effects of golf course construction and operation on water chemistry of headwater streams on the...
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Effects of golf course construction and operation on water chemistry of headwater
streams on the Precambrian Shield
Jennifer G. Winter
Peter J. Dillon
May, 2004
Presented by:
Mark Williams
David Millar
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Purpose:
To investigate the effects of golf course construction and operation on the water
chemistry of Precambrian Shield streams. (Canada)
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Summary
• Streams were more alkaline post golf course construction
• Concentrations of base cations and nitrates increased downstream of operational golf courses
• Total phosphorous in the streams increased
• Vegetation acting as a buffer for these substances appears to drastically reduce their concentrations if implemented near golf courses.
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Background
• Soils on the Shield are acidic, dolomite and limestone are commonly added to “up” the pH.
• Golf course’s require that the land loose much of it’s natural ability to absorb nutrients (via deforestation), natural sinks of nitrogen and phosphorous removed
• Runoff from golf courses poses a threat to water quality, as fairways, greens, and other “manicured” areas are meant to drain. (Gravel and sand is usually the foundation for topsoil, hydraulic conductivity
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Site Description
• Seven golf courses were sampled (A-G)
• Stream locations unknown, as to protect golf course identity, but in vicinity of the District of
Muskoka• Surface geology is primarily till
deposits, generally <1m thick• Podzolic, brunisolic soils
• Courses A-E in operation from 5-10, >50 years
• Course F in operation since summer, 2001
Samples were collected upstream of courses A, D and
E for upstream versus downstream comparisons. Three inflowing streams converged on course D.
Comparisons were also made with data from 18 reference
streams in undeveloped areas (watershed area > 80% forest
and wetland).
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Fertilizer Application Rates for Each Course
Stream sites F1 – F4 showed the highest rates of Phosphorous applications 25-50 kg/ha/year, at course F
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Fertilizer Application
• Courses used a combination of organic or controlled and slow release nitrogen fertilizers in their applications
• Course F commonly uses treated sewage effluent for irrigation, which is more than likely linked to the increase in P concentrations at the stream sampling stations.
• Courses F and G also linked to higher N and K concentrations in the adjacent stream
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Water Chemistry• “Grab” samples taken monthly throughout the year
• Cations, anions, total phosphorus and nitrogen species were measured weekly on courses B, C and F, and on D until 2001.
• Alkalinity was measured via Gran titration, pH by glass electrode, conductivity by conductivity meter, and concentrations of calcium, sodium, potassium and chloride by ion chromatography.
• Nitrate, total Kjeldahl nitrogen and total phosphorus were measured colorimetrically using an autoanalyzer. Total nitrogen concentration was calculated by adding the total nitrate (nitrate + nitrite) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen concentrations together
• Total P,K, nitrate, and Kjedahl N also measured in inflows/outflows of ponds adjacent to courses B,C and D
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Results
• Sites F3, F4 drained a larger area of Course F than F1 and F2
• Increase shown in alkalinity, conductivity, sodium, chloride, calcium and potassium when construction of the course began in 1999
• Total P concentrations higher in both streams after course remodeling and rootzone (fertilizer) application
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Alkalinity, Na, Conductivity, Chloride monthly measurements for Stream F
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Ca, NO3, P, and Total P concentrations in stream from course F
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Total P concentration for stream/course F
• P concentrations peaked during the summer months (~80 μg/L) and in the early fall in preparation for winter (~60 μg/L)
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Alkalinity, Na, Conductivity, and Chloride for stream/course G
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Ca, Nitrate, K, Total P for stream/course G
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Course G
• Alkalinity increased in station G1 over sampling period, >100 μeqv/L
• “Mean concentrations of potassium and total phosphorus were three-fold and two-fold higher, respectively, in G1 in the summer of 2001 than in the summer of 2000, while nitrate concentrations were higher in the summer of 2000 (24% increase) and 2001 (43% increase) than in 1999”
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Stream C showed the highest total P concentrations in the 1999-2000 season as well as the 2000-2001 season
Note: no upstream sites were measured for these courses therefore an additional N,P,K source is possible
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Stream A showed a decrease in total P past the course, yet showed a dramatic increase in nitrate concentration downstream.
Courses D and E show similar results
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Relationships between stream concentrations and physical variables
• Various sinks for nutrients, such as vegetative covering along the streams, as well as soil type etc.. can (and do) affect stream concentrations.
• Golf course variables such as playable area (fairway size), soil composition, and drainage pathways can also affect these results.
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Redundancy analysis (RDA) diagram showing sample scores from the ordination of 2000–2001 hydrologic year
(Mean water chemistry of streams)
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RBQI: River Bank Quality Index
• Measures the ability for a river to
contribute to it’s own water quality, which is
based on various ecological and
geological controls.• Calculated by the
formula:
ai: the area covered by
the vegetation class (i.e. forest, wetland etc., m2
Pi: a standardized
weighting factor for each class of ai
D: total area surveyed
(m^2)
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Mean 2000/01 nutrient concentrations vs. RBQI scores
• “The mean 2000–2001 hydrologic year concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus were significantly related to the total area of unmanaged vegetation in the 1800m^2 surrounding the sampling sites and to the RBQI score.”
• “Overall, the more the unmanaged vegetation surrounding the stream site, or the higher the RBQI score, the lower the concentrations of nutrients in the stream.”
(For all courses excluding D)
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Conclusions
• Golf course operation clearly had (has) an effect on water quality
• Generally, streams were more alkaline and higher in concentrations of cations and nitrates downstream of golf courses
• P and K concentrations are naturally low in Boreal forests, so elevated P and K levels indicate runoff and contamination from direct fertilization of turfgrass
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Conclusions
• “During construction through to operation, changes were observed in water chemistry over time in those courses that drained forested areas prior to construction.
• Alkalinity, conductivity and concentrations of total phosphorus, nitrate, potassium and other ions increased in these streams over the course of the study.
• The streams with minimal water chemistry changes during and after construction were those that drained a small proportion (<10%) of the golf course property (G2) or were located close to pre-existing residential development (F2).”
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Conclusions
• Drainage morphology and subsurface conditions play a vital role in how nutrients are leeched into groundwater and above ground streams
• The River Bank Quality Index is a good indicator of how well ecological controls effect nutrient cycling in drainage areas.
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Recommendations
• To reduce nutrient levels in streams:
1.) fertilize as little as possible
2.) maximize the riparian zone between golf courses and streams to act as a buffer
3.) maintain stream bank conditions (thus maximizing the RBQI)