanju zaposlitve in dela na izbranem področju. Osredotoča se na
diplomante, ki so v kariernem iskanju manj uspeńni. Ti imajo po pridobitvi formalne izobrazbe teņave z
iskanjem primerne plačane zaposlitve in pri razvijanju vitalne kariere ne dosegajo občutnega napredka. To
je skupina ljudi, ki naj bi bili najbolj potrebni aktivne podpore visokońolskih institucij, tako pri iskanju
zaposlitve, kot tudi pri začetnem in nadaljnjem kariernem razvoju.
Obseņna kvantitativna raziskava in sekundarna analiza, predstavljena s strani raziskovalcev na prvi
konferenci DEHEMS (WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, 22. in 23. september 2011), je
razkrila nekaj prepoznavnih vzorcev zaposljivosti glede na diplomske teme in poklice. Diplomanti, ki se
ne uspejo zaposliti na svojih strokovnih področjih in ki zamenjajo več zaporednih kratkotrajnih in
razmeroma slabo plačanih zaposlitev, predstavljajo z vidika potrebne podpore izziv za visokońolske
institucije. Nacionalna gospodarstva, druņbe, zaposlovalci, diplomanti in njihove druņine bi vsi lahko
pridobili z institucionalnimi iniciativami, ki bi izboljńale moņnosti diplomantov za pridobitev primerne
zaposlitve in delovnih izkuńenj. Te torej predstavljajo veliko priloņnost za zgodnji karierni razvoj, ki nato
zahteva tudi aktivno individualno vključevanje in določeno stopnjo improvizacije novih diplomantov.
Izzivi, s katerimi se srečuje ta skupina diplomantov, usmerjajo pozornost na vlogo kariernega svetovanja,
ki vključuje pripravo veńčin za iskanje zaposlitve, kot tudi spoznavanje dejanskih delovnih nalog in
delovnih mest pred zaključkom ńtudija. Kaņejo tudi potrebo po natančnejńih in bolj odzivnih podatkih o
prostih delovnih mestih skupaj s svetovanjem o praktičnih načinih ustvarjanja lastnih zaposlitvenih
priloņnosti in karierne rasti. Vse to postane ńe posebej pomembno pred zaključkom ńtudija in takoj po
njem. Tako starńi, kot tudi drugi druņinski člani, lahko vplivajo na mlade diplomante, ki pogosto
potrebujejo pomoč pri spoznavanju realnosti in izzivov, s katerimi se soočajo. Jasni jim morajo biti
praktični pomisleki, kot je na primer vińina plač v domači regiji v primerjavi z drugimi regijami, da lahko
svoje znanje in razumevanje uporabijo v skladu s trenutnim delovnim okoljem. Visokońolsko
izobraņevanje, delodajalci, vladne ustanove in medijske organizacije lahko pomagajo pri zagotavljanju teh
informacij.
Danuta Piróg, Pedagoška Univerza v Krakovu, Poljska
Prehod iz visokošolskega izobraževanja na trg dela na Poljskem: primer diplomantov na
področju geografije
V tem delu je predstavljen del empiričnih raziskav o procesih prehajanja diplomantov geografije na trg
dela v obdobju ńestih mesecev od zaključka ńtudija. Namen raziskave je bil diagnosticirati poloņaj
diplomantov geografije na trgu dela glede na njihove ņelje, pričakovanja in načrte v zvezi s trgom dela. To
preverjanje zajema načrtovana in dejanska delovna mesta, načrtovana in dejanska merila selekcije,
pričakovana in dejanska merila zaposlovanja ter pričakovano in prejeto vińino prihodkov.
Ńtudija prikazuje, da je prehod diplomantov geografije na trg dela na Poljskem zapleten in zahteven
proces z delnim uspehom, ki pa se precej razlikuje od pričakovanj in ņelja, ki jih imajo diplomanti
geografije ob koncu svojega ńtudija.
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Pittia P., Fakulteta za kmetijstvo in Oddelek za ţivilstvo, Univerza v Teramu, Italija
Silva C.L.M., Visoka šola za biotehnologijo, Katoliška univerza na Portugalskem, Portugalska
Costa R., Visoka kmetijska šola, Politehniški inštitut v Coimbri, Portugalska
Schleining G., Oddelek za ţivilsko znanost in tehnologijo, Univerza za naravne vire in naravoslovje na Dunaju, Avstrija
Dalla Rosa M., Oddelek za ţivilstvo, Alma mater studiorum, Univerza v Bolonji, Italija
Projekti in omrežje organizacije ISEKI_Food: strategije in aktivnosti za implementacijo
veščin in zmožnosti prihodnjih generacij diplomantov na področju živilstva
Mreņa ńtudijskih programov na področju ņivilstva je bila z dolgoročnim ciljem oblikovanja učinkovitih
orodij in smernic za promocijo evropskega visokońolskega področja (EHEA) ņivilstva ustanovljena leta
1998. Temu cilju na mednarodni ravni sledi z nenehnim obnavljanjem omreņij s podporo programa
Erasmus na evropski ravni in ńirńe s podporo programa Erasmus Mundus. Vse dejavnosti, pripomočke in
gradivo vzdrņuje neprofitna organizacija ISEKI Food Association (IFA), ki s svojo mednarodno mreņo
dosega vse kontinente. Tako je bilo razvitih več orodji, med katerimi so najpomembnejńa: ńtevilne baze
učnih načrtov, učnih materialov in deleņnikov na področju ņivilske industrije; mednarodni revija in redno
izdajanje knjig z mednarodnim zaloņnińtvom; periodična mednarodna konferenca o povezovanju
izobraņevanja, raziskovanja in gospodarstva; standard kakovosti za ńtudije ņivilstva in prehrane (EQAS);
partnerstvo pri ostalih raziskovalnih in izobraņevalnih projektih.
Darka Podmenik, Inštitut za razvojne in strateške analize (IRSA), Slovenija
Ivana Čančar, Inštitut za razvojne in strateške analize (IRSA), Slovenija
Pomen kariernih centrov kot posrednikov med visokošolskimi študenti in njihovimi
potencialnimi delodajalci
Prvi del članka poroča o narańčujočem trendu negotovih zaposlitvenih obetov diplomantov, ńe posebej
tistih iz t. i. mehkih visokońolskih ńtudijskih programov. Podatki dveh različnih raziskav – obńirnega
mednarodnega projekta HEGESCO in ńtudije primera slovenskih ńtudentov – so uporabljeni za
preverjanje hipoteze, da bi moralo tako visokońolsko izobraņevanje kot ńtudentje sami več vlagati v
veńčine in kompetence, potrebne za supeńen prehod iz visokońolskega izobraņevanja v svet dela.
Drugi del se osredotoča na karierne centre, ki za nekatere drņave, kakrńna je Slovenija, predstavljajo novo
obliko usposabljanja ńtudentov. Glavni sklepi ńtudije primera kariernih centrov so: karierni centri imajo
vlogo mediatorjev med ńtudenti oz. diplomanti, visokońolskimi izobraņevalnimi institucijami in
delodajalci; karierni centri uporabljajo inovativne načine usposabljanja ńtudentov za zaposlitev po
zaključku ńolanja. S predstavniki petih slovenskih, dveh nemńkih in enega britanskega kariernega centra so
bili opravljeni polstrukturirani intervjuji. Glede na inovativnost in učinkovitost kariernih centrov ter
primerjavo med njimi so bili opazovani karierni centri razdeljeni v dve skupini: na tiste, ki predstavljajo t.
i. dobro prakso, in tiste, ki so ―povprečni‖. Potrebna je razprava o tem, katere od aktivnosti ―dobrih
praks‖ so prenosljive in uporabne za uspeńnejńe delovanje kariernih centrov nasploh.
Anna Prades, Agencija za zagotavljanje kakovosti Univerze v Kataloniji, Španija
Vzpodbujanje uporabe raziskav med diplomanti – zgodba Agencije za zagotavljanje
kakovosti Univerze v Kataloniji
O dejstvu, da raziskave med diplomanti institucijam visokońolskega izobraņevanja nudijo dragocene
informacije o njihovi učinkovitosti in okviru, v katerega so vključene, ni razprave. Toda ko so podatki
zbrani in poraočila natisnjena, kako institucije uporabljajo te podatke pri sprejemanju odločitev? Zgolj
informacije o zaposlovanju diplomantov same po sebi ne povzročajo sprememb. Na podlagi desetletnih
izkuńenj in ńtirih raziskav med diplomanti bo skuńal ta prispevek razloņiti, kako si agencija za zagotavljanje
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kakovosti prizadeva za uporabo rezultatov tovrstnih raziskav. Izpostavljene so tri ključne točke: 1)
raziskava, zasnovana za sprejemanje odločitev, 2) nujnost oblikovanja poročil za deleņnike in 3)
vključevanje rezultatov iz trga dela v ocene kakovosti in akreditacije. Te točke so nujen, ne pa zadosten
pogoj za s podatki utemeljeno vodenje visokońolskih institucij ali kariernih centrov. Izziv predstavlja
vzpodbujanje na podatkih utemeljene kulture na vseh ravneh in zagotavljanje, da imajo deleņniki
primerno ogrodje za interpretacijo in dopolnjevanje podatkov, med drugim tudi z zaposlitvenimi
indikatorji. Končni cilj zagotavljanja kakovosti je ―samo-regulacija‖ institucij, ki so ponotranjile načine
razmińljanja na podlagi kakovosti.
Victor Pushnykh, Politehniška univerza v Tomsku, Rusija
Pomen vodenja pri upravljanju univerze v negotovih okoliščinah
Premagovanje novih izzivov zahteva izboljńanje vseh procesov, ki potekajo v okviru univerze, vključno z
načinom vodenja univerze. Za izboljńanje teh načinov je treba razumeti, kako deluje vodenje univerze in
spoznati temelje vodstvenega sprejemanja odločitev. V tem prispevku je predstavljen model vodstvenega
sprejemanja odločitev v negotovih okolińčinah. Model predpostavlja, da je sprejemanje odločitev način
kultiviranja organizacijske kulture v skladu z vrednotami vodenja. Predstavljeni bodo eksperimentalni
rezultati, ki prikazujejo delovanje tega kultivacijskega mehanizma.
Péter Róbert, Inštitut za politične vede HAS, Univerza Szechenyi, Madţarska
Spremembe v neujemanju zaposlitve in neujemanju znanja pri zaposlovanju
diplomantov v štirih novih članicah EU
Članek raziskuje neujemanje kvalifikacij in trenutne zaposlitve mladih diplomantov v ńtirih post-
komunističnih druņbah: v Sloveniji, na Poljskem, v Litvi in na Madņarskem. Neujemanje je
operacionalizirano na objektiven in subjektiven način: delo na delovnem mestu, kot je definirano z
uradnim nazivom na eni strani in evalvacija delovnega mesta z vidika področja ńtudija na drugi.
Analiza razkriva nekoliko slabńe izhodińče ņensk ter občutne razlike glede na starńevsko ozadje in glede na
različna področja ńtudija. S ńtudijem povezane delovne izkuńnje izboljńajo ujemanje med kvalifikacijami in
zaposlitvijo, zaposlitvena mobilnost in brezposelnost pa povečata verjetnost za neujemanje. Neujemanje
pri prvi zaposlitvi ima močne in dolgotrajne posledice na ujemanje celo pet let po zaključku ńtudija.
Oon-Seng Tan, Tehnološka univerza Nanyang, Singapur
Razvijanje učiteljske kakovosti: preseganje struktur, standardov in stereotipiziranja
Kakovost izobraņevanja in kakovost učiteljev je v zadnjih letih postala tema mnogih razprav. Raziskovalci
in oblikovalci politik na področju izobraņevanja preučujejo izobraņevalne reforme na mednarodni ravni,
da bi se učili od najboljńih izobraņivalnih sistemov, kakrńni so finski, korejski in singapurski. Kako
razvijemo učiteljsko kakovost? Ali gre za ustvarjanje struktur za vstopne zahteve, rekrutiranje in
kompenzacijo? Ali gre za zvińanje standardov akreditiranja in odgovornosti? Z učenjem od najboljńih
lahko prevzamemo učinkovite prakse in politike. Ta prispevek izobraņevanje učiteljev predstavlja z vidika
Singapurja in uspeńnih vzhodnoazijskih drņav in utemeljuje tezo, da razvijanje učiteljske kakovosti presega
strukture, standarde in stereotipe. S pomočjo ilustrativnih primerov se predstavitev osredotoča na pomen
učiteljskega simbolizma, poklica, subkultur profesionalne skrbi in razvoja, kot tudi učiteljskega vodenja in
inspiracije. Prispevek se zaključi s priporočili za uravnoteņevanje ńirńega upravljanja politik in praks z
―logosom, etosom in patosom‖ simbola učitelja.
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ABSTRACTS FROM ALL CONTRIBUTIONS
Paul Serban Agachi, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Carmen Loredana Pop, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Sonia Pavlenko, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Camelia Moraru, Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania
Addressing Employability Through Strategic Decision-making – the Experience of BBU
Addressing employability has become a key aspect in universities‘ strategic management decisions
regarding the increase in the quality and quantity of the insertion of graduates on the labour market. In
this paper we would like to present a case study based on Babeş-Bolyai University‘s activity aimed at
highlighting three fundamental steps of the strategic decision making process in relationship to
employability, namely:
a) the background informing the decisions (investigating the opinion and status of stakeholders –
graduates and employers - , the status of the labour market, the employability of graduates, etc);
b) the decisions taken with the purpose of improving graduates‘ employability (setting up specialised
centres, introducing new subjects in the curriculum, increasing the focus on practical skills, etc);
and
c) examining the impact that these decisions had on the graduates.
The threefold perspective will take into account how universities, labour market and graduates (should)
jointly shape higher education‘s landscape, offering further insight into the decision making process of an
individual university, i.e. Babeş-Bolyai University.
Celia Beizsley, Career Development Centre (CDC), University of Derby, United Kingdom
Siobhan Neary, International Centre for Guidance Studies (iCeGS), University of Derby, United Kingdom
I Am Here to Learn Biology, Not 'Personal Development': Testing the Blueprint for
Careers
University careers services in the UK are increasingly challenged to contribute to ensuring graduates find,
obtain and engage with graduate level opportunities. Parallel to this the range of graduate opportunities
has become increasingly competitive. All universities strive to identify and promote their added value to
the academic experience.
The Blueprint for Careers (LSIS, 2011a) builds on international practice in developing career management
competencies. It offers a useful framework, which can be used by careers professionals to work with
students and academics to review and assess the attainment of career competencies. This multi-layered
research project utilised an on-line questionnaire, student peer researcher training and focus groups to
engage a sample of students across all faculties of the university. The indicative findings present a mixed
picture, with students generally feeling most confident about their attitudes to lifelong learning, and how
changes in society impact on life, learning and work. Areas of least confidence focused on the ability to
make effective career and life decisions and planning and managing life, learning and work. In relation to
programme provision students welcomed opportunities to engage in extra curricular activities but
demanded more focused and relevant work experience opportunities.
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Alenka Braček Lalić, Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency, Slovenia
Facilitating the Enhancement of Student Employability – the Role of Quality Assurance
Agencies
The presentation is focused on researching contributions which could be made by quality assurance
agencies to the enhancement of the student employability. The purpose of the presentation is to give
answers to the following questions: 1) What is the current role of Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency for Higher
Education in facilitating the enhancement of student employability?; 2) Which activities provided by Slovenian Quality
Assurance Agency could contribute to enhancement of student employability?; 3) What could be the role of Slovenian
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in this field in the future?
Neda Bokan, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Petar B. Petrović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Eng., Serbia
Miša Ţivić, Student Conference of Serbian Universities, Serbia
How to Improve the Employability of Graduates
Globalization of markets, technology sophistication, rapid changes in economic and business
environment and demand for high profile individuals with specialized knowledge, created a shift in labor
markets around the globe. The number of graduates with different academic backgrounds, abilities, skills
and practical knowledge increases from day to day, raising the bar and competition on labor markets in
that respect. However, in this competition, graduates from all countries do not play the same role. But
despite the competitiveness, we also have to have in mind that one among the eight United Nations
Millennium Development Goals is to develop a global partnership of all countries in order to achieve this
development. We discuss here some aspects of economy and higher education developments in the
Republic of Serbia which are strongly connected with the employability of graduates and with its
improvement, as well as the ways of achieving this competitiveness in the realization of this previously
mentioned goal.
Yuzhuo Cai, University of Tampere, Finland
Yulia Shumilova, University of Tampere, Finland
Employment and Professional Capabilities of International Graduates from Finnish
Higher Education Institutions
Following the Bologna process and its policies aimed to enhance the attractiveness of European Higher
Education Area, international graduates‘ employment is increasingly becoming a concern in terms of both
attracting international students to higher education and supporting the national labour market
development and economic growth. However, there is still a research gap on the issues of international
graduate employability in continental Europe. This paper presents the main outcomes of the VALOA
study conducted in 2011-2012 in Finland focusing on the international graduates‘ transition from higher
education to the world of work, identifying some weaknesses of international higher education and
providing suggestions for further research.
186
Julien Calmand, CERQ, France
Jean-François Giret, IREDU, University of Burgundy, France
Christine Guégnard, IREDU, University of Burgundy, France
Vocational Bachelor Graduates in France: Labour Market Integration and Social
Mobility
In France, the vocationalisation of the higher education at the university have resulted in increasing
numbers of graduates and created new opportunities. The influx of these vocational Bachelor graduates
on the labour market raises the issue of their professional prospects amid changing economic and social
circumstances. This communication will focus on the labour market transition of the vocational Bachelor
graduates in a period of economic crisis, especially on the social benefit of this diploma in France: What
were the impacts of changing economical conditions and influx of vocational Bachelor graduates on their
transition and on their chance for an upward social mobility?
Carmen Delia Dávila Quintana, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Jose-Gines Mora Ruiz, Institute of Education, University of London, United Kingdom
Luis E. Vila Lladosa, MC2, University of Valencia, Spain
Fostering Three-dimension Leadership Behavior at Work Through Competency
Development in Higher Education
The purpose of this study is to gain insight on the relevance of higher education practice for later
behavior of graduates at the workplace regarding three key leadership dimensions: task-oriented
leadership, relation-oriented leadership, and change-oriented leadership. Professional competencies are
considered here as a transmission mechanism from higher education to work performance. Multi-level
mixed-effects models (MLMEM) and Structural equation models (SEM) are used to estimate the effects
of higher education and initial post-graduation work experience on the development of professional
competencies shaping graduates three-dimensional leadership behavior at work on a sample of some 3500
recent graduates from Spanish universities. Estimation results show that individual capacity for the three
dimensions of leadership behavior considered depend on the development of a specific set of
professional competencies that are identified from a list of 19 items. The competencies related to 3D
leadership are partially provided by means of higher education and developed further through initial work
experience. The analysis also contributes to identify, from a list of 11 items, those teaching and learning
modes with stronger effects on the development of 3D leadership skills. The main implication is that the
promotion of adequate higher education practice may be effective to foster the development of
leadership skills by graduates at the time of graduation, which in turn would improve the chances of
further development of leadership competencies in earlier career stages, thus increasing the propensity of
graduates to act as effective task-leaders, relation-leaders and change-leaders in the organizations they
work for.
Polona Domadenik, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Daša Farčnik, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
What Affects the Employability of Graduates? Exploring Demand and Supply Side in the
Case of Slovenia
This paper investigates the employability of the recent cohorts of Slovenian graduates with respect to
different fields of education as classified by the International Standard Classification of Occupations. By
using a unique micro dataset of the entire population of higher education graduates in the period of 2007-
2009 we also focus on the differences in the employability between the study programs with special
187
attention to Bologna programs. We also report employability differences for different higher education
institutions. For a small subset of graduates from the field of Economics and Business we report evidence
on international mobility of students and its impact on employability. Interestingly, first results show that
study abroad does not increase employability in first year of study in general but those who had a job
found it much quicker if compared with their colleagues from the same field and institution.
In the increasing evidence of overeducation as well as mismatch between a graduate‘s field of education
and occupation in developed world, we present among the first evidence of the extend of the phenomena
in Slovenia. In particular we investigate how the probability of a match varies for different study
programs in several fields of education.
Alenka Flander, CMEPIUS, Slovenia
What do Employers Look for When Employing Our Graduates?
Since in Slovenia we lack analyses of companies' opinions of international mobility, we at CMEPIUS
prepared a study based on the Finnish model (CIMO, 2005). The purpose was to examine whether
international experience (study or placement) during studies actually affects Slovenian employers‘
decisions regarding employment. The online questionnaire was then sent to 520 addressees, and we
received 144 responses (27.7%).
38.6% of the responses represent the public sector and 61.4% represent the private sector. Among the
responses received, most respondents came from education (28%); trade and services (25%) and other
public, social and personal services (11.4%).
The participants were mainly from companies (39.5% in total), 29.5% from small- and medium-sized
companies (SMEs) with fewer than 250 employees and 10.7% came from large companies. Other
respondents represented staff in educational organisations (16.4%) and public institutions (5.7%).
In assessing the competencies that are considered with regard to employment, the respondents thought
the following were very important or important: capability of the applicant (80.33%); work experience or
a placement in the field of expertise (64.06%); the applicant had completed a practice in a company
abroad (53.13%); work experience in general (50.00%); a degree of the appropriate level (university,
graduate qualification) (47.62%); that the applicant had studied abroad (41.27%); and a degree in the
relevant field (39.68%)
Almost the same level of importance as a degree from the appropriate field was attributed to the fact that
the applicant was known (37.10%) or that they themselves knew someone who had recommended the
applicant (43.55%).
In evaluating the importance of the skills held by students who have just graduated, they believed that the
most important factor for employment is that the candidate: is responsible and able to bear responsibility
(75.81%); is reliable (75%); can seek information and use it (73.44%); can apply their knowledge to
different and new situations (70.97%); is able to collaborate (69.35%); and is proactive (67.19%).
I will further on do some comparison between some groups of employers (for example SMEs and public
institutions) to see whether their expectations in regards to graduates competences they would favour in
employment are similar or different.
I will also compare some results in Slovenia and Finland.
188
Christelle Garrouste, JRC - European Commission
Margarida Rodrigues, JRC - European Commission
Employability of Young Graduates in Europe
The Education Council adopted in May 2012 a new ET2020 benchmark on graduates‘ employability,
defined as the share of 20-34 year-olds, not currently engaged in any further education or training, that is
employed 1 to 3 years after graduation. Using the same data source as the benchmark (namely, the annual
LFS microdata from 2004 to 2010) and the ad-hoc 2009 LFS data, this paper presents pre-crisis and crisis
estimates of that employment probability, by country, by country and gender and by country and field of
education, controlling for individual and institutional characteristics, including specific education reforms.
Finally, to understand the nature of this youth employment, among those who are employed, we estimate
the probability of having a permanent vs. temporary contract and the probability of working full-time vs.
part-time.
Bénédicte Halba, University of Paris Pantheon Sorbonne, France
Bridging the Gap Between University and the Community: a Key for Graduates’
Employability and Career Success - From the VAB to the ALLinHE
Many European countries are faced to huge rates of unemployment especially among youngsters. On the
one hand, graduates are now faced to unexpected difficulties on the labour market. On the other hand,
people without any qualification or diploma are willing to have access to Higher Education to enhance
their professional opportunities.
The Bologna process initiated on a European level is meant to propose a European Qualification
Framework (EQF) with the aim to link countries‘ qualifications systems together acting as a translation
device to make qualifications more readable and understandable across different countries and systems in
Europe but also for employers. Each European country has made an effort to express the content of the
diplomas/certificates with regards to the skills and competences acquired and their link with the labour
market (types of employment to be proposed).
At the same time, the "Copenhagen process" launched the European strategy for enhanced cooperation
in Vocational Education and Training (VET). Initial and continuing VET share the dual objective of
contributing to employability and economic growth and responding to broader societal challenges, in
particular promoting social cohesion.. The overall aim is to improve the quality of vocational training and
to encourage more individuals to make wider use of vocational learning opportunities, whether at school,
in higher education, in the workplace, or through private courses.
We intend to show that bridging the gap between University and Community might be a challenging issue
to enhance employability and career success. For graduates, integrating non formal and informal learning
in complement to their diploma is a way to facilitate access to the labour market. For ―potential‖
graduates, valuing the learning outcomes gained through non formal and informal learning is a way to
have an access to Higher Education and so to validate their experiences with a diploma to enhance their
professional opportunities.
Bridging the gap between University and Community is a two way process. On the one hand, graduates
should be able to enrich their diploma with other experiences (professional, social, personal) gained in
complement to their academic cursus. We will first insist on the necessary support to be offered to
graduates to facilitate their professional integration and career success in introducing the Leonardo da
Vinci project, VAlunig Experience beyond University (VAB).
On the other hand, access to Higher Education should be facilitated among public with special profiles in
making VPL strategies be clearer and more accessible. We will then present the Erasmus project
ALLinHE which focuses on a multi-targeted VPL model (integrating both formative and summative
189
approach) and will propose a comparative analysis of the VPL methods and approaches to under-
represented (target) groups in Higher Education.
Anna Horvath, EACEA - Eurydice
Measuring Employability in the European Higher Education Area: Sources, Limits and
Perspectives
The presentation discusses issues arising from the chapter on Effective Outcomes and Employability in
the Bologna Process Implementation Report. The report, prepared for the 2012 Bucharest Ministerial
Conference, is a joint piece of work undertaken by Eurostat, Eurydice and Eurostudent, and was
overseen by the Bologna Follow-up Group. The presentation will introduce some of the main findings of
the report and will highlight some of the problems and dilemmas the authors faced when trying to
describe graduate employability in Europe. In this respect, the presentation will ask the following
questions: What do available data really measure? What are the limits and weaknesses of available
datasets? What is missing from our collective understanding of employability? Finally, the presentation
will consider possibilities for future European-level reporting on this topic.
Kerstin Janson, Kassel University – INCHER, Germany
The Implementation and Use of Graduate Surveys at German Higher Education
Institutions (the Qualitative Follow-up)
The presentation ―The Implementation and use graduate surveys at German Higher Education
Institutions‖ is a follow-up to a presentation hold during the last DEHEMS conference in Vienna 2011.
Based on six case-studies it is shown which factors influence the use of graduate survey data and why
some Higher Education Institutions are more successfully in using these results for their internal
organisational development than others. The theoretical basis is a model of Feinstein (2002) which was
originally developed to examine the use of evaluation results inside of an organisation. Factors presented
and discussed will be: The Human factor, personal and financial ressources (implementation), support of
leadership, relevance and thematic coverage, involvement of stakeholders, capacity of use and
dissemination (channels, methods, quality of presentation).
The six presented case studies are universities taking part in the ―Cooperation project Graduate Surveys‖
(Kooperationsprojekt Absolventenstudien) initiated and led by the INCHER-Kassel. The data was
collected as part of a dissertation project with the title ―The relevance of Graduate Surveys for the
Institutional Development of Higher Education Institutions‖. The case studies are based on one major
interview, document analysis and shorter inquiries to key stakeholders.
İnci Kayhan Kuzgun, Hacettepe University, Turkey
On the Job Training for Students as an Instrument for Increasing Employability of
Graduates: a Proposal for Turkey
On the job training for students has been used as a traditional instrument to increase employability of
graduates with connected demand for the labor market. Although trainee is a concept related to the labor
market in Turkey; it does not have a comprehensive legal basement. The study is structured in three
sections. In the first section it provides a brief review of the existing literature related to the employability
of graduates. In the second section, regulation of on the job training for students has been proposed as an
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instrument for increasing employability of graduates in Turkey. With this framework, the characteristics,
performance and constitution of proposal have been analyzed in the sub-sections.
The characteristics of the proposal have been considered such as below.
- It is an active employment policy instrument.
- It is an integrated strategy for the students to the economic activities.
- It is based on the dynamic demand model.
- It is based on the voluntary cooperation between universities and enterprises in Turkey.
- It can be concluded in the concept of public and private sector partnership.
The performance of this instrument has been considered individual, institutional and social level. The
apprenticeship training can be taken as a model for constitution of on the job training for students.
- Size of firm has been used as criterion.
- The cost of application has been financed by the enterprises.
- The premiums of two social security branches have been paid by the state from the budget of the
universities.
The main conclusion has been considered in chapter three.
Mareike Landmann, Professional Center of the University of Cologne, Germany
Demands of the Teacher Profession and Graduates' Ability to Fulfil These Demands -
the Potential of Results From Graduate Tracer Studies for the Evaluation of Teacher
Education in North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
The article describes the design for an evaluation of teacher education in Germany related to standards
for teacher education. These standards were published in 2004 and 2008 by the German Standing Conference
of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. It goes on to discuss the implications of the research design
on the potential and limits of the results to evaluate teacher education programmes at North-Rhine-
Westphalian universities. To tackle the subject of teacher education standards and the respective quality
of teacher education programmes by conducting graduate tracer studies in Germany, a scale on the
demands of the teacher profession was developed within the framework of the German ‗Cooperation
Project for Graduate Tracer Studies‘ (KOAB). This article presents the second and the final version of
the scale as well as results from the second version. The results show that teaching graduates‘ abilities to
fulfil demands of the teacher profession vary between different teacher action fields. The match between
perceived demands and self-assessed abilities to fulfil these demands in different action fields also
depends on the teaching programme respectively the type of school the programme prepares for. To shed
light on the question, in how far these evaluation results can be used to evaluate teacher education or
adjust study programmes, the research methodology of the evaluation at hand is examined on the basis of
general evaluation attributes introduced by Chelimsky (1997). An understanding of the type of evaluation
performed, identified by its purpose, is sought to point out the potential, but also the restrictions of this
evaluation project of teacher education in North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
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Giunio Luzzatto, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
Stefania Mangano, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
Roberto Moscati, University of Milan-Bicocca, Italy
Maria Teresa Pieri, CARED - University of Genoa, Italy
Employability and Competences of University Graduates in Italy
Since 60% of Italian Bachelor graduates enrol immediately in a Master programme, the public often
assumes that this is a consequence of very limited employment opportunities for these graduates. We
show that this is contradicted by existing data on the employment rate of graduates that show a small
difference in the employment rates of Bachelor and Master graduates. Bachelors who only looked for a
job right after graduation have a high rate of employment, while many of those who enrolled in a Master
programme are also working. However, employers often remark that university graduates are well
prepared in their disciplines, but lack general competences. By analyzing the responses to a questionnaire
sent to heads of university programmes, we investigated the general competences indicated as learning
outcomes in the curricula offered by Italian universities. We present here some of our results.
Gregory Makrides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Development of Liaison Offices Between Academia and Industry in Cypriot Universities
- Quality in Placements - INENTER Project Results
One of the large ESF Projects where all Cypriot Universities participate in a Consortium is the above
mentioned project, which started in 2009 and expected to be completed by the end of 2014. The project
is coordinated by the University of Cyprus, the main public university in Cyprus.
The aim is to foster closer links with industry for collaborative projects, promote the upgrading of
industrial research interest and infrastructure and to support and promote young researcher placements
and internships in industry.
As the connection with industry both on the research and training areas is limited, the project aims also in
the improvement of adaptability of businesses and employees to changing market environment and
connection with academia. This is expected to support the restructuring of industry and academia for
future labour market challenges, and the development of innovative methods of structuring business and
employment practices at the national level.
At the European level it is expected that the project will contribute to more and better jobs creation,
improvement of skills and innovation with a goal to development, adaptation of education and training
systems to the new needs for skills.
The target groups are Cypriot businesses, all sectors and at national level, Cypriot researchers and
students, Cypriot Higher Education Institutions. The presentation will show how the project is
structured, its content and plan, challenges, progress and outcomes.
Relating to the aims of Liaison Offices for supporting the placements of students, a European funded
project (INENTER: Improving the Placements and Internships from Academia to Enterprises‖, 509962-
LLP-1-2010-1-CY-ERASMUS-ECUE) to be completed by the end of September 2012 provided results in
supporting quality issues relating to placements and internships. Main outcomes will be presented.
Minoru Nakayama, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
Case Study on the Influences of Economic Factors on Employment of Graduates of
Japanese Engineering Programs
The employment of university graduates may be influenced by the economic situation, the composition
of industry and by other conditions. Though it is recognized that Engineering graduates seek work in
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manufacturing and related industries, their employment is not limited to these specific industries. A case
study was conducted by surveying the employment statistics of graduates from various Science and
Technology departments in Bachelor's, Master's and Ph.D. courses at a Japanese national university at 5
year intervals between 1985 and 2010. The results show that new graduates continue to be employed by
certain companies, but that graduates‘ types of preferred industries have been changing as business
conditions have changed. The annual statistics for engineers graduated from university departments and
the industrial sectors they entered were analysed using multiple correspondence analysis. Two
dimensional scales were extracted using the industries and the graduates‘ academic departments. In
comparing the relationships between university departments, industrial sectors, degree levels and year of
graduation, these relationships have changed over the years. The factors causing these changes are
discussed in context with the changes in the relationships between them.
José Navarro and Sandra Fachelli
From Expansion to Crisis: University Pathways and Professional Insertion in the Labour
Market
This document focuses on the conclusions of a typological analysis on the occupational insertion of
graduates of Catalan public universities in 2004 and 2007. The data come from a periodic survey on the
labour market outcomes of graduates from Catalan universities, carried out by the Catalan University
Quality Assurance Agency (AQU). A comparison element has been introduced in order to contrast labour
market outcomes among graduates in 2004 (interviewed in the first quarter of 2008), who studied and
made its labour insertion during a period of economic expansion in Spain and graduates in 2007 who
completed their degrees about a year before the start of the recent economic crisis (interviewed in early
2011). Although we can see a decline in the employment rate of graduates as a whole, with regard only to
occupied graduates no significant differences were found between the two cohorts.
José Navarro, GRET- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Sandra Fachelli, GRET- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Graduates who Find Jobs Difficult to Obtain
The literature on careers offers a variety of alternative perspectives on the transition from higher
education to work and the early stages of career exploration. Many of the differences between these
perspectives reflect changes in labour markets and society. Over recent decades, theoretical models of
career have moved away from a focus on male-dominated patterns of work with the aim of understanding
more of the diversity in working patterns as well as changing concepts of career.
The paper reports the findings from exploratory interview studies of graduates in their early stage of
career who experience differing degrees of success with obtaining jobs and work in an area of their
choice. The focus is on graduates who are less successful in their career search. After their graduation
award, they experience difficulty with commencing suitable paid employment and do not make significant
progress in developing a viable career. This is a group of people who arguably most need active support
from HE institutions with their job search as well as their initial and subsequent career development.
Large scale quantitative survey research and secondary document analyses presented by researchers at the
first DEHEMS conference (WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, 22nd-23rd September
2011), uncovered some distinct patterns of employability in various degree subjects and occupations.
Graduates who fail to find employment in their preferred areas of expertise and who undergo a
succession of short-term job contracts which are comparatively poorly remunerated, present challenges
for HE institutions in terms of how they should be supported. National economies, societies, employers,
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graduates and their families all stand to benefit from institutional initiatives which optimise graduates‘
chances of securing viable jobs and work experiences. These then provide major opportunities for early
career development, which then require active individual participation and some degree of improvisation
by new graduates.
The particular challenges faced by this group of graduates draw attention to the role of career guidance,
including students‘ skills preparation in job search, as well as actual experience of relevant job tasks and
workplaces prior to graduation. They also demonstrate the need for more accurate and responsive
information on available jobs and vacancies together with advice on practical ways that individuals create
their job opportunities and career growth. This all becomes particularly important in the run up to
graduation and immediately afterwards. Parents, as well as other members of the family, are influential on
young graduates, who often need assistance with being properly updated on the realities and challenges
they face. Graduates and their families should be clear about practical considerations such as going rates
of pay for jobs in the local region and elsewhere, so that they can use their knowledge and understanding
in ways relevant to the current environment of work. HE, employers, government institutions and media
organisations can all assist with providing this information.
Danuta Piróg, Pedagogical University of Kraków; Institute of Geography, Poland
Transition From Higher Education to Labour Market in Poland on the Basis of
Geography Graduates
The paper presents a fragment of empirical studies on the transition process of geographers in period of
six months from completion of higher education. The purpose of the research was to diagnose the
situation of geography graduates at the labour market in reference to prior aspirations, expectations and
plans with the respect to the labour market. The verification includes planned and actual work places,
planned and actual criteria of work place selection, expected and actual recruitment criteria, expected and
received amount of remuneration.
The study shows that the transition of geography graduates to the labour market is a difficult and
complex process in Poland, ending in partial success and that it is quite distant form aspirations and
expectations registered by such persons at the moment of completion of university education.
Pittia P., Faculty of Agriculture & Department of Food Science, University of Teramo, Italy
Silva C.L.M., Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Catholic University of Portugal, Portugal
Costa R, Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra - Escola Superior Agrária, Portugal
Schleining G., Department of Food Science and Technology, BOKU, University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences Vienna, Austria
Dalla Rosa M., Department of Food Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Italy
The ISEKI_Food Projects and Network: Strategies and Activities to Implement Skills
and Abilities of the Future Generation of Graduates in Food Studies
Food studies networks started in 1998 with a long term objective of creating effective tools and guidelines
that promote the EHEA (European Higher Education Area) for food studies, and has also been
disseminating it at an international level, through constant renewing networks at European level with
Erasmus programme support and at International level with Erasmus Mundus programme support. All
the activities, tools and materials developed are sustained by a non-profit organization, the ISEKI Food
Association (IFA) that has now a worldwide network, reaching all the Continents. A variety of tools have
been created which the most significant are: a number of databases of curricula, teaching materials and
food industry stakeholders; an International journal and regularly published books in an international
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publisher; a periodic international conference on bridging education, research and industry; a quality
assurance label for Food Science and Technology curricula (EQAS); partnerships in other research and
education projects.
Darka Podmenik, Institute for Developmental and Strategic Analyses, Slovenia
Ivana Čančar, Institute for Developmental and Strategic Analyses, Slovenia
The Importance of Career Centres as Mediators Between HE Students and Their
Potential Employers
First part of the paper documents an increasing trend of uncertain graduates´ employment prospects,
especially those from so-called soft HE programs. Data from two different researches - large scale
international project HEGESCO and case study of Slovene students - are used to verify the hypothesis
that HE educators and students should investment more into skills and competencies, needed for
successful transition from HE to Work.
The second part focuses on career centers (CC), which are for some countries like Slovenia, a new form
of training students. Main assumptions of the CCs ―case study‖ are: CCs have the role of mediator
between students&graduates, HE institutions and employers; CCs use innovative ways of training
students to obtain employment after graduation. Semi-structured interviews were done with the
representatives of five Slovene, two German and one British CCs. In regard to CCs innovativeness,
performance and differences among them, the sampled CCs are divided into two groups: so called good
practices and ―average‖ ones. It should be discussed which of the activities of ―good practices‖ are
transferable and useful to the successful operation of career centers in general.
Anna Prades, Àrea d'Avaluació de la Qualitat, Spain
Promoting the Use of Graduate Surveys – Catalan University Quality Assurance Agency
Tale
There is no discussion about the fact that graduate surveys provide valuable information for Higher
Education Institutions (HEI) regarding their effectiveness and the context in which they are involved. But
once the data is collected, once the reports are printed, how do HEI use these data to make decisions?
Information on the results of graduate employment does not generate change in itself. Based on 10 years
of experience and 4 graduate surveys, this paper will explain how a Quality Assurance Agency tries to
promote the use of graduate survey results. Three key points are stressed: 1) A survey designed to make
decisions, 2) The need to design reports ad hoc for key stakeholders and 3) The embedding labour market
results in quality assessment and accreditation. These points are necessary but not sufficient conditions
for data-informed leadership in higher education institutions or career services. The challenge is to foster
a data-driven culture at all levels and to assure that key stakeholders have the appropriate framework to
interpret and complement data, including between others, employment indicators. In the end, the ultimate
goal of quality assurance is ―self-regulation‖ of institutions who have internalised the modes of thinking
that quality represents.
Victor Pushnykh, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia
The Role of Leadership by Running a University Under Uncertain Conditions
Coping with new challenge requires the university to improve all the processes inside a university
including the ways on how the university is run. For improving of those ways it is necessary to
understand how the university leadership works, to take a look at the roots of the leadership decision
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making. In this paper a model of the leadership decision making under uncertain conditions is presented.
The model assumes the decision making as a way of cultivating of the organizational culture
corresponding to the values of the leadership. Experimental results illustrating the mechanism of this
cultivating are displayed.
Péter Róbert, Széchenyi University, Hungary
Changes in Job Mismatch and Skill Mismatch in Graduate Employment in Four New
EU-Member States
The paper investigates the mismatch between qualification and current occupation for young graduates in
four post-communist societies: Slovenia, Poland, Lithuania and Hungary. The paper focuses on job
mismatch and skill mismatch in current occupation. The mismatch is operationalized in objective and
subjective way: working in a graduate job as defined by the job title, on the one hand as well as evaluating
the job from the perspective of the field of studies, on the other hand.
The analysis reveals a slight disadvantage for women, significant differences for parental background and
for the various fields of study. Study-related work experience improves the match, while job mobility and
unemployment experience increases the odds of a mismatch between qualification and current
occupation. Mismatch in first occupation has strong and long-lasting effect on the match even five years
after the graduation.
Julian Stanley, Centre for Education and Industry, University of Warwick, United Kingdom
Competence and Outcomes-based Reform in England
The presentation provides a very brief review of two recent reforms in English VET: the introduction of
national vocational qualifications (Diplomas) and the expansion and reform of apprenticeships. Some of
the achievements of these reforms will be considered along with some of the difficulties encountered.
Both of these reforms have drawn upon outcomes or competence based approaches so these two case
studies permit some reflections on the limits and benefits of this approach to qualification development.
István Szilárd, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
Erika Marek, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
Zoltán Katz, Medical School, University of Pécs, Hungary
Chain of Curriculums for Optimizing Graduates Employability
At the first DEHEMS conference our team has explained that in spite of the current global crisis, the
immigration influx (about 1 million/ year) is essential for the EU‘s workforce market. Their most efficient
integration is an unavoidable economic interest. Here the health care system is playing a key role with
clear economic impact – including HRC building - to cope with this challenge. The accreditation process
of the new joint degree program (MSc on Migration Health) of the CHANCE consortium – a coalition of
six EU universities is ongoing.
During the curriculum development process we have recognized that some aspects would be essential for
countries in the accession process to the EU, like Croatia. Within the frame of the Hungary-Croatia IPA
Cross-border Co-operation Programme 2007-2013, we have launched a new program facing with both
challenges: Croatia‘s accession process and Hungary‘s task as new Schengen country. We are developing a
joint training program focusing on three fields:
- Health management within the frame of the European Union;
- Needs for and conditions of trans-border healthcare in the region;
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- Health/ public health and mental health aspects of the assistance of disadvantaged groups like
ethnic minorities and migrants.
Oon-Seng Tan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Development of Teacher Quality: Rising Above Structures, Standards and Stereotyping
Quality education through quality teacher has become an issue of much debate in recent years. Education
researchers and policy makers have been looking at educational reforms internationally to learn from the
best performing educational systems such as Finland, Korea and Singapore. How do we develop teacher
quality? Is it about creating structures for entry requirements, recruitments and compensation? Is it about
raising standards of accreditation and accountability? In learning from the best systems can we replicate
successful types of practices and policies. This presentation provides a perspective of teacher education
and development from Singapore and successful East Asian countries and argue that secrets of success in
developing teacher quality goes beyond the structures, standards and stereotypes. Using case illustration
the presentation focuses on the importance of teacher symbolism, teacher calling, subcultures of
professional care and development as well as teacher leadership and inspiration. The paper concludes
with recommendation on how to balance the big picture management of policies and practices with the
logos, ethos and pathos of teacher symbol.