effect of wood ash fertilization on soil chemical properties and stand nutrient status and growth of...

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Effect of wood ash fertilization on soil chemicalproperties and stand nutrient status and growth ofsome coniferous stands in FinlandAnna Saarsalmi , Eino Mälkönen & Mikko Kukkolaa Vantaa Research Centre , Finnish Forest Research Institute , P.O. Box 18, FI-01301,Vantaa, FinlandE-mail:Published online: 18 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Anna Saarsalmi , Eino Mälkönen & Mikko Kukkola (2004) Effect of wood ash fertilization on soilchemical properties and stand nutrient status and growth of some coniferous stands in Finland, Scandinavian Journal ofForest Research, 19:3, 217-233, DOI: 10.1080/02827580410024124

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Effect of Wood Ash Fertilization on Soil Chemical Properties andStand Nutrient Status and Growth of Some Coniferous Stands inFinland

ANNA SAARSALMI, EINO MALKONEN and MIKKO KUKKOLA

Vantaa Research Centre, Finnish Forest Research Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland

Saarsalmi, A., Malkonen, E. and Kukkola, M. (Vantaa Research Centre, Finnish Forest Research

Institute, P.O. Box 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland). Effect of wood ash fertilization on soil chemical

properties and stand nutrient status and growth of some coniferous stands in Finland .

Received July 14, 2003. Accepted Dec. 29, 2003. Scand. J. For. Res. 19: 217�/233, 2004.

The effects of wood ash or wood ash plus nitrogen (N) fertilization on soil chemical properties,

needle nutrient concentrations and tree growth were studied in five coniferous stands, aged

31�/75 yrs, after 5 and 10 yrs. In each experiment 3 t ha�1 of loose wood ash was applied to three

replicated plots (30�/30 m). In three of the experiments 120�/150 kg N ha�1 was applied

together with the same wood ash (WAN). These three experiments also included a stand-specific

fertilization (SSF) treatment, which consisted of 120, 150 or 180 kg N ha�1. Five years after

wood ash or WAN application the pH increase in the humus layer was 1�/1.7 pH-units and in the

0�/5 cm mineral soil layer 0.3�/0.4 pH-units. The increase was approximately the same 10 yrs after

application, and was also associated with an increase in pH in the 5�/10 cm mineral soil layer.

Wood ash or WAN significantly increased both the total and extractable calcium and magnesium

concentrations in the humus layer on all the sites. Wood ash or WAN had an increasing effect on

the boron concentrations, but a decreasing effect on the manganese concentrations in the needles.

Wood ash had no significant effect on the volume growth. The trees on the WAN plots grew as

well as or slightly better than those on the SSF plots. Key words: Acidity, neutralization,

nutrients, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris.

Correspondence to: A. Saarsalmi, e-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Owing to the slow mineralization of organic matter

considerable amounts of organic nitrogen accumulate

in the soil of boreal coniferous forests. In addition to

natural acidification, forest soils are subjected to

external inputs of acidifying compounds. For this

reason, it has been postulated that the atmospheric

deposition of acidifying compounds will gradually

increase the leaching of base cations (Ca2�, K�,

Mg2�, Na�) and accelerate soil acidification (Berden

et al. 1987). Intensified harvesting, e.g. the utilization

of logging residues, will further increase the depletion

of base cations and the risk of soil acidification

(Nykvist & Rosen 1985, Olsson et al. 1996).

The increased use of forest fuels is generating

large quantities of ash. The recycling of wood ash

could be one means of counteracting natural and

anthropogenic soil acidification and the loss of

nutrients resulting from tree harvesting (Vance 1996,

Eriksson 1998).

Wood ash generally has a good acid-neutralizing

capacity and supplies the soil with a range of mineral

nutrients. A decrease in acidity and an increase in base

saturation following the application of loose (non-

hardened) wood ash havebeen widely reported (Khanna

et al. 1994, Bramryd & Fransman 1995, Fritze et al.

1995, Kahl et al. 1996, Ruhling 1996, Eriksson 1998,

Saarsalmi et al. 2001, Ludwig et al. 2002). Wood ash has

also been found to increase microbial activity in the soil

(Martikainen et al. 1994, Fritze et al. 1994, 1995).

Nitrogen (N) is known to be the main nutrient

limiting the growth of boreal forests (e.g. Kukkola &

Saramaki 1983, Tamm 1991), and N is the only

nutrient that has increased tree growth when added

alone on forested mineral soils in Finland (Kukkola &

Saramaki 1983). Although wood ash does not contain

N, the application of wood ash should promote

mineralization of the considerable reserves of soil

organic N, and thus improve the availability of N for

tree growth.

According to experience gained from wood ash

experiments on mineral soil, the trees usually show no

growth response at all or, in some cases, there is a

slight decrease in growth (Malmstrom 1953, Sikstrom

1992, Prescott & Brown 1998, Moilanen & Issakainen

2000, Jacobson 2003). Owing to its soil ameliorating

effect, wood ash may be useful on forested mineral

soils as long as it is given together with N fertilizer.

Scand. J. For. Res. 19: 217�/233, 2004

# 2004 Taylor & Francis ISSN 0282-7581 DOI: 10.1080/02827580410024124

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The aim of this study was to determine whether

wood ash given either alone or together with N affects

the soil chemical properties and the nutrient status and

growth of trees in coniferous stands on sites of

different fertility.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Site and stand description

Field experiments were established in 1990�/1993 in

four Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands and one

Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] stand repre-

senting a range of site fertilities (Table 1). The tree

stands were middle-aged or older (Table 2). The

experimental stands 402, 407 and 408 were naturally

regenerated, but quite even aged. Stand 415 was

established by sowing and stand 416 by planting. On

three of the stands (402, 415 and 416), the first

commercial thinning took place at the time of estab-

lishment of the experiments, when the basal area was

reduced by 20�/30%. Stands 407 and 408 had been

thinned earlier. In spite of thinning, the diameter

distribution remained still quite large, which is typical

for less fertile pine stands and spruce stands generally.

On the most fertile site (exp. 416) the annual growth

was 7.2 m3 ha�1 (7.2%). In exps 407 and 408 the

volume growth was 2.6 (5.6%) and 2.2 (4.0%) m3 ha�1

yr�1, respectively.

The experiments are located along a climatic and

acidifying deposition gradient running from south to

north (Fig. 1). The annual input of N via deposition

decreases towards the north; from about 10 kg N ha�1

along the southern coast of Finland to about 2 kg N

ha�1 in northern Lapland (Nordlund 2000). The

organic layer in all the experiments was mor and the

soil type haplic podzol.

The N status in both the humus layer and the

mineral soil was the highest in the spruce stand

(Exp. 416) (Tables 3 and 4). In the spruce stand, the

carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio of the humus layer was

clearly lower than that in the other experiments.

According to the extractable nutrient concentrations,

the humus layer in experiment 416 was the most

nutrient rich and experiment 408 the most nutrient

poor. The concentrations of extractable nutrients in

both mineral soil layers, and base saturation (BS) in

the 0�/5 cm mineral soil layer, were also the lowest in

exp. 408. In exp. 415, the extractable Ca and Mg

concentrations and BS in both mineral soil layers were

considerably higher than the extractable Ca and Mg

concentrations and BS in the other experiments.

Compared with the diagnostic values for needle

nutrient concentrations, the N concentrations in all

the experiments (Table 5) were below the optimum,

and in exp. 408 below the deficiency level

(Jukka 1988). In exps 407, 408 and 416 the needle B

concentrations were low compared with the average

values for corresponding middle-aged tree stands in

Finland (Malkonen 1991).

Treatments

In all of the experiments, 3 t ha�1 of loose wood ash

(bark ash) was spread at the time of establishment

(Tables 6 and 7). In three of the experiments (exps 407,

415 and 416), 120�/150 kg N ha�1 was applied

together with wood ash (WAN). A stand-specific

fertilization (SSF) treatment, formulated on the basis

of needle and soil analyses, was also included in these

three experiments. In the treatments, N was given as

ammonium nitrate with lime [N 27.5%, calcium (Ca)

4%, magnesium (Mg) 1%], phosphorus (P) as super-

phosphate, boron (B) as fertilizer borate (Na2B4O7 �/5H2O) and copper (Cu) as copper fertilizer (Cu as

different hydroxides). The size of the plots was 30�/30

m, and there were three replications of the treatments

in each experiment.

Table 1. Information about the experimental stands at the time of establishment of the experiments

Exp. Site typea Site indexb (m) Humus layer (cm)

Mineral soil

Parent material/texture Tree species

402 CT 18 2.7 Sorted/fine sand Scots pine

407 MCClT 14 0.9 Sorted/fine sand Scots pine

408 ECT 15 1.0 Sorted/fine sand Scots pine

415 VT 25 3.1 Till/fine sand Scots pine

416 MT 28 3.6 Till/fine sand Norway spruce

a Site types according to the classification of Cajander (1949). CT: Calluna type; MCClT Myrtillus �/Calluna �/Cladonia type;

ECT: Empetrum �/Calluna type; VT: Vaccinium type; MT: Myrtillus type.b Dominant height at an age of 100 yrs.

218 A. Saarsalmi et al. Scand. J. For. Res. 19 (2004)

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Soil sampling

Samples were taken from the humus layer and the

mineral soil at a depth of 0�/5 and 5�/10 cm. The first

round of soil sampling was carried out before wood ash

fertilization: in October�/November 1990 in exps 402

and 407, in August 1991 in exp. 408, in September 1992

in exp. 415, and in May 1993 in exp. 416. Soil samples

were taken systematically at 25 sampling points on the

control, wood ash and WAN-treated plots, and the

samples from the same plot were bulked by layer. The

humus layer samples were taken using a cylinder

(diameter�/58 mm) and the mineral soil samples using

an auger (diameter�/21 mm). The thickness of the

humus layer was measured in conjunction with sam-

pling. Sampling was repeated after 5 yrs, and in exps

402, 407 and 408 also after 10 yrs.

Tree stand measurements

The tree stands were measured at the time the experi-

ments were established, and after 5 and 10 yrs on the

control, wood ash, WAN and SSF plots. The breast

height diameter of all the trees was measured with an

accuracy of 1 mm from two directions. On each plot at

least 30 permanent sample trees representing different

size categories were chosen for tree height measure-

ments using a hypsometer with an accuracy of 1 dm. The

size categories were determined by first dividing all the

trees into five diameter classes, each with the same basal

area. Six trees were then randomly selected as sample

trees from each size category. The sample trees were

used for estimating the height and volume.

The annual radial growth at breast height was

obtained from felled sample trees measured 5 yrs after

the treatments (excluding exp. 402). The trees, five

from each plot (i.e. 15 per treatment), were chosen

randomly to represent five different size categories as

described above.

Needle sampling

Needle samples were collected during the winter before

fertilization. The needle samples were taken from five

sample trees, randomly selected from the dominant

crown layer, on the control, wood ash and WAN plots.

Table 2. Tree stand characteristics at the time of establishment of the experiments

Exp.

Total age

(yrs)

Stems

(no ha�1)

Ddom,a

(cm)

Hdom,b

(m)

Volume

(m3 ha�1)

Volume growthc

(m3 ha�1 yr�1)

402 64 900 19.2 13.9 91.4 5.82

407 75 763 16.6 11.3 46.7 2.60

408 69 704 17.9 12.2 54.1 2.15

415 31 1279 16.3 11.6 89.7 6.66

416 45 1175 22.8 15.0 100.4 7.23

a Dominant diameter; the mean breast height diameter of 100 thickest trees per hectare.b Dominant height; the mean height of 100 thickest trees per hectare.c Growth during the first 5-yr period on the control plots.

Fig. 1. Location of the experiments. Mean long-term

(1961�/1990) effective temperature sum (degree days) is

marked on the map by isotherms.

Scand. J. For. Res. 19 (2004) Effect of wood ash on soil and trees in coniferous stands 219

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The needles were collected from the current needles (C)

growing on the third to fifth branch whorl, counting

from the top, on the southern side of the crown. Needle

sampling was repeated after 5 yrs: in exp. 402 in the same

way as before fertilization, and in the other experiments

on the felled sample trees. The current needles on the

middle branch in the upper quarter of the live crown

were sampled. After 10 yrs, needles were sampled in

exps 402, 407 and 408 in the same way as before

fertilization.

Soil and needle analyses

The soil samples were dried in a ventilated chamber at

a temperature of 30�/408C. The humus samples were

ground in a mill with a 2 mm bottom-sieve, and the

mineral soil samples were passed through a 2 mm sieve

to remove stones and larger roots.

Total element concentrations [P, potassium (K), Ca,

Mg, B, cadmium (Cd),chromium (Cr), Cu, iron (Fe),

manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn)]

were determined on the humus samples by dry digestion

(5508C for 2 h), extracting the ash with HCl, and

determining the concentrations by inductively coupled

plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP/AES)

(ARL 3580). Total N and C were determined on the

humus and mineral soil samples on a CHN analyser.

The organic matter (OM) content of the humus layer

was calculated from the C content of the samples, using

the formula OM�/1.72�/C. Extractable nutrients [P,

K, Ca, Mg and sodium (Na)] were determined on both

the humus and mineral soil samples by extraction with

acid ammonium acetate (pH 4.65) using a ratio of 15 ml

of sample and 150 ml of extractant. The suspensions

were left to stand overnight before being shaken for 1 h

and then filtered. The concentrations of the individual

Table 3. Nutrient status and acidity parameters in the humus layer at the time of establishment of the experiments

Extractable

Exp.

OM

(t ha�1)

Total N

(g kg�1 OM)

C/N ratio P K Ca Mg pH BS (%) CECe EA Exch. Al

(mg kg�1 DM) (mmol kg�1 DM)

402 30.2 13.1 44.4 132 432 1062 110 3.7 39 191 116 53

407 16.1 11.9 49.0 138 357 1123 144 3.6 46 167 90 31

408 12.3 12.5 46.6 75 286 469 76 3.4 33 116 78 38

415 25.3 13.7 42.4 96 414 1091 142 3.8 70 110 33 11

416 34.9 19.9 29.3 158 716 1514 274 3.8 61 194 76 31

OM: organic matter; N: nitrogen; C/N: carbon/nitrogen; P: phosphorus; K: potassium; Ca: calcium; Mg: magnesium;

DM: dry matter; BS: base saturation; CECe: cation exchange capacity; EA: exchangeable acidity; Exch. Al: exchangeable

aluminium.

Table 4. Nutrient status and acidity parameters in the different mineral soil layers (on a dry matter basis) at the

time of establishment of the experiments

Extractable

Exp. Soil depth (cm)

Total N

(g kg�1)

C/N ratio P K Ca Mg pH BS (%) CECe EA Exch. Al

(mg kg�1) (mmol kg�1)

402 0�/5 1.49 29.1 9.10 36.10 55.10 7.52 4.6 12.9 34.9 30.4 26.0

407 0�/5 0.65 19.9 5.72 18.28 16.97 5.12 4.8 11.2 16.8 15.0 12.6

408 0�/5 0.47 20.3 4.68 15.03 13.38 4.03 4.1 9.0 16.6 15.1 11.9

415 0�/5 0.86 27.3 8.67 38.65 199.73 23.80 4.1 41.3 31.2 18.0 12.8

416 0�/5 1.54 22.3 7.45 35.42 46.83 12.05 4.3 12.1 37.6 33.1 29.7

402 5�/10 0.99 27.3 8.78 20.43 13.07 3.70 5.0 9.2 17.6 16.0 15.3

407 5�/10 0.53 20.4 4.50 12.75 6.80 2.55 5.2 11.7 8.5 7.6 7.0

408 5�/10 0.38 20.4 3.55 10.48 5.87 2.50 4.6 10.2 8.6 7.7 7.5

415 5�/10 0.58 21.2 7.33 15.13 119.65 13.98 4.6 33.3 23.2 15.5 14.4

416 5�/10 1.25 20.6 5.48 18.97 30.47 6.37 4.7 11.8 23.2 20.5 20.3

N: nitrogen; C/N: carbon/nitrogen; P: phosphorus; K: potassium; Ca: calcium; Mg: magnesium; BS: base saturation;

CECe: cation exchange capacity; EA: exchangeable acidity; Exch. Al: exchangeable aluminium.


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nutrients were determined by ICP/AES. The analytical

methods are described in Halonen et al. (1983).

pH was determined in a water suspension with a ratio

of 15 ml of sample and 25 ml of distilled water.

Exchangeable acidity (EA) (H��/Al3�) was

determined on a KCl extract with a ratio of 15 ml of

sample and 150 ml 1.0 M KCl by titration with 0.05 M

NaOH to an endpoint of pH 7.0. Exchangeable

aluminium (Al) was determined by back-titration with

0.02 N H2SO4 to pH 7.0 after 10 ml of 4% NaF solution

had been added to the extract (Halonen et al. 1983).

The needle samples were dried (708C, 48 h) and

analysed separately for each tree. Needle unit mass

(mg needle�1) was determined separately for each

tree. The concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn,

Fe and B were determined on finely ground needles by

dry digestion (5508C for 2 h) and extraction with HCl

(Halonen et al. 1983), and the filtered solutions were

analysed by ICP/AES. The N concentration was

determined on a CHN analyser.

Calculation of the results

The effective cation exchange capacity (CECe)

was calculated as the sum of equivalent values of

extractable Ca, Mg, K and Na and EA. Base satura-

tion (BS) was obtained from the proportion of the sum

Table 5. Average needle nutrient concentrations and

average needle dry mass at the time of establishment of

the experiments

Exp. Nutrient

Mean

(g kg�1) Nutrient

Mean

(mg kg�1)

402 N 12.5 (0.3) B 26.3 (0.7)

407 11.3 (0.1) 5.8 (0.3)

408 10.8 (0.2) 7.9 (0.5)

415 12.7 (0.2) 10.7 (0.7)

416 12.7 (0.3) 9.0 (0.6)

402 P 1.70 (0.04) Cu 4.6 (0.2)

407 1.44 (0.02) 6.3 (0.3)

408 1.27 (0.02) 4.2 (0.2)

415 1.79 (0.04) 3.1 (0.2)

416 1.60 (0.05) 2.2 (0.2)

402 K 4.97 (0.13) Fe 55 (2)

407 4.64 (0.09) 46 (1)

408 4.82 (0.10) 36 (1)

415 4.60 (0.10) 44 (1)

416 4.32 (0.24) 32 (1)

402 Ca 2.23 (0.08) Mn 567 (26)

407 2.04 (0.09) 639 (19)

408 2.15 (0.08) 372 (15)

415 2.21 (0.09) 513 (15)

416 3.26 (0.21) 782 (61)

402 Mg 1.05 (0.03) Zn 73 (3)

407 1.36 (0.03) 64 (4)

408 1.18 (0.03) 50 (1)

415 1.06 (0.02) 43 (1)

416 1.23 (0.04) 17 (1)

Dry mass (mg needle�1)

402 12.7 (0.5)

407 8.6 (0.4)

408 8.9 (0.3)

415 12.9 (0.5)

416 4.0 (0.2)

Data are shown as mean (SEM).

N: nitrogen; B: boron; P: phosphorus; Cu: copper;

K: potassium; Fe: iron; Ca: calcium; Mn: manganese;

Mg: magnesium; Zn: zinc.

Table 6. Fertilizer treatments used in the experiments

(tree stand measurements only were made for the SSF

treatment)

1 Control

2 Wood ash application:

Exp. 402: wood ash 3 t ha�1

Exp. 408: wood ash 3 t ha�1

3 Wood ash and nitrogen application (WAN):

Exp. 407: wood ash 3 t ha�1 and N 120 kg ha�1



4 Stand specific fertilization (SSF):

Exp. 407: N 120 and B 2 kg ha�1

Exp. 415: N 150, Cu 3 and B 1 kg ha�1

Exp. 416: N 180, P 40, Cu 3 and B 1 kg ha�1

N: nitrogen; B: boron; Cu: copper; P: phosphorus.

Table 7. Element concentrations in the wood ashes used

in the experiments

Element 402 407 & 408 415 416

P (g kg�1) 6.8 14.5 25.4 12.6

K (g kg�1) 18.2 40.4 37.3 36.3

Ca (g kg�1) 232 209 235 278

Mg (g kg�1) 14.4 36.2 33.4 20.3

Al (g kg�1) 50.1 6.2 13.7 9.4

Cu (g kg�1) 0.08 0.08 0.20 0.08

Fe (g kg�1) 9.1 5.9 8.1 4.3

Mn (g kg�1) 8.4 20.3 12.2 16.2

S (g kg�1) 15.2 2.7 4.8 2.9

Zn (g kg�1) 2.2 1.2 0.6 0.6

Cd (mg kg�1) 6.2 2.3 3.7 1.4

Pb (mg kg�1) 27.2 5.1 116.9 19.0

P: phosphorus; K: potassium; Ca: calcium; Mg: magnesium;

Al: aluminium; Cu: copper; Fe: iron; Mn: manganese;

S: sulfur; Zn: zinc; Cd: cadmium; Pb: lead.


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of the equivalent Ca, Mg, K and Na concentrations

out of CECe.

Statistical significance of the difference in soil

nutrient parameters and needle nutrient concentra-

tions was tested using the independent-samples t -test.

The equality of variances was tested with Levene’s test.

Pooled or separate variances were used depending on

the equality of the variances.

The stand characteristics at the start and end of the

first and second 5-yr study periods were calculated using

the KPL calculation programme for sample plots

(Heinonen 1994). A function based on breast height

diameter and height was used for calculating the volume

of the sample trees (Laasasenaho 1982). The height and

volume of trees other than the sample trees were

estimated by means of regression functions. The growth

for each 5-yr period was calculated as the difference

between consecutive measurements (the same trees at

the start and at the end of each period). Statistical

significance of the differences in volume growth be-

tween the treatments was tested using analysis of

variance. Bonferroni’s test was used to test the equality

of the treatment means. The following model was used

for the individual experiments: yij �/m�/tj�/eij , where

yij is the growth for block i (i�/ 1, 2, 3) and treatment j

(j�/1, 2 or j�/1, 2, 3), m is the total mean, t is the fixed

effect of treatment j , and eij is the residual effect for

observation ij .

RESULTS

Soil organic matter

In exp. 402, wood ash decreased the organic matter

content in the humus layer but increased it in the 0�/5

cm mineral soil layer 5 yrs after application (data not

shown). In the other experiments, however, neither

wood ash nor WAN had any significant effect on the

organic matter content in either the humus layer or the

mineral soil layers.

Soil acidity

Wood ash or WAN significantly elevated the pH in the

humus layer and in the 0�/5 cm mineral soil layer on all

the sites (Fig. 2). In the southern experiments

(exps 402, 415 and 416) the difference in humus layer

acidity between the treatments after 5 yrs was 1.4�/1.7

pH-units, and in the northern experiments (exps 407

and 408) 1.0�/1.1 pH-units. In the uppermost mineral

soil layer, the difference in acidity between the treat-

ments was 0.3�/0.4 pH-units 5 yrs after application.

After 10 yrs the difference in the humus layer acidity

between the treatments was 1.8 pH-units in exps 402 and

408, and 1.1 units in exp. 407. On the treated plots, a

decrease in soil acidity was evident after 10 yrs in the

uppermost mineral soil layer in exp. 408, and in both of

the mineral soil layers in exps 402 and 407.

Wood ash or WAN significantly decreased the EA

(80�/90%) in the humus layer in all the experiments

(Table 8). The exchangeable Al concentration in the

humus layer decreased on the treated plots in all the

experiments, being 0�/14% of that on the control plots

after 5 yrs. A decrease in the EA and Al concentration

was also found in the uppermost mineral soil layer on

the wood ash or WAN plots 5 yrs after application

Fig. 2. pH in the humus and mineral soil layers in the

experiments 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments. See explana-

tion in Table 6. Standard error of the mean is marked on the

columns by bars. Statistically significant differences between

the treatments are indicated by asterisks: *p B/0.05,

**p B/0.01, ***p B/0.001. WAN: wood ash and nitrogen.


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(Fig. 3). However, the decrease was not significant in all

cases. As was the case in the humus layer, the decrease in

the EA and exchangeable Al concentration in the

mineral soil was most pronounced in exp. 416. After

10 yrs a significant decrease in EA in both the humus

layer and the uppermost mineral soil layer was found on

the treated plots in exps 402, 407 and 408.

Nutrient and heavy metal concentrations in the humus

layer

Wood ash or WAN had no effect on the total N

concentrations in the humus layer in any of the

experiments (Fig. 4). Neither wood ash nor WAN

had any effect on the C/N ratio in any of the

experiments after 5 yrs (Fig. 4). In exp. 402, however,

there was a significant increase in the C/N ratio on the

wood ash treated plots after 10 yrs.

Wood ash or WAN significantly increased both the

total and extractable Ca and Mg concentrations in the

humus layer on all the sites (Fig. 5). Compared with

the control, the increase in the extractable Ca con-

centrations was 4.6- to 7.5-fold and of Mg 2.6- to 3.4-

fold after 5 yrs, and in exps 402, 407 and 408 5- to 9-

fold and 4-fold, respectively, after 10 yrs. After 5 yrs

WAN resulted in elevated concentrations of both total

and extractable P and K in exp. 415 and of P in exp.

416. After 10 yrs significant increases in both total P

and K were found on the wood ash or WAN plots in

exps 402, 407 and 408. There were also increases in the

extractable concentrations of these nutrients, but the

differences were not significant in all cases.

After 5 yrs wood ash or WAN significantly increased

the total B concentrations in the humus layer in all the

experiments (Appendix). There was a similar trend of

elevated total Mn and Zn concentrations in the humus

layer on the treated plots. The difference between the

treatments was, however, significant only in exps 415

(Zn) and 416 (Mn and Zn), i.e. after the WAN

treatment. A significant increase in the total Cd

concentration was found in the humus layer on the

WAN plots in exp. 415. After 10 yrs significantly

elevated concentrations of total B, Cd, Mn and Zn

were found in the humus layer on the treated plots in

exps 402, 407 and 408.

Nutrient concentrations in the mineral soil

Wood ash fertilization resulted in significantly elevated

N concentrations in both the 0�/5 and 5�/10 cm mineral

soil layers in exp. 402, but only after 5 yrs (Fig. 4). There

were no differences in the total N concentrations

between the treatments in the other experiments.

Although both wood ash and WAN resulted in

elevated Ca and Mg concentrations in the 0�/5 cm

mineral soil layer, the differences between the treat-

Table 8. Effective cation exchange capacity (CECe), base saturation (BS), exchangeable acidity (EA) and

exchangeable aluminium (Al) concentration (range in parentheses) in the humus layer in the experiments 5 and 10

yrs after the treatments

CECe (mmol kg�1 DM) BS (% DM) EA (mmol kg�1 DM) Al (mmol kg�1 DM)

Exp. Sampling ControlWood asha

or WANb ControlWood asha



or WANb

402 After 5 yrs 119 191* 38 94*** 73.3 11.3*** 41.8 6.0***(101�/131) (150�/219) (32�/42) (89�/96) (69.1�/76.9) (8.8�/15.9) (39.6�/44.5) (3.3�/10.4)

After 10 yrs 163 486** 45 98*** 89.1 8.4*** n.d. n.d.(145�/179) (397�/599) (38�/50) (96�/99) (87.7�/90.1) (4.0�/14.1)

407 After 5 yrs 147 272 48 94*** 76.2 15.8*** 25.9 3.2***(137�/162) (220�/361) (47�/49) (92�/96) (69.9�/83.6) (12.7�/18.3) (23.7�/27.6) (1.5�/4.4)

After 10 yrs 130 267*** 46 95*** 70 14.6** n.d. n.d.(120�/135) (243�/282) (40�/51) (94�/95) (59.1�/80.3) (11.8�/17.0)

408 After 5 yrs 127 232 33 93*** 84.6 14.0*** 42.2 4.0***(126�/128) (151�/325) (28�/39) (90�/96) (78.0�/91.8) (13.5�/14.4) (35.6�/49.4) (1.7�/6.0)

After 10 yrs 158 445* 45 98** 87.2 10.5*** n.d. n.d.(155�/160) (346�/576) (37�/49) (96�/98) (80.5�/99.5) (8.2�/13.6)

415 After 5 yrs 200 598** 74 98*** 50.4 9.6** 8.6 0*(183�/228) (465�/697) (72�/78) (96�/100) (50.0�/51.1) (0.0�/18.8) (7.2�/10.4) (0�/0)

416 After 5 yrs 193 666*** 65 99* 67.1 7.2** 27.7 0.4*(192�/194) (614�/725) (60�/73) (98�/99) (51.5�/77.5) (3.9�/9.7) (13.2�/36.8) (0.0�/1.0)

See Table 6 for explanations of treatments.a Experiments 402 and 408.b Experiments 407, 415 and 416.

DM: dry matter; WAN: wood ash and nitrogen; n.d.: not determined.

*p B/0.05, **p B/0.01, ***p B/0.001.


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ments were significant after 5 yrs in only a few cases

(Fig. 6). In exps 402, 408 and 415 there was also a

significant increase in the Mg concentration in the

5�/10 cm mineral soil layer. After 10 yrs significantly

elevated concentrations of Ca and Mg were found in the

uppermost mineral soil layer on the treated plots in exp.

407 and in both mineral soil layers in exps 402 and 408.

Cation exchange capacity and base saturation

Wood ash or WAN increased the CECe in the humus

layer on all the sites (Table 8). The increase was

most pronounced after 5 yrs in exp. 416 where CECe

on the treated plots was more than 3-fold that on the

control plots. After 10 yrs the increase in the CECe

between treatments was 2-fold in exp. 407 and 3-fold in

exps 402 and 407. Apart from two cases there were no

differences in CECe between the treatments in the

mineral soil in any of the experiments (Fig. 3).

Wood ash or WAN significantly increased BS 5 yrs

after application both in the humus layer and in the

uppermost mineral soil layer in all the experiments

(Table 8, Fig. 3). In the humus layer, the increase in BS

after 5 yrs was most pronounced in exps 402 and 408,

which initially had the lowest BS values, and the least

in exp. 415, where the BS had initially been the

highest. After 10 yrs there was an increase in BS in

all the wood ash or WAN-treated soil layers in exps

402, 407 and 408.

Fig. 3. Effective cation exchange capacity (CECe), base saturation (BS), exchangeable acidity (EA), and exchangeable

aluminium (Al) concentration (on dry matter basis) in the different mineral soil layers in the experiments 5 and 10 yrs after the

treatments. See explanations in Table 6 and Fig. 2.


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Needle nutrient concentrations

Wood ash or WAN increased the B concentrations in

the needles in all the experiments, apart from in exp. 415

5 yrs after application (Fig. 7). In contrast, there was a

significant decrease in the Mn concentrations on the

treated plots in all the experiments. An increase in the

concentrations of B and a decrease in the concentra-

tions of Mn were also found in the needles on the treated

plots after 10 yrs in exps 402, 407 and 408. Wood ash or

WAN had no effect on the needle N concentrations in

any of the experiments. Elevated Ca concentrations

were found on the treated plots in the needles in exps 402

and 408 after both 5 and 10 yrs. The response of the

needle Ca concentration to the WAN treatment was

contradictory after 5 yrs. Wood ash alone had no effect

on the P and K concentrations in the needles. In

contrast, WAN had in most cases an increasing effect

on the needle P and K concentrations.

Tree growth

Wood ash given alone had no effect on volume growth

in the southernmost experiment (exp. 402) during the

Fig. 4. Total nitrogen (N) concentration (on an organic matter basis) and carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio in the humus layer and

in the different mineral soil layers (on a dry matter basis) 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments. See explanations in Table 6 and Fig.

2. WAN: wood ash and nitrogen.


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first 5-yr period, and a 9% non-significant positive

effect during the second 5-yr period (Fig. 8). In exp.

408, which was also located on a relatively infertile

site, there was a non-significant 7�/8% increase in the

volume growth during the first and second 5-yr

periods on the ash-treated plots.

During the first 5-yr period a significant 42�/71%

increase in the volume growth occurred on the WAN

plots in exps 407, 415 and 416, and of 36�/62% on the

SSF plots with N but no wood ash. The relative response

was most pronounced in exp. 407, which initially had a

much lower growth level than that in exps 415 and 416.

During the second 5-yr period, a non-significant 26%

increase in volume growth occurred on the WAN plots

in exp. 407; in contrast, there was no longer any growth

response to the SSF treatment. The growth response to

the WAN and SSF treatments did not differ in either

exp. 415 or exp. 416 during the second 5-yr period. The

response to these treatments was, however, no longer

significant. In the spruce stand (exp. 416), the response

to WAN and SSF was 29�/30% (p�/0.18) and in the pine

stand (exp. 415) 7�/10% (p�/0.56).

The radial growth results indicate the timing of the

response (Fig. 9). In exp. 408 a slight negative growth

response was seen after wood ash application, which

levelled off after two growing seasons. The growth

reaction given by WAN was the greatest during the

second (exp. 415) or third (exp. 407) year after

Fig. 5. Total and extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) concentrations (dry matter

basis) in the humus layer in the experiments 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments. See explanations in Table 6 and Fig. 2. WAN:

wood ash and nitrogen.


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application in the pine stands, and during the fourth

year after application in the spruce stand (exp. 416).

DISCUSSION

Similar increases in extractable Ca and Mg concentra-

tions, and in some cases also in K and P, in the humus

layer following wood ash application have been

reported in other studies (Levula 1991, Priha &

Smolander 1994, Bramryd & Fransman 1995, Kahl

et al. 1996, Ruhling 1996, Eriksson 1998, Levula et al.

2000, Ludwig et al. 2002). Wood ash-induced increases

in the Ca and Mg concentrations in the humus layer

can be of long duration (Saarsalmi et al. 2001). In this

study, elevated extractable Ca, Mg and also P con-

centrations were found even after 10 yrs. Many of the

elements present in wood ash can be retained in the

humus layer as a result of the decrease in the

availability of the elements due to the pH increase,

or to complexation with organic compounds (Bram-

ryd & Fransman 1995). The humus layer thus acts as a

trap for many of the elements added in wood ash. This

may partly explain the long-lasting, nutritional effects

of wood ash application.

Wood ash generally has a strong neutralizing and

buffering capacity. The hydroxyl ions formed as a result

of the dissolution of the CaO, MgO, K2O and NaOH in

the ash neutralize the protons in the soil solution and

those bound on cation-exchange sites in the soil. The

released cations (Ca2�, Mg2�, K� and Na�) displace

the protons and Al3� cations occupying cation-ex-

Fig. 6. Extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) concentrations (dry matter basis) in the

different mineral soil layers in the experiments 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments. See explanations in Table 6 and Fig. 2. WAN:

wood ash and nitrogen.


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change sites. In this study, wood ash or WAN decreased

the exchangeable Al concentration in both the humus

and mineral soil. Similar significantly and inversely

related results between the exchangeable Al concentra-

tion and wood ash application have also been reported

in other studies (Unger & Fernandez 1990, Bramryd &

Fransman 1995, Kahl et al. 1996, Saarsalmi et al. 2001).

A decrease in acidity following the application of

wood ash on forested mineral soils has also been

reported in several other studies (Martikainen 1984,

Levula 1991, Baath & Arnebrandt 1994, Priha &

Smolander 1994, Bramryd & Fransman 1995, Fritze et

al. 1995, Malkonen 1996, Tamminen 1998, Levula et

al. 2000, Ludwig et al. 2002). According to these

studies, the pH increase in the humus layer induced by

wood ash application has been 0.3�/2.4 pH-units

during 1�/12 yrs after the application of 1�/7 t ha�1

of ash. The effect of wood ash on the acidity of the

humus layer can be of long duration. In a study

carried out by Saarsalmi et al. (2001), a wood ash-

induced increase of 0.6�/1.0 pH-units was found in the

humus layer even 16 yrs after wood ash application

with a dose of 3 t ha�1.

In this study, a wood ash-induced pH increase was

found after 5 yrs in the 0�/5 cm mineral soil layer, and

after 10 yrs also in the 5�/10 cm mineral soil layer. The

neutralization effects of wood ash probably become

evident in the mineral soil at a slower rate than in

the humus layer. Consequently, in the study of Saar-

salmi et al. (2001) an increase of 0.2�/0.3 pH units was

found in the 0�/10 cm mineral soil layer 16 yrs after ash

application of 3 t ha�1, but not yet after 7 yrs.

Until recently, only untreated, loose wood ash has

mainly been available for Finnish studies. Since the

sharp increase in soil pH after wood ash application can

have negative effects on the ground vegetation (Kellner

& Weibull 1998, Jacobson & Gustafsson 2001) and

microfauna (Huhta 1984), doses of loose wood ash

exceeding 2.5�/3.0 t ha�1 are not recommended for use

on mineral soils (Malkonen et al. 2001). Pelleted or

granulated ash reduces the reactivity of the ash, and has

been shown to have less drastic effects on the pH of the

soil (Eriksson et al. 1998).

Wood ash has been reported to have no effect on

needle N concentrations on forested mineral soil

(Moilanen & Issakainen 2000, Jacobson 2003, Arvids-

son & Lundkvist 2002). In this study, no response to

either wood ash or WAN application was found in the

needle N concentrations. Normal N fertilization

usually increases the needle N concentration for a

period of a few years. The time between the

N application and first needle sampling was five

growing seasons, and hence it was no longer possible

to detect the effect of N application in the needles.

The increase in the needle B concentration after

wood ash application found in this study is in

agreement with the results obtained by Jacobson

(2003). In contrast, wood ash had no effect on the

P, K and Ca concentrations in the needles. Arvids-

son & Lundkvist (2002), however, found increases in

the P, K and Ca concentrations in the needles of

Fig. 7. Total nutrient concentrations in the needles 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments. See explanations in Table 6 and Fig. 2. N:

nitrogen; P: phosphorus; Mn: manganese; Cu: copper; K: potassium; Ca: calcium; Zn: zinc; Fe: iron; Mg: magnesium;

B: boron; WAN: wood ash and nitrogen.


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young Norway spruce stands 5 yrs after wood ash

application. Jacobson (2003) reported increases in

needle K concentrations in 30�/60-yr-old coniferous

stands during the first few years, but not after 7 yrs

following ash application. According to Jacobson

(2003), however, wood ash had no significant effect

on needle P and Ca concentrations.

No significant volume growth response to wood ash

was found in this study. The results are in agreement

with the experience usually gained in wood ash experi-

ments in Scots pine or Norway spruce stands on mineral

soil (Malmstrom 1953, Sikstrom 1992, Moilanen &

Issakainen 2000, Jacobson 2003). Prescott & Brown

(1998), however, reported that in an N-limited 9-yr-old

plantation of western red cedar (Thuja plicata ) in

British Columbia, wood ash (5 t ha�1) addition resulted

in a significantly reduced height increment during the 5-

yr period following ash application.

In a series of seven field experiments established in

30�/60-yr-old Scots pine and Norway spruce stands in

Sweden, the relative growth response to wood ash of

different origin and composition was positively corre-

lated with site fertility (Jacobson 2003). Consequently,

on the most fertile sites, the effect of wood ash addition

averaged over the sites was a 4�/10% non-significant

increase in volume growth by the end of the 5�/11 yr

study. On the three less fertile pine sites, the effect of

wood ash addition averaged over the sites was a 3�/8%

non-significant reduction in volume growth.

The significant growth increase caused by the WAN

treatment during the first 5-yr period in exps 407, 415

and 416 was apparently caused by the inclusion of

N. This was apparent when the growth response to the

WAN treatment was compared with the similar

response to the SSF treatment with N but no wood

ash. However, the addition of ammonium N to wood

ash-fertilized soil can result in nitrification and the

leaching of nitrate (Martikainen 1984, Hogbom et al.

2001). This is because nitrification in acid forest

soils is mainly controlled by ammonium availability,

base saturation and soil pH. In the spruce stand

(exp. 416) where the SSF treatment included P, the

added P may have had some effect on the volume

growth (Kukkola & Saramaki 1983).

Fig. 8. Volume growth of the tree stands during the first and second 5-yr period after the treatments. See explanation in Table

6. Mean values with the same letter do not differ significantly from each other (p �/0.05). SSF: stand-specific fertilization;

WAN: wood ash and nitrogen.


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According to Laakkonen et al. (1983), the duration of

the effect of N fertilization in mature pine stands in

southern Finland has usually been about 7 yrs for pine

and about 10 yrs for spruce. In the spruce stand

(exp. 416), a slight response to both the WAN and

SSF treatments was still evident during the second 5-yr

period. In the pine stands (exps 407 and 415), there was

no longer any growth increase due to the SSF treatment

during the second 5-yr period, but there was still a slight

growth increase due to the WAN treatment in exp. 407.

According to the results obtained by Levula (1991),

the increase in volume growth during the first 5-yr

period in a Scots pine stand on a Vaccinium vitis-idaea

site was the same irrespective of whether N fertilization

with a dose of 180 kg N ha�1 was added either alone or

together with 2 t ha�1 of bark ash. Similarly, according

to Jacobson (2003), the growth response was the same in

two Scots pine stands on poor sites in northern Sweden

during the first 5-yr period, irrespective of whether

ammonium nitrate with lime (180 kg N ha�1) was

added either alone or together with 3 t ha�1 of wood

ash. However, according to Pettersson (1990), wood ash

reduced the response to N fertilization. Pettersson

(1990) reported that there may be a loss of N via

ammoniavolatilization caused by the increase in soil pH

after loose wood ash application. Similarly, the volume

increment in a Scots pine stand on a poor site in

northern Sweden was significantly higher when the

wood ash was added 9 months after N addition,

compared with the treatment with simultaneous

N plus wood ash addition (Jacobson 2003).

Wood ash contains varying concentrations of toxic

heavy metals such as Cd, mercury (Hg) and Pb. One of

the major concerns regarding the negative effects of

wood ash application is that it might lead to increased

concentrations of Cd in the soil. Tamminen (1998)

reported an increase in the concentration of Cd in the

humus layer in two pine seedling stands in southern

Finland 6 yrs after wood ash application with a dose of 3

t ha�1. Bramryd & Fransman (1995), however, found

no increase in the Cd concentration in the humus layer

in a 35-yr-old pine stand in southern Sweden 10 yrs after

wood ash application with doses of either 2 or 7 t ha�1.

Apart from a significant increase in the Cd concentra-

tion in the humus layer in exp. 415 in this study, neither

wood ash nor WAN had any significant effect on the Cd

concentration 5 yrs after application. Although ele-

vated Cd concentrations were found on the treated plots

after 10 yrs, the concentrations of Cd and other heavy

metals were, in all cases, within the normal variation

range of the concentrations of these heavy metals in

Finnish soils (Tamminen 2000).

The Cd concentrations in wood ash normally vary

from 4 to 20 mg kg�1 (Jonsson & Nilsson 1996). In

Finland, a dose of 2.5�/3 t ha�1 of wood ash is

considered to be suitable on forested mineral soils

(Malkonen et al. 2001). This dose is expected to have a

soil ameliorating effect for some decades. The amount

of heavy metals applied in this dose has not been

found to retard the decomposition of the organic

matter (Fritze et al. 1994, 2000) or to accumulate to a

significant degree in forest berries (Silfverberg

& Issakainen 1991, Levula et al. 2000).

Fig. 9. Mean annual radial growth at breast height of the

felled sample trees (15 trees per treatment) before and after

the treatments. See explanation in Table 6. SSF: stand-

specific fertilization; WAN: wood ash and nitrogen.


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In conclusion, wood ash can be used to counteract the

acidification of forest soil and to compensate for the loss

of nutrients resulting from tree harvesting and leaching.

Since the growth response on forested mineral soils to

wood ash fertilization alone seems, at least on poorer

sites, to be insignificant or even lead to a growth decline,

its direct economic benefits appear to be relatively

negligible. Particular attention should be paid to the

question of whether wood ash, with its soil ameliorating

and fertilization effects, can be utilized on poor sites

together with N fertilizer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank John Derome for revising the English of this

manuscript and Anne Siika for preparing the figures.

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Appendix A. Average total micronutrient and heavy metal concentrations in the humus layer (dry matter basis) in

the experiments 5 and 10 yrs after the treatments

402 407 408 415 416

Sampling Control

(mg kg�1)

Wood ash

(mg kg�1)

Control

(mg kg�1)

WAN

(mg kg�1)

Control

(mg kg�1)

Wood ash

(mg kg�1)

Control

(mg kg�1)

WAN

(mg kg�1)

Control

(mg kg�1)

WAN

(mg kg�1)

B After 5 yrs 2.8* (0.4) 4.9 (0.5) 1.6* (0.1) 7.3 (1.1) 1.6* (0.1) 7.4 (2.0) 3.0* (0.1) 12.5 (1.7) 3.6** (0.2) 13.2 (1.0)

After 10 yrs 1.2** (0.2) 6.3 (1) 0.3** (0.1) 2.7 (0.4) 0.7* (0.05) 9.9 (2.6)

Cd After 5 yrs 0.24 (0.15) 0.14 (0.04) 0.29 (0.13) 0.10 (0.0) 0.54 (0.45) 0.19 (0.09) 0.10* (0.0) 0.24 (0.02) 0.15 (0.04) 0.47 (0.30)

After 10 yrs 0.25*** (0.01) 0.76 (0.05) 0.22** (0.01) 0.27 (0.01) 0.20* (0.0) 0.40 (0.06)

Cr After 5 yrs 18.3 (1.8) 16.2 (1.1) 9.2 (1.2) 10.3 (0.9) 13.3 (1.8) 16.7 (1.7) 27.8 (3.8) 21.5 (3.5) 23.5 (4.6) 20.4 (1.6)

After 10 yrs 18.1 (5.4) 26.1 (3.4) 23.0 (3.9) 15.1 (3.3) 15.3 (2.8) 24.8 (6.5)

Cu After 5 yrs 4.0 (0.3) 4.8 (0.6) 6.1 (0.6) 7.9 (0.3) 5.1 (0.3) 6.2 (0.9) 6.9** (0.4) 14.3 (1.4) 7.4* (0.4) 9.7 (0.5)

After 10 yrs 6.2*** (0.3) 11.1 (0.4) 4.9 (0.4) 5.8 (0.2) 5.9 (0.5) 9.3 (1.5)

Fe After 5 yrs 5127 (178) 5307 (183) 2110 (286) 2633 (253) 3190 (190) 3190 (653) 3653 (519) 3680 (270) 4560 (340) 3417 (249)

After 10 yrs 3120 (144) 3470 (143) 2500 (488) 3223 (783) 2407 (213) 2243 (262)

Mn After 5 yrs 77 (2) 153 (29) 138 (9) 463 (90) 75 (12) 227 (77) 664 (71) 1870 (564) 872* (152) 1407 (66)

After 10 yrs 83** (5) 774 (38) 100*** (11) 584 (12) 84* (13) 853 (178)

Ni After 5 yrs 11.2 (1.0) 9.7 (0.9) 5.6 (0.4) 6.2 (0.4) 7.3 (1.1) 8.1 (1.3) 15.7 (1.8) 12.6 (2.4) 13.9 (2.3) 12.6 (0.8)

After 10 yrs 17.8 (4.9) 23.2 (3.1) 17.7 (3.0) 11.0 (2.8) 14.3 (2.1) 23.4 (4.5)

Pb After 5 yrs 45.4 (1.6) 39.7 (2.6) 48.9 (6.1) 56.9 (3.5) 37.3 (0.9) 35.7 (0.4) 34.7* (2.1) 44.3 (2.0) 33.8 (2.0) 29.8 (1.0)

After 10 yrs 53.4 (0.8) 50.6 (2) 38.1 (3.0) 36.8 (1.3) 35.4 (2.1) 35.6 (0.7)

Zn After 5 yrs 38.7 (3.2) 60.0 (9.1) 42.5* (3.1) 59.1 (4.2) 37.6 (1.9) 39.6 (4.6) 69.2* (3.1) 117.8 (10.6) 53.0** (8.2) 103.7 (2.9)

After 10 yrs 47.7** (3.9) 210.3 (17.9) 31.1*** (1.1) 57.2 (1.8) 42.3* (2.3) 60.8 (4.1)

Data are shown as mean (SEM).

See Table 6 for explanations of treatments.

WAN: wood ash and nitrogen; B: boron; Cd: cadmium; Cr: chromium; Cu: copper; Fe: iron; Mn: manganese;

Ni: nickel; Pb: lead; Zn: zinc.

*p B/0.05, **p B/0.01, ***p B/0.001.


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