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Education and development: The role of non‐formaleducation, especially in developing countriesD Vermaak aa Director, Research Institute for Education Planning , University Orange Free State ,Published online: 27 Feb 2008.

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Development Southern Africa Vol 2, No 2, May 1985

Education and developmentThe role of non-formal education,especially in developing countriesD Vermaak*

Education plays an important role in development, especially in a developingcountry. To develop the skills and knowledge of the large percentage of thepeople outside the reach of formal education, and to offer educationprogrammes which can easily adapt and respond to the specific and immediateneeds of a developing community, out-of-school programmes should be consi-dered.

This article explains how non-formal education, that is organized andsystematic education offered outside the framework of the formal educationsystem, could complement formal education, and should be organized tosupport integrated, community-based development Briefly discussedguidelines for the planning of non-formal education are the horizontal andvertical integration of all activities, extensive community involvement, a self-help approach, the use of front line workers and the maximum utilization ofexisting facilities.

1. INTRODUCTIONEducation and development are interwoven. It is impossible to stimulatereal development without some kind of education. An examination of theeducational needs of developing countries makes it clear that only by offer-ing a large variety of learning opportunities can some of these needs besatisfied.

In the South African context, the ten independent and self-governing na-tional states (referred to as developing states) need to take a fresh look attheir educational programmes and seriously consider the introduction ofout-of-school (non-formal) education programmes complementary to theexisting formal education.

2. THE FORMAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS OF THE RURAL AREAS INTHE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

Before commencing with a discussion on the role of non-formal educationin development, I would like to take a look at the educational scene of theindependent and self-governing national states and Black farm schools inthe Republic of South Africa.

* Director, Research Institute for Education Planning, University Orange FreeState

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Table 1 — Distribution of pupils in the South African context, 1983

Pupils

Black pupilsTBVC states*Self-governing statesDept. Education& Training (estimate)

Asian pupilsColoured pupilsWhite pupils

TOTAL

Number(Sub A-Std 10)

1 711 9012 155 591

1 679 975

228 737769 282984 910

7 530 396

Percentage

22,828,6

22,3

3,010,213,1

± 73,7%

± 26,3%

100

* TBVC states: The republics of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei.

Source: Verwey et al. 1984. p 8.

Table 2 — Distribution of Black pupils in rural areas and other regions

Pupils

TBVC statesSelf-governing statesFarm schools of Dept Education

& Training (estimate)

Sub-Total

Other schools of Dept Education& Training (estimate)

Number(SubA-Std lO)

1711 9012 155 591

492 473

4 359 965

1 187 502

5 547 467

Percentage

30,938,9

8,8

78,6

21,4

100

Source: Verwey et al, 1984. p 8. and unpublished statistics collected by RIEP.

The 5 547 467 Black pupils represented 73,7 per cent of the total numberof 7 530 396 pupils in the South African context in 1983. Most of theBlack pupils received their schooling in the developing states. During1983, 1 711 901(30,9percent)of all Black pupils were in the TBVC coun-tries, 2 155 591 (38,9 per cent) in the six self-governing national statesand an estimated 492 473 (8,8 per cent) in farm schools administered bythe Department of Education and Training of the RSA. An estimated totalof 78,6 per cent of 4 359 465 pupils therefore attended schools in ruraland semi-rural areas (Verwey et al, 1984, p 8).

2.1 Pupils in the ten South African developing states leaving schoolwith insufficient schooling

My Institute collected statistical data and made estimates concerning412

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early school leavers in the ten developing states. The findings were as fol-lows: During 1983, 122 355 pupils out of 719 552 (some 17 per cent) leftschool without passing Sub Std A, 124 341 pupils out of 1 452 472 (some8 per cent) left school during the Sub Std B to Std 3 period and 71 949 outof 967 620 (some 8,9 per cent) from Std 3 to Std 5. The estimated totalnumber of Black pupils in the ten South African developing states who leftschool during their primary school years is 323 645 for 1983. Althoughseveral of these pupils flow back into the education system at a later stage,a large percentage of them, as well as those who never enter the formaleducation system are candidates for non-formal education programmes.(According to the literacy profile of 1980, approximately 4 million peopleover the age of 19 have had no formal education whatsoever.)

3. THE CRISIS OF FORMAL EDUCATIONThe above-mentioned statistics clearly indicate that in our ten developingstates, as is the case in developing countries all over the world, there aremany people outside the formal education system who should receivesome kind of education if their countries are to develop. Because thesepeople are beyond the reach of formal education, we need another type ofeducation to improve their knowledge, their skills, their personal andtheir community's development.

Educationists involved in the planning of education for Third World coun-tries accept the fact that linear expansion of existing formal educationsystems is not the answer to the educational demands of developing coun-tries today.

Since the 1960s, it has become general practice to consider a variety ofnon-formal out-of-school education programmes focusing on basic educa-tion, functional literacy, adult education, fundamental education, sec-ond-chance education and general lifelong learning opportunities.

4. THE INTRODUCTION OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATIONAt present the various learning opportunities which are offered in andoutside the formal school have reached the stage where clearly formulateddefinitions have become essential for working purposes. Conceptual clar-ity is a necessity in respect of the following terms: formal education, alter-native formal education, informal education, incidental education andnon-formal education.

4.1 Formal educationCoombs defines formal education as "the highly institutionalized,chronologically graded and hierarchically structured 'education system'spanning lower primary school and the upper reaches of the university"(1974, p 8).

Typical formal education systems, especially those of developing coun-tries, experience problems such as unsatisfactory student flow (highdropout and repeater rate), acute scarcity of resources (inter alia qualifiedteachers), a continuous rise of educational expenditure, the unsuitabilityof the school leavers for jobs and the inertia and inefficiency in general offormal education in adapting to a country's developmental needs. Deci-sion makers should therefore not equate education with formal educa-tion, but allow other types of education, especially non-formal education,

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the right to be supplementary and complementary to formal education.

4.2 Alternative (formal) educationOccasionally formal education systems offer accelerated part-time educa-tion programmes. In practice these are alternative and equivalent pro-grammes, from elementary education up to university level, offered paral-lel to the existing formal system. These programmes are meant for thosestudents who cannot utilize the normal formal education opportunitieson a full-time basis (compare Bhola, 1983, pp 48, 52).

4.3 Informal educationInformal education can be defined as learning resulting "from situationswhere either the learner or the source of information has a conscious in-tent of promoting learning but not both" (Evans, 1981, p 28). This form ofeducation is widely under-estimated and under-utilized, but it forms avital part of the learning process.

Examples of informal education are radio messages, newspapers,magazines, or a learner who wants to learn more about electronics and re-quires certain information from a friend. Such examples constitute partof non-formal education in cases where there is reciprocity between thetwo sides.4.4 Incidental educationIncidental education is "learning which takes place without either a con-scious attempt to present on the part of the source or a conscious attemptto learn on the part of the learner" (Evans, 1981, p 28). Most of this kind oflearning takes place by means of a combination of observation, imitationand selected reinforcement by other members of society. Languages, cul-turally specified behaviour, general attitudes and beliefs, and most func-tional knowledge about daily life are acquired this way.

4.5 Non-formal educationThe non-formal education of today occurs in a wide variety of forms. Someterms overlap according to different uses and emphases. Some are typicalfor developing countries, others for the highly developed ones, and stillothers apply to both kinds of countries. Some forms are already knownunder the term adult education, but one has to remember that, whereasthis type of adult education denotes an age group only, the term non-for-mal education implies an organizational principle.

Most of the non-formal education programmes can be classified accordingto one of the following categories:— Non-formal education programmes striving to improve the quality of

life— Non-formal education programmes supporting development at local or

national level— Non-formal education programmes offering manpower training oppor-

tunities to the unskilled— Non-formal education programmes offering upgrading, retraining or

refresher opportunities for those already trained— Non-formal education programmes closely linked to formal education,

for instance these programmes enabling the learners to comply withthe requirements of the formal school (compare Garbers, 1984, pp 5-6).

More and more educationists and economists consider well organized414

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out-of-school education programmes the obvious choice for coping withsome of the previous mentioned educational issues and developmentneeds of developing countries. It is interesting to note that the World BankEducation Sector Policy Paper (1980) distinguishes between formal edu-cation, non-formal education and informal education in terms of modes ofdelivery and instructional objectives (p 16). According to this interpreta-tion, non-formal education is

organized and systematic learning activity carried on outside the for-mal sector. (It) is neither an alternative education system nor ashortcut to the rapid education of a population. Rather, non-formaleducation and training provide a second chance for learning to thosewho missed formal schooling; it enables the rural or urban poor, withinprogrammes of "integrated development", to acquire useful knowledge,attitudes, and skills, and affords a wide array of learning activities di-rectly associated with work.

On the same lines Bhola (1983, p 48) argues that this term should be re-served for short-term classes, systematic problem-oriented training ac-tivities and teaching of social and political skills. A quite useful and widelyused definition of non-formal education is that of Coombs & Ahmed(1974, p 4): "Non-formal education... is any organized, systematic educa-tional activity carried on outside the framework of the formal system toprovide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the popula-tion, adults as well as children".

Non-formal education may therefore be generally defined as organizededucation programmes. However, it is not fully and formally in-stitutionalized. Although it is systematic, it is not routinized, and thecontext of its delivery is basically out-of-school.

Typical advantages enumerated by the proponents of non-formal educa-tion are:— Efficient use of scarce resources— Expansion of educational services— Promotion of equity in educational opportunities— Enhancement of the relevance of education to the demands of socio-

economic development (compare Ahmed, 1983, p 36).

5. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION'S FOCUS ON THE HERE AND NOWNEEDS

The design and delivery of non-formal education is much more difficultthan that of formal education. In contrast to formal education, non-for-mal education must be responsive to very specific and immediate needs ofa specific group of learners or a selected community. A non-formal educa-tion programme must focus on the here and now needs, and should beproblem-centred, community-centred and learner-centred. The emphasisshould be on productive work, in contrast to the typical vocationalized ap-proaches to formal education. The chief aim of non-formal education is toget the learners involved in real-life production actions. In the case of thedisadvantaged and poor, who find it difficult to provide themselves withthe basic necessities for survival and human dignity, all educational prog-rammes will be regarded as irrelevant if they do not relate to the im-mediate needs of survival and human dignity. Matters such as food, shel-

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ter, health, nutrition, water-supply and sanitation thus become very im-portant.

Experience in diverse situations in developing countries suggests that inorder to promote a broader participation on the part of those left out byformal schooling, the following measures must be taken:

First, the opportunity cost for the child's family must be reduced bymaking the educational programme conform to the daily and seasonalcycle or subsistance production so that the children can continue toplay their economic role. They must also be able to perform their as-signed family, tribal or communal duties without interruption by theschool. Second, the social and cultural impediments need to be over-come by making appropriate changes in the educational content,teaching methods, teaching personnel and the management of theeducational programme.

The educational experience should not be seen as alien to the familyand community... Accommodation has to be made, for instance, to lin-guistic, tribal and religious sentiments and injunctions even when cer-tain changes in traditional ways are desirable and important from a na-tional perspective... Third, and much more complex, is the need tomake the educational programme an instrument for improving the liv-ing conditions of the people in more direct and immediate ways that isthe case with conventional primary schools (Ahmed, 1983, p 38).

6. GENERAL PREREQUISITES FOR SUCCESSSome of the important prerequisites for success noted by the advocates ofnon-formal education are:— A national commitment to promote mass welfare— Decentralization of management and planning of non-formal educa-

tion and development— Meaningful participation of the part of those for whom the non-formal

education programme is meant— A dynamic context for socio-economic change arising from national de-

velopment policies and priorities (Coombs & Ahmed, 1983, p 36).

A United Nations Children's Fund document (see Ahmed, 1983, p 40) in-dicates that those educational programmes which have been relativelysuccessful have several of the following characteristics:— Parents and community members who are associated with productive

activities and skills training— Arrangements which are made with industrial and other productive

enterprises for mutually advantageous support to the school's produc-tive activities

— Flexible school timetables which include shifts for study and work andtime-release arrangements

— Curricular content, teaching methods, evaluation and examinationprocedures which take into account the student's participation in pro-ductive work

— Reflection in the training and evaluation of the teaching personnel ofthe importance of productive work in the educational programmes

— Parents and community members who participate in the policy mak-ing, planning and management of the educational institutions in re-

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spect of both the academic and the productive aspects, which result inone or another form of autonomy for the institutions

— Financial and human resources for the educational programmes are atleast partially mobilized locally and managed in a decentralized man-ner in each institution

— The educational and productive activities are related and adapted tothe local development needs and opportunities.

Certain models strive towards involvement in the critical problems of aspecific community. These are educational facilities which are trans-formed into community learning centres focusing on collective self-helpand community development projects. Referring to the experience withthese centres in Tanzania, Ahmed remarks that "an overall supportivepolitical environment is immensely more critical for the success of thecommunity learning centre with its multifaceted and complex objectivesthan for the conventional formal school" (1983, p 42).

7. SHIFTING OF EMPHASIS TO AN INTEGRATED COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH

Since the focus of this paper is on non-formal education and development,especially in the South African developing states, and more specificallythe rural areas, it is necessary first to refer to a change in internationalthinking regarding rural development which emerged at the start of theseventies. It is well known that until the late sixties it was customary tomeasure development, even in predominantly rural states, by the GNP oreconomical growth concept. In the early seventies it was realized more andmore that impressive and economical growth in a developing countrymight benefit only a small part of the population. The larger part of thepopulation might still be living under conditions of utmost misery andpoverty, lacking basic necessities of life and maintaining a high birth-rate. Under this approach, assumptions such as the following were oftenaccepted as valid rules:— That development endeavours directed at modern and industrialized

urban areas would automatically extend to rural areas and set off ruraldevelopment without direct government intervention

— That commercial agricultural development formed the essence ofurban development

— That economic development and social development were two separateprocesses and that economic development should always precede socialdevelopment

— That all rural communities and residents were more or less the same.What was valid for one was therefore also valid for the other

— That the most effective way of delivering development services to thevarious rural areas was by means of individual experts, each using hisown independent "delivery system". The system works from the topdown, in other words from the various state departments (at the top) tothe various communities (at the lower level).

An approach which gained in popularity during the seventies, and whichis largely relevant to non-formal education in rural areas, is the 'inte-grated community-based approach". Of this approach, Philip Coombs,who visited my Institute this year, writes as follows:

This new international consensus calls for a massive, multifaceted,417

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rural development effort aimed at meeting the "basic needs" of the ruralpoor, with special attention to disadvantaged women, young childrenand minorities; at increasing rural employment and the productivity ofsmall farmers and other rural workers, and the full participation of allrural people in the development process and equitable distribution ofits benefits (1980, p 1).

Also of importance is human development within rural communities,which should lead to the improvement of the quality of life of the ordinarypeople within the community. Their basic needs in the areas of health,food, minimum income, housing, education, etc, are also in questionhere. The interdependence of social and economic development isstrongly emphasized. Only by means of an integrated approach, whichtakes the community as its point of departure, can there be any hope ofpromoting the development of rural communities.

8. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS PART OF AN INTEGRATEDDEVELOPMENT APPROACH

The few considerations which now follow on the relation between non-for-mal education and development are within the context of the integratedapproach.The first consideration in question is that development actions, evenwithin the most underdeveloped communities, have no chance of successwithout an education component. Even if the main emphasis in a develop-ment programme is on such subjects as health, agriculture and watersupply, those for whom the programme is intended have to be approp-riately informed, educated and trained. In this regard the non-formal edu-cation component plays an essential role.Although care should be taken not to over-estimate the influence of non-formal education on development, it is an education strategy with greatpotential for providing In the development needs of a developing country.If one looks at the millions of illiterate and semi-literate adults and youthsone realizes that it is practically impossible for formal education to pro-vide a solution. Non-formal education can immediately and on requestprovide educational programmes for those who need them, and that at theplace where they live and work.Bhola describes it as "appropriate education — responsive, immediatelyusable and. in terms of economic returns, highly attractive... (ft) has theability to focus on the urban unemployed and untrained, the landless, thechildren of rural poor, women, and can reach migrants and immigrants"(1983, pp 45-46 , 49).This type of non-formal education programme should support the na-tional development plan of a developing country. It is therefore necessarythat developing states should have a viable national development strategywhich takes the function of non-formal education into account. Govern-ments of such states should realize and accept the role which non-formaleducation can play in development. Generally speaking, non-formal edu-cation programmes in developing states should function as a national ser-vice related to development.

Non-formal education can promote development by various means, forexample:— Increasing the productivity of those who produce food418

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— Upgrading the literacy of those who work in factories— Enlarging the knowledge and understanding of communities in the

areas of health, family planning, proper nutrition, basic skills and goodfamily care by women.

9. A PLEA FOR INTEGRATED NON-FORMAL EDUCATIONPROGRAMMES BY THE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION OFDEVELOPING STATES

Literacy programmes, which are an important non-formal education ac-tivity, are already organized and provided by the departments of educa-tion of the developing states within the South African context. As a non-formal education domain, this type of programme definitely has great po-tential. That it should enjoy high priority and should be extended maxi-mally, was emphasized strongly earlier this year by the Population De-velopment Programme, which was accepted at national level.

This development programme emphasizes the necessity of a programmewith target areas at the macro, meso and micro level, which is aimed at thepromotion of a high standard of literacy amongst adults. Some other mat-ters which are also emphasized are economic development of the underde-veloped communities, especially in the rural areas, mass education forchildren of school-going age, general health, a hygienic life style and agood life style.

The plea which I direct at the departments of education of the developingstates, is not only for a further extension of the literacy programmes, butthat these programmes should be integrated with other basic needs of thecommunities, such as, in the case of women, family-care, proper nutri-tion and hygienic habits, the recognition and treatment of common dis-eases, family planning and so forth. Such integrated programmes de-mand that the departments of education co-operate with other depart-ments. This is the difficulty. In some cases, well-planned, integrated, non-formal education attempts fail because departments find it difficult to co-operate. Without the necessary organizational structures, little is realizedof this ideal.

It seems that the implementation of integrated programmes is facilitatedby the following organizational structures.

Each department, but especially each department of education, shouldhave a special section for non-formal education. The head of such a sec-tion should fall and function immediately under the Director-General. Atnational level, there should be a body or committee for rural developmentprogrammes, which reports directly to the Chief Minister or State Presi-dent. All state departments and their non-formal education sections, aswell as outside organizations involved in non-formal education, shouldserve on this committee, or a sub-committee thereof. At the local level,where the communities function, local councils should also be estab-lished on which all concerned, e g of the various departments, other in-terested parties and community leaders, serve.

10. A FEW DIRECTIVES FOR THE PLANNING OF NON-FORMALEDUCATION IN THE INTERESTS OF DEVELOPMENT

To conclude, a special reference to a few directives for the planning of non-formal education:

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First hand information and insight regarding those for whom non-formaleducation is intended, should be obtained beforehand. This means thatthe initiators of non-formal education programmes should thoroughly as-certain the real needs of those for whom the programmes are intended,especially in relation to aspects such as their way of life, traditions, princi-ples and values, as well as their social, political and physical cir-cumstances. Programmes should aim at involving the whole family andnot just individuals.

IINon-formal education programmes should be planned and implementedin an integrated way.— At national level they should be integrated with national planning re-

garding development, especially rural development— They should be integrated with other programmes focusing on rural

development— The programmes of various organizations which offer non-formal edu-

cation programmes should be integrated. These include government,semi-government, private and service organizations working in thefield

— The activities within a specific programme should also be integrated— Within a specific community there should be horizontal integration to

ensure that the various actions in which the members of the commun-• ity are involved, support one another to achieve the intended results

— Proper vertical integration of programmes will bring the communityinto contact with higher organizations, and, by so doing, facilitate co-ordinated support from this direction. For instance, in the case ofhealth programme, the delivery of medical supplies and informationfrom the higher organization to the local community can be facilitated.

IIIThe maximal participation of the community for which the programme isintended should be obtained. Community involvement and a self-help ap-proach are necessary for the success of this kind of non-formal educationprogramme. The ideal is that programmes should find their starting pointwithin a community, and then follow a from-the-bottom-up method offunctioning. This is an ideal which is exceptionally difficult to realizefully.IVAn integrated approach also demands that as many as possible of themembers of the community should be employed in the organization andoffering of the programmes.

Coombs refers to "front-line workers". They can serve as liaison officersbetween the local community and the organizations higher up. If they arechosen selectively, and properly trained and supported, they can rendervaluable services and ensure that a programme is locally accepted, runssmoothly and succeeds.

VAlready existing facilities such as community halls, schools and otherpublic buildings in a community should be fully utilized before the erec-tion of new buildings is considered.

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BIBLIOGRAPHYAHMED, M, 1983. "Critical education issues and non-formal education." In Pros-pects, XIII (1).BHOLA, H S, 1983. "Non-formal education in perspective." In Prospects. XIII (1).COOMBS, P H, 1980. Meeting the basic needs of the rural poor. The IntegratedCommunity-Based Approach. Pergamon, New York.COOMBS, P H, & AHMED, H, 1974. Attacking rural poverty. How non-formal edu-cation can help. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore.EVANS, D R, 1981. The planning of non-formal education. Unesco, Paris.GARBERS, J G, 1984. In search of guidelines for control measures and co-ordina-tion of non-formal education provision. Unpublished report, SAAAE Congress.VERWEY, C T, CARSTENS, P D & DU PLESSIS, A, 1984. Education and ManpowerProduction (Blacks). No 4, 1983. UOFS, Bloemfontein.

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