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    Water Environment Research, Volume 82, Number 10Copyright 2010 Water Environment Federation

    2067

    Ecological and Human HealthRisk Assessment

    Thomas M. Biksey1*, Amy Couch Schultz2, Aaron M. Bernhardt3,

    Brett Marion4, and Chrissy Peterson4

    ABSTRACT: This literature review covers the risk

    assessment process and addresses both ecological and

    human receptors. 1The review covers the risk assessment

    literature including methodology, analysis, interpretation,

    management, uncertainty, policy, and regulatory guidance.

    The review is divided into ecological and human health

    sections. The focus of the review is on the risk assessment

    process as it is applied to ecological systems and human

    health, site investigation and remediation, and natural

    resources. The objective is to provide an overview of the

    scope of the literature published in 2009.

    KEYWORDS: ecological, human health, risk

    assessment, management, policy, regulatory

    doi:10.2175/106143010X12756668802256

    1*WSP Environment & Energy, 750 Holiday Drive, Suite 410,

    Pittsburgh, PA 15220; Tel. 412-604-1040; Fax. 412-920-7455;

    e-mail: [email protected]

    2WSP Environment & Energy , Reston, Virginia

    3Tetra Tech NUS, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

    4WSP Environment & Energy, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

    Ecological

    Problem Formulation and Methodology. A

    methodology was presented by Zhang et al. (2009) for risk

    assessment and regionalization of ecological disasters in

    Jilin Province, Northeast China using the geographic

    information system with climatology, geography, disaster

    science, and environmental science in mind. The results of

    the study aid in decision making for ecological disaster

    prevention and could be helpful to rebuild the ecological

    environment.

    Graham et al. (2009) completed a comprehensive

    analysis of chromium speciation in sediment and porewater

    collected from 22 locations in the Baltimore Harbor to

    understand chromium bioavailability, and the probability of

    toxicity due to chromium in sediments. Overall, the results

    provided field validation of the hypothesis that chromium

    VI will not persist in sediments with excess acid volatile

    sulfides and given the low concentrations of chromium VI

    in sediment and porewater, it appears unlikely that

    chromium in Baltimore Harbor sediments contributes

    appreciably to previously observed sediment toxicity.

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    Three sets of studies designed to test a thin-film

    solid phase extraction technique for characterizing the

    bioavailability of organic chemicals in sediments were

    presented in Meloche et al. (2009). The authors found that

    bioaccumulation studies with clams (Macoma balthica)

    show excellent correlations between thin-film and animal

    tissue concentrations, and conclude that thin-film extraction

    provides an ecologically relevant, fugacity-based measure

    of chemical exposure that can be expected to improve

    sediment quality assessments.

    Maruya et al. (2009) developed and tested a pore-

    water sampler that uses solid-phase microextraction

    (SPME) to measure freely dissolved (bioavailable)

    hydrophobic organic compounds (HOC) concentrations

    that are regulatory concern in sediment pore water. The

    concept showed promise for directly measuring the freely

    dissolved concentration of HOCs in sediment pore water, a

    previously difficult-to-measure parameter that will improve

    the ability to assess the impacts of contaminated sediments.

    A simulated earthworm gut (SEG) was developed

    by Ma et al. (2009) to measure the bioaccessibility of

    metals in soil to earthworms by mimicking the

    gastrointestinal fluid composition of earthworms. The

    difference between chemical and enzymatic SEG

    treatments was clear with respect to the bioaccessibility of

    metals in soils with different physicochemical properties

    and different levels of metal contamination. Although

    further research is needed, the SEG could prove valuable

    because it simultaneously evaluates the labile (chemically

    extractable) and recalcitrant (Soil Organic Matter-

    sequestered) fractions of metal in soil that could become

    bioaccessible in the gastrointestinal tract of earthworms.

    Dobbins et al. (2009) performed a hazard

    assessment for parabens using common invertebrate and

    vertebrate models to define acute and subchronic toxicity

    thresholds for seven parabens; to examine whether there

    was a relationship between aquatic toxicity and

    lipophilicity of the parabens; and, to use a probabilistic

    chemical toxicity distribution (CTD) approach to

    characterize hazards associated with parabens in aquatic

    environments. The distributions demonstrated that at

    environmentally relevant concentrations in developed

    countries, there is limited acute or subchronic aquatic

    hazard of parabens to the organisms and responses

    examined.

    Fu et al. (2009) collected measured

    bioconcentration factors (BCFs) in fish for organic

    electrolytes, and then tested empirical BCF estimation

    methods. They found that several methods provided

    acceptable results for suitable methods for estimating the

    BCFs.

    A study was conducted to evaluate several

    headspace and solvent extraction methods for mass

    recovery of tricholoroethylene (TCE), to identify a

    relatively fast and simple method to extract TCE from plant

    branches completely, and to identify plant characteristics

    that affect the efficiency of the most promising extraction

    methods (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2009). Hot methanol

    extraction performed the best with respect to TCE mass

    recovery, and was relatively fast, simple, and reliable; this

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    method recovered more than 89% of the TCE present in

    branches of five different tree species.

    Ecological Effects and Exposure Assessment.

    In a literature-based study of measured concentrations of

    anti-infectives (i.e., antibiotic medications) in wastewater

    and natural and drinking waters, the potential spread of

    anti-infective resistant bacteria and the resulting effect on

    aquatic biota were evaluated (Segura et al., 2009). The

    study found that 68 parent compounds and 10 degradation

    products or metabolites of these substances have been

    quantified in various waters with environmental

    concentrations ranging from approximately 10-1

    to 109

    /l

    and concluded that detrimental effects on aquatic biota are

    possible with a potential result of indirect impact on human

    health as well.

    The polychaete Nereis diversicolor and the

    bivalve Scrobicularia plana living in intertidal mudflats

    were studied by Bonnard et al. (2009) looking at effects of

    copper on the benthic invertebrates burrowing behavior.

    Both species exhibited hypoactivity resulting from the

    lowest tested concentrations of copper below lethality for

    these species.

    Survival and locamotory behavior of the

    freshwater oligochaete Tubifex tubifexbased on exposure to

    metals (cadmium, copper, nickel), Ivermectin, and

    Imidacloprid were studied by Gerhardt (2009) in the

    Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor. A short-term

    automated behavioral toxicity test was developed indicating

    toxicity is dependent on concentrations and exposure time.

    The Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor was

    used by Peeters et al. (2009) to observe the variation in

    locomotion behavior of the amphipod Gammarus pulex

    over a 7 day observation period. Results indicate that

    gender plays a role in activity; however, considerable

    between-individual differences existed indicating that

    natural variation should be considered when behavior is an

    endpoint for ecotoxicological assays.

    Baatrup (2009) developed a computerized vision

    system to quantify fish behavior, and the system has been

    used to study the effects of endocrine disruptors on the

    reproductive behavior of male guppies. Sigmoid displays

    and posturing behavior were significantly suppressed by

    estrogenic and antiandrogenic substances.

    Female Chironomus riparius life stages were

    investigated by Dornfeld et al. (2009) to observe avoidance

    of copper contaminated water and sediment environments.

    Even though the highest concentrations of copper caused

    lethal effects, there was no sign of avoidance by ovipositing

    females, first-, second-, or fourth-instar larvae.

    Gestational exposure to 2,24,4,5-

    pentabrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE99) and lifetime

    exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) was

    examined by Lilienthal et al. (2009) to determine

    neurobehavioral and endocrine effects in rats. Sweet

    preference, catalepsy, and brainstem auditory potentials

    were shown to be affected by the brominated flame

    retardants.

    Amiard-Triquet (2009) evaluated the idea of

    behavioral responses as a useful tool in ecological risk

    assessments to connect between stress in the sub-

    organismal and supra-organismal levels. Combining

    behavioral biomarkers with biochemical and physiological

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    biomarkers creates a multimarker approach to view a

    population response to a chemical stress.

    De Lange, Peeters, and Lurling (2009) used the

    benthic invertebrate Gammarus pulex (Crustacea,

    Amphipoda) in a Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor to

    observe Principal Response Curves based on sublethal

    concentrations of fluoxetine, ibuprofen, carbamazepine,

    cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Increased ventilation

    was determined to be a sign of stress, and locomotion

    caused by stress depended on the type of toxin present.

    The effects of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) on the liver

    status, growth, and behavior of seabass was investigated by

    Gravato and Guilhermino (2009). As levels of BaP

    increased, oxidative liver damage occurred along with a

    decrease in weight, size, food intake, and swimming

    velocity.

    A brine discharge to the North Fork Holston

    River and conductivity dissipation was examined by Echols

    et al. (2009) to evaluate the impact on benthic

    macroinvertebrates. The results indicate that under low-

    flow conditions, subchronic intermittent toxicity exists that

    potentially impair the unionid populations for

    approximately 26 miles downstream.

    Staples et al. (2009) supported the environmental

    fate and aquatic toxicity of methacrylic acid esters using

    quantitative structure-activity relationships. The

    methacrylate data was determined to be low to moderate

    toxicity, and was used to develop predicted no effect

    concentrations in water and sediment.

    Benthic communities and physical habitats were

    characterized in an urban and residential stream in

    California by Hall et al. (2009) using multiple linear

    regressions from two years of studying the relationship of

    benthic metrics to physical habitat metrics, pyrethroids, and

    metals. Benthic communities were primarily affected by

    habitat metrics and when habitat metrics, and metals were

    observed in the statistical models then no significant

    relationship was seen from pyrethroids.

    Zajdlik et al. (2009) conducted a case study using

    Atrazine in multimodel species sensitivity distributions to

    estimate water quality guidelines. This bimodal method

    allows the water quality guideline to be created for the

    pesticide using a statistical subset of data and emphasizing

    the more sensitive portion. whereas other models did not

    account for small sample sizes.

    Using species sensitivity distribution, Wong et al.

    (2009) examined metals toxicity data derived primarily

    from daphniids compared with toxicity data of copepods

    and other species of cladocerans. C. dubia is a cladoceran

    with relatively small body size making it extremely

    sensitive to trace metals; therefore, copepods and other

    cladocerans are most likely protected from water quality

    criteria derived from data using the genusDaphnia.

    Weston et al. (2009) investigated temperature

    manipulations to identify pyrethroid insecticides as the

    primary source of toxicity in whole sediment toxicity

    identification evaluations. The authors found that toxicity

    increased two to three fold with temperature decreases as

    little as 5C and 10C, respectively.

    A graphical information system-based model was

    developed for assessing the combined effects of multiple

    estrogenic compounds on endocrine disruption and intersex

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    of fish populations in England and Wales by Williams et al.

    (2009). The study used a catchment-based approach to

    evaluated risks from these compounds.

    Powell et al. (2009) demonstrated that

    bioaccumulation models could be developed by Hall et al.

    (2009) that predict the uptake and loss of a chemical based

    on chemical properties and physiological processes using

    characteristic times. The characteristic time model can be

    effectively used to evaluate both water-respiring and air-

    respiring biota.

    Selenium exposure and uptake from selenium-

    spiked sand to leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)

    via direct and indirect ingestion was investigated by Rich

    and Talent (2009). Sublethal effects were apparent with

    increasing soil concentrations indicating that soil uptake is

    an important exposure route in some reptiles.

    Stebbins et al. (2009) developed a nonlethal

    microsampling technique to extract albumen to measure

    mercury concentrations in wild bird eggsm and then the

    eggs were returned to the nest for incubation. The

    reproductive effects of mercury to avian species can be

    effectively evaluated because of the nonintrusive nature of

    this methodology.

    Arsenic uptake from soil and plant tissue to deer

    mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) was evaluated by Ollson et

    al. (2009). Calculated uptake rates from standard estimated

    daily intake models highly overestimated the actual daily

    intake of arsenic by an order of magnitude.

    The dissolution kinetics of acid volatile sulfide

    (AVS) and simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) were

    measured by Poot et al. (2009) to evaluate whether the

    dissolution of AVS and metals in the sediment occurred

    simultaneously. The only metal that appeared to have

    similar reaction kinetics to AVS in the study sediment was

    copper.

    Perron et al. (2009) evaluated the applicability of

    using reverse polyethylene samplers (RePES) as a phase II

    toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) method for

    evaluating the toxicity of nonionic organic contaminants in

    whole marine sediment. RePES can be used as an effective

    TIE method to reproduce the toxicity of intact sediments.

    Marine species sensitivity distributions from

    exposure to oil were used by Smit et al. (2009) to evaluate

    the relationship between biomarkers and organism level

    effects. Biomarkers from oil exposure were up to 50 times

    more sensitive, but biomarkers could be used as a screening

    tool for evaluating when additional study is warranted.

    Quinn et al. (2009) developed a no-observed-

    adverse-effects level (NOAEL) and a lowest-observed-

    adverse-effects level (LOAEL) for the northern bobwhite

    quail (Colinus virginianus) from RDX (1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-

    triazine) administered orally in corn oil. The resulting

    NOAEL and LOAEL were 3.0 mg/kg.d and 8.0 mg/kg.d,

    respectively.

    Qi et al. (2009) measured the liberation of arsenic

    from arsenical herbicide contaminated soils that

    demonstrated three types of release mechanisms including

    kinetically controlled, equilibrium controlled, irreversibly

    bound. Arsenic would be desorbed from the kinetically and

    equilibrium controlled soils by acid rain, but the

    irreversibly bound soils would not release arsenic.

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    The binding affinity of nitroaromatic compounds

    to three types of Chinese soils was investigated by Zhang,

    SHU*, and Chen (2009). Results from the study indicate

    that soil organic matter rather than clay minerals was the

    primary binding pathway of nitroaromatics in these soils.

    Reiss et al. (2009) evaluated the ecological risk

    of triclosan (2,4,4-trichloro-2-hydroxydiphenyl), a

    common bactericide, from the application of sewage

    sludge. Typical sewage sludge concentrations should not

    pose an ecological risk to earthworms, birds, mammals,

    terrestrial plants, or soil microorganisms.

    Smolder et al. (2009) used a series of laboratory

    toxicity tests to evaluate metal bioavailability from

    different soil types and sources of metals. Total metal

    concentrations are not solely indicative of toxicity and

    other factors including soil properties, aging and source of

    metals play a contributing factor in the bioavailability and

    toxicity of metals in soil.

    Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) was proposed for

    use as a model plant species to evaluate the transfer of

    metals from contaminated soils to higher trophic-level

    species by Sinnett et al. (2009). Concentrations of

    cadmium and zinc measured in the leaves of U. dioica

    strongly correlated with tissue concentrations in the

    primary consumer test organisms Helix aspersa and

    Lumbricus terrestris.

    Nickel and cadmium concentrations in wheat and

    potato crops were measured and compared to the field-

    measured soil-diffusive gradient in thin film (DGT)

    concentrations by Perez and Anderson (2009). Total metal

    concentrations in conjunction with those measured in the

    DGTs provide a practical field-based method to determine

    metal concentrations in edible portions of crops.

    Stanley et al. (2009) evaluated two methods for

    measuring semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in

    tadpole tissue. Although both evaluated methods showed

    promising results, matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD)

    provided additional benefits over pressurized liquid

    extraction (PLE) including detection of more SVOCs and

    reduced solvent volumes necessary in the extraction

    process.

    Bioaccumulation of RDX (1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-

    triazine) in the earthworm (Eisenia andrei) was evaluated

    by Sarrazin et al. (2009) using toxicokinetic studies. As

    RDX soil concentrations increased from 1 to 10 000 mg/kg,

    the BAF dropped significantly from 6.7 to 0.1, respectively

    showing that BAFs can differ widely in a sandy loam soil.

    A 13-d amphipod reproduction test was

    developed by Mann et al. (2009) that encompasses

    gametogenesis, fertilization, and embryo development

    before hatching. The sensitivity of the test endpoints were

    evaluated using field collected sediments that were

    naturally contaminated, predominantly with metals, and

    using metal-spiked sediments prepared in the laboratory.

    Side-by-side reproductive tests with mummichog

    (Fundulus heteroclitus) and fathead minnow (Pimephales

    promelas) were conducted with effluent from a bleached

    kraft pulp mill in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, to

    determine the differenced in the effects of endocrine

    disrupting substances among the available tests (Melvin et

    al., 2009). A comparison of the results of the study to other

    published studies suggest that current reproductive

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    bioassays are only sensitive for detecting magnitudes of

    change of greater than 50% and that differences exist in the

    sensitivities of fish.

    A 4-d, staticrenewal survival and growth test

    was developed for use with D. magna and the test results

    were compared to performance criteria and results from 7-d

    survival and reproduction tests with Ceriodaphnia dubia to

    determine the level of comparability between the two

    methods (Lazorchak et al., 2009). Results from the 4-d D.

    magna survival and growth test method indicated that this

    method produces consistent results with various reference

    toxicant materials and provides data that are both

    reproducible and useful for detecting potential toxicity in

    aquatic environments.

    Brooks et al., (2009) investigated the

    consequences of sublethal contaminant effects in prey on

    predatorprey interactions, particularly the interaction

    between prey behavioral changes and predation by

    predators with different hunting strategies. The results of

    this study highlighted that the full effects of contaminants

    cannot be predicted by single species acute toxicity tests

    and that ecological risk assessments may therefore need to

    incorporate trophic interactions and population changes that

    can occur as an indirect result of sublethal exposures within

    natural assemblages.

    A method was presented by Kipka and Di Toro

    (2009) for extending the target lipid model (TLM) of

    narcotic toxicity to polar narcotic chemicals. The model

    predicts the log median lethal concentration with a root

    mean square error of 0.460 for nonpolar and polar

    chemicals and 0.501 for only polar chemicals. The authors

    concluded that their model is simple and effective and can

    be applied to any polar and nonpolar narcotic chemical to

    calculate the LC50 acute toxic endpoint.

    A method was presented by McGrath and Di

    Toro (2009) for developing scientifically defensible,

    numeric guidelines for residual petroleum-related

    constituents, specifically monocyclic aromatic

    hydrocarbons (MAHs) and polycyclic aromatic

    hydrocarbons (PAHs), in the water column, using the target

    lipid model (TLM) that was developed for assessing the

    toxicity of type I narcotic chemicals. An acute to chronic

    ratio is used for chronic expression and sublethal effects.

    They concluded that the methodology is capable of

    predicting both the acute and chronic toxicity of MAHs and

    PAHs in single exposures and in mixtures and can be used

    by the oil spill community to compare residual

    concentrations of PAHs against defensible, numeric

    guidelines to assess potential ecological impacts.

    Risk Characterization, Uncertainty, and

    Management. De Lange et al. (2009) developed a new

    method to predict ecological vulnerability in wildlife using

    autecological information. The method resulted in an

    ordinal ranking of vulnerable species which was applied to

    six representative contaminants: cadmium, copper, zinc,

    DDT, chlorpyrifos, and ivermectin, to include essential

    metals with low to medium toxicity to persistent organic

    chemicals with high toxicity.)

    Lin and Meng (2009) proposed an extrapolation

    approach using available acute (median lethal or effect

    concentration) and chronic (no observed-effect

    concentration) toxicity test data at the organism level to

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    derive a reference value contributing to the development of

    predicted-no-effect concentration on population persistence

    for population-level ecological risk assessment of

    chemicals. They concluded that the extrapolation approach

    is widely applicable and is promising for performing

    population-level ecological risk assessment on a more

    general basis that can support reasonable chemical

    management.

    Human Health

    Methodology. Using a modified Chemical

    Hazard and Evaluation Management Strategies model

    along with Canadas National Pollutant Release Inventory

    (NPRI), Dunn (2009) developed a relative risk ranking.

    This ranking scored chemicals of concern based on

    toxicity, chemical fate properties, and NPRI data to set a

    priority to help the community determine hazards as well as

    for future risk assessment and evaluation by the

    government.

    Toxicity. The potential uptake and toxicity of

    tungsten carbide and cobalt-doped tungsten carbide

    nanoparticles on human and rat cells was evaluated by

    Bastian et al. (2009) using human lung, skin, and colon

    cells, and rat neuronal and glial cells in vitro. The authors

    demonstrated uptake of tungsten carbide nanoparticles by

    mammalian cells with no acute toxicity; however, the

    cobalt-doped nanoparticles were shown to have an

    increased cytotoxic effect with the most sensitive cells

    being the astrocytes and colon epithelial cells. Oxidative

    damage to DNA was measured by Folkmann et al. (2009)

    in a study where rats were exposed by oral gavage to C 60

    fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes. The study

    results showed that low dose oral exposure to both C60

    fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes resulted in

    elevated levels of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine in

    the liver and lung, which were associated with genotoxic

    ability of the substances as opposed to an inhibition of

    DNA repair.

    The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is

    developing an online resource for toxicology information

    identified as the Aggregated Computational Toxicology

    Resource (ACToR), which incorporates information from a

    wide variety of public sources on chemical structure,

    physical-chemical properties, in vitroassay data, tabular in

    vivodata, summary toxicology determinations, and links to

    online toxicology summaries (Judson et al., 2009). This

    resource is also being used as a means to identify and

    prioritize chemicals where additional toxicity testing is

    needed.

    Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical commonly used

    in polycarbonate plastic manufacturing, may be linked to

    endocrine disruption in animals and possibly humans at low

    exposure levels; a study was conducted to evaluate the

    potential exposure to BPA through ingestion of beverages

    from polycarbonate plastic drinking bottles in a group of 77

    Harvard College students. (Carwile et al., 2009). Urinary

    concentrations of BPA were measured during both a

    washout week (minimal exposure to BPA) and an

    intervention week (drinking cold beverages from

    polycarbonate bottles) and compared and it was determined

    that there was an increase in urinary BPA concentrations by

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    a factor of two thirds following the week of polycarbonate

    bottle use.

    Morisseau et al. (2009) used a mechanistically

    based screening assay, identified as high-throughput

    screening using nine enzyme-based and five receptor-based

    bioassays, as a tool to obtain rapid toxicological data for

    176 synthetic chemicals. The authors concluded that this

    rapid screening method could be useful tool to identify

    potentially hazardous chemicals and prioritize them for

    further research. In 2009, the U.S. Environmental

    Protection Agency (USEPA, 2009a) released draft

    toxicological reviews for the following chemicals:

    trichloroethene

    hydrogen cyanide and cyanide salts

    1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

    ethyl tertiary butyl ether

    chloroprene

    trichloroacetic acid

    methanol

    halogenated platinum salts and platinum

    compounds

    cis- and trans-1,2-dichloroethene

    1,4-dioxane

    Also in 2009, the USEPA published its final

    assessment for particulate matter, which included the

    agencys most recent evaluation of the scientific literature

    regarding the potential health effects associated with

    exposure to particulate matter in ambient air (USEPA,

    2009b).

    A predictive Bayesian dose-response assessment

    was conducted to compare the toxicity of carbon nanotubes

    with the toxicity of crocidolite by Iudicello and Englehardt

    (2009) using a theoretically derived emergent dose-

    response model. The study concludes that the two

    toxicities are comparable when looking at intratracheal and

    intraperitoneal applications; however, further dose-

    response data is recommended.

    Finley et al. (2009) administered soil samples

    containing PCDD/F toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentrations

    orally to female Sprague Dawley rats. The results compare

    the soil bioavailability of the cogeners, evaluate the

    consistency of bioavailability results with in vitro

    bioaccessibility, and develop quantitative bioavailability

    measurements for a health risk assessment.

    A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic

    (PBPK) model was used to measure the radiation dose

    equivalents to benzene metabolites to estimate benzene risk

    by Nakayama et al (2009). The life-time exposure risks

    were predicted to be 5.4 x 10-7and 1.3 x 10-3based on life-

    time exposure to benzene of 1 micrograms per cubic meter

    (!g/m3) to 3.2 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3).

    The simulation of one- and two-sided confidence

    intervals for benchmark dose estimation when model inputs

    in the profile likelihood method employed by the U.S.

    Environmental Protection Agency benchmark dose

    software are on the boundary was conducted by Kopylev et

    al. (2009). The coverage was close to 1, with a confidence

    level of 95 percent or "= 0.05 for several.

    The potential for organotin (OT) heat stabilizers,

    potentially immune, nervous, and reproductive toxicants, to

    leach from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes to residential

    drinking water was evaluated by Fristashi et al (2009) by

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    developing probability distributions of U.S. population

    exposures to OT mixtures in drinking water transmitted via

    PVC pipes; the 90th

    percentile average daily dose (ADD)

    was determined to be 0.034 2.92 x 10-4micrograms per

    kilogram per day (!g/kg-day). The calculated ADD is

    significantly lower than the World Health Organization

    (WHO) ADD of 4.2 !g/kg-day for the most toxic OT

    evaluated in the study, dibutylin (DBT); the estimated

    exposures to the population were also significantly lower

    than the WHO safe long-term drinking water concentration.

    An inhalation unit risk factor (URF) for 1,3-

    butadiene of 5.0 x 10-7

    per microgram per cubic meter

    (!g/m3) was developed by the Texas Commission on

    Environmental Quality (TCEQ) using an updated

    epidemiological study based on styrene-butadiene rubber

    production workers which was not available at the time the

    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency developed the URF

    for 1,3-butadiene in 2002 (Grant et al, 2009). Air

    concentration values of 20 !g/m3, which reflects no-

    significant-risk level of leukemia mortality, and a chronic

    reference value of 33 !g/m3, which is protective of ovarian

    atrophy, will be used to evaluate ambient air by the TCEQ.

    By modeling the uncertainty in toxicity

    standards, the approach for the evaluation of chronic

    noncarcinogenic effects of chemical mixtures developed as

    part of the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) was

    evaluated by Price et al. (2009) to determine if

    overestimation of risk as a result of compounding

    conservative assumptions for individual components when

    applied to the mixture. The use of TTC leads to

    conservative estimates of mixture toxicity and the resultant

    noncancer toxicity default values are appropriate for

    screening assessments of mixtures.

    Exposure Assessment. Using blood mercury

    concentrations and fish/shellfish consumption data from the

    National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

    (NHANES), an evaluation was conducted of the

    distribution of blood mercury within coastal and non-

    coastal areas (U.S. Census regions) among women of

    childbearing age as a function of fish consumption for the

    period from 1999 through 2004 (Mahaffey et al., 2009).

    The results showed higher levels of blood mercury among

    women living in coastal areas with regional differences

    across the U.S., and across social and economic groups

    leading to the conclusion that blood mercury levels were

    associated with income, ethnicity, and area of residence.

    A study was conducted to measure and compare

    concentrations of various oxidative phthalate metabolites in

    breast milk, serum, saliva, and urine of 33 lactating women

    in North Carolina (Hines et al., 2009). Phthalate

    metabolites were more prevalent in urine samples and were

    detected with less frequency in serum, milk, or saliva and it

    was concluded that the urinary metabolite concentrations

    reflected material exposure and were not representative of

    the concentrations in other bodily fluids. Phthalate

    exposure was also the subject of a study by Hernndez-

    Daz et al. (2009) who examined the role of medication as a

    potential source of phthalate exposure in the U.S.

    population by measuring the urinary concentrations of

    phthalate metabolites in both users and nonusers of oral

    medications where phthalate is present in the polymer

    coatings. The study results showed higher concentrations

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    of urinary phthalate metabolites among users of phthalate-

    containing medications as compared to nonusers and

    concluded that some medications could be a source of high

    exposure to some phthalates raising a potential human

    health concern especially for more vulnerable exposure

    groups, such as pregnant women and children.

    A cohort of 725 deaths from among 6,181 former

    residents of Love Canal was used in a study of the

    association between mortality and exposure to the

    contamination present in the landfill beneath the residential

    neighborhood that was located in Niagara Falls, New York

    (Gensburg et al., 2009a). The mortality rates were

    examined and compared with rates for New York State and

    Niagara County and it was determined that a direct

    relationship between exposure to landfill chemicals and an

    increase in mortality rate was not clear. These authors also

    evaluated the association between exposure to the landfill

    at Love Canal with cancer incidence using data from the

    same group of former residents, of which it was determined

    that 5,052 were eligible study participants (Gensburg et al.,

    2009b). An elevated incidence rate was identified for

    cancer of the bladder and kidney and higher rates of

    bladder cancer were noted within the group of residents

    who were exposed as children, although the authors

    concluded that the specific link between landfill exposure

    and increased cancer incidence was unclear given the

    various limitations of the study.

    In companion studies, Gaitens et al. (2009) and

    Dixon et al. (2009) evaluated the relationship between lead

    exposure in children in the U.S. and the presence of lead-

    contaminated house dust. In the first study, dust lead

    samples from NHANES collected from 1999 through 2004

    were compared to existing health-based standards and it

    was determined that most houses with children had dust

    lead levels that complied with federal standards, but still

    may put children at risk. The second study evaluated the

    relationship between dust lead levels and childhood blood

    lead levels and lead poisoning. The study concluded that a

    reduction in the current federal standard for floor dust lead

    would be more protective of children. The association

    between cumulative exposure to lead and cognitive

    function in older women was examined using biomarkers in

    bone and blood to assess cumulative lead exposure in

    conjunction with performance of a battery of cognitive

    function tests (Weuve et al., 2009). The results of the study

    indicated that cumulative lead exposure, even at relatively

    low doses, could have an adverse effect on cognitive

    function in older women.

    Sclo et al. (2009) demonstrated a strong

    association between the risk of acute lymphoblastic

    leukemia (ALL) and home paint exposure in children, with

    a higher risk observed when the paint was used postnatally

    or frequently. The study also examined the association

    between ALL and the use of petroleum solvents in the

    home and between acute myeloid leukemia and exposure to

    paint or solvents; the study concluded that additional

    research was needed to evaluate these relationships.

    No association between the incidence of several

    types of cancer and exposure to permethrin was

    demonstrated among pesticide applicators that were

    included in a cohort from the Agricultural Health Study

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    (Rusiecki et al., 2009). The study examined permethrin

    exposure for a total of 49,093 pesticide applicators.

    Cooper et al. (2009) conducted a literature-based

    evaluation of the immune-related, and specifically

    autoimmune-related effects resulting from exposure to

    trichloroethene (TCE) in mice and humans. The authors

    concluded that TCE exposure was linked to various

    autoimmune responses in both mice and humans and noted

    both consistency in the studies identified in the literature

    and good agreement between outcomes for mice and

    humans in support of their conclusions.

    Biological monitoring of urine uranium

    concentrations was conducted to evaluate potential

    exposure to depleted uranium in Gulf War and post-Gulf

    Ware veterans (Dorsey et al., 2009). In a study conducted

    over the period between January 2003 and June 2008,

    1,769 24-hour urine specimens were analyzed and no

    depleted uranium was identified in those veterans who did

    not have embedded fragments of depleted uranium from a

    previous injury suggesting that a health risk related to

    depleted uranium exposure is unlikely for veterans without

    embedded fragments.

    The emerging environmental health effects

    resulting from the modernization and urbanization of

    African countries was evaluated in a literature-based study

    (Nweke and Sanders, 2009). The study determined that the

    traditional hazards such as inadequate sanitation were being

    replaced by exposure to more industrial-type hazards such

    as those related to natural resource mining and processing

    and automobile exhaust, and noted that potential risks

    related to water and air pollution were significant data gaps.

    The U.S. Food and Drug Administrations

    (FDAs) finding that concentrations of lead in certain

    commercial multivitamin and mineral products used by

    women and children do not pose a health hazard was

    examined through the analysis of the methodology and safe

    exposure levels used by the agency (Miodovnik and

    Landrigan, 2009). The authors determined that the safe

    exposure levels used by the FDA, the provisional total

    tolerable intake (PTTI) levels, were not based on blood

    level levels that were sufficiently protective and that the

    agencys analysis did not take into account nonfood sources

    of lead exposure leading to the conclusion that

    reconsideration of the FDAs position was warranted.

    The potential link between arsenic exposure and

    impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy, and an

    indicator of increased risk of type 2 diabetes, was studied in

    a group of 523 women living near the Tar Creek Superfund

    Site in Oklahoma (Ettinger et al., 2009). Correlating the

    concentrations of arsenic in blood and hair with the results

    of a 1 hour glucose tolerance test performed during routine

    prenatal care, and adjusting for age and other factors, the

    authors demonstrated an increased risk of impaired glucose

    tolerance associated with arsenic exposure at 24 to 28

    weeks of gestation, which suggests a potential increased

    risk of gestational diabetes. Kozul et al. (2009) conducted

    research involving arsenic exposure via drinking water and

    food and the potential effect on immune response in mouse

    lungs at concentrations reflective of the current federal

    drinking water standard for arsenic. The results of the

    study showed significant changes in the expression of a

    number of genes of varying function, including aspects of

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    innate immune response suggesting an association between

    low dose arsenic exposure and effects on the regulations of

    innate immunity, which could lead to a change in disease

    risk, particularly in the lung. The effect of arsenic exposure

    on response to respiratory influenza was the subject of a

    study where mice were exposed to 100 parts per billion of

    arsenic in drinking water for 5 weeks, which was followed

    by intranasal inoculation with influenza A (H1N1) virus

    (Kozul et al., 2009). Arsenic exposure was observed to be

    associated with a compromised immune response to the

    respiratory infection and the results suggested that the

    altered response to respiratory infection may contribute to

    other chronic respiratory disease. Heck et al., (2009)

    evaluated the association between arsenic exposure at low

    to moderate concentrations (less than 100 !g per liter) and

    the incidence of lung cancer in 10 counties in New

    Hampshire and Vermont. Using toenail clippings to

    determine arsenic exposure and estimating odds ratios of

    the association between exposure and lung cancer, after

    adjusting for confounding factors, it was concluded that

    there is a possibility of increased risk of specific types of

    lung cancer at low levels of arsenic exposure. Patterns of

    urinary arsenic concentrations and arsenic species

    (inorganic, methylarsonate, dimethylarsinate, and

    arsenobtaine) were evaluated by Navas-Acien et al. (2009)

    in samples from American Indians in Arizona, Oklahoma,

    and North and South Dakota from 1989 to 1999. The study

    identified low to moderate inorganic arsenic exposure and

    long-term consistency in urine excretion patterns.

    Pregnancy-induced hypertension and its

    association with exposure to lead was studied in a group of

    1,017 French women participating in the EDEN (a pre- and

    postnatal development study) cohort study between 2003

    and 2005 (Yazbeck et al., 2009). Blood lead concentrations

    were measured in all participants and pregnancy-induced

    hypertension was identified in 106 subjects; after

    adjustment for confounding factors, such as age, parity,

    weight gain and others, it was determined that blood lead

    levels were significantly higher in subjects diagnosed with

    pregnancy-induced hypertension.

    The association between prenatal exposure to

    bisphenol A (BPA) and early childhood behavior was

    studied using data from 249 mothers who provided 3 urine

    samples at 16 weeks and 26 weeks of pregnancy, and at

    birth, and the administration of the second edition of the

    Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC-2) to

    each child at two years of age (Braun et al., 2009). Using

    linear regression to analyze prenatal BPA concentrations

    and the relationship to BASC-2 scores, the results

    suggested a potential association between prenatal exposure

    to BPA and specific (externalizing) behaviors in 2-year old

    children, and in particular, female children.

    A study was conducted on 150 pregnant women

    from central New Jersey by Yan et al. (2009) focusing on

    phthalates metabolites from measurements of maternal

    urine, maternal serum, and cord serum samples collected at

    the time of delivery. The results showed widespread

    exposure to five phthalate parent compounds with urinary

    concentrations being the better biomarker.

    An experiment utilizing a computer controlled

    mechanical chamber to contact human skin with carpet and

    aluminum foil laden with soil in order to determine the

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    amount of soil transferred. Ferguson et al. (2009) used two

    different soil types accounting for variations of contact

    pressure and time to determine that these had less influence

    on the magnitude of transfer for the second contact.

    Richardson and Fulton (2009) compiled data to

    create an environmental emissions inventory for

    endogenous and retail pharmaceutical estrogens discarded

    in Canada during 2007. This inventory suggests that 960

    kg of endogenous estrogens were excreted of which 420 kg

    are impacting the surface water and soil/groundwater.

    Two source-to-dose models developed from data

    collected in a village polluted with emissions from a lead

    smelter were integrated by Bonnard and McKone (2009) to

    combine the idea of media-specific concentrations with

    concentration of exposure of specific individuals. This

    integrated approach helps to provide outputs with lower

    variance, but further tests need to be run to determine

    accuracy.

    Dermal exposure to latex paint is the subject of

    McCreadys (2009) study that uses a tiered approach, due

    to drying time of latex paint, to determine bioavailability.

    The idea of latex paint drying quickly reduces dermal

    penetration from 100% of the applied substance to 5% and

    potentially becomes 2% if the paint film is partially wiped.

    Modeling and Probability Simulation. Various

    models to predict personal exposure to volatile organic

    compounds (VOCs) were developed and tested by

    Delgado-Saborit et al. (2009) using microenvironment

    concentrations collected via active samplers and sorbent

    tubes combined with information collected through

    questionnaires. The authors indicated that the best model

    of the seven evaluated was based on stratified

    microenvironment concentrations, lifestyle factors, and

    individual-level activities and accounted for 40 to 85% of

    the variance for individual VOCs and was validated for

    most of the VOCs.

    Manipulating oxygen uptake ranges and

    ventilation rates, Allan et al. (2009) used a Monte Carlo

    simulation to create probability density functions. Hourly

    inhalation rates of construction workers were generated to

    use as human exposure factors for risk assessments.

    The control of air pollution was approached using

    methodology based on traditional and fuzzy process

    capability indices and compared with the six-sigma

    approach by Kaya and Kahraman (2009). SO2 and

    particulate matter in Istanbul exceed the ideal values and

    should be decreased to provide a suitable environment.

    With the aid of system dynamics modeling a

    simulation was run using historical data to research the risk

    of water shortage and the carrying capacity of water

    resources for the city of Yiwu, China. Feng et al. (2009)

    conclude that promoting environmental protection and

    water conservation with economic development is the best

    way to ensure the city grows in a way in which the required

    amount of clean water will be available.

    Accounting for treatment rate, Ding et al. (2009)

    observed HIV patients when using a stochastic model with

    treatment rate for AIDS transmission and control.

    Knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of HIV patients were

    considered while looking at the effects that changing the

    treatment rate and contact rate pose.

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    Risk of fire is increasing in urban areas of China

    as the population continues to grow and this article by Wu

    and Ren (2009) takes the main factors into account. City

    planning along with decision making rely on the index

    system of city fire risk evaluation, response time of fire

    departments and a model using a theory of fuzzy

    mathematics.

    The mean value of intake of methyl mercury

    through fish consumption by Japanese population was

    estimated to be 6.76 micrograms per kilograms (!g/kg) or

    0.14 micrograms per body weight per day using a Monte

    Carlo simulation by random sampling of fish consumption

    and species-specific methyl mercury levels (Zhang et al,

    2009). No health risk was identified in an evaluation of

    exposure to phthalates through food was evaluated by

    Dickson-Spillman et al. (2009); however, consumers with a

    higher natural and healthy diet interest correlated to higher

    daily doses of phthalates.

    Bengtsson et al. (2009) demonstrated that the

    toxic equivalent concentration of a polycyclic aromatic

    hydrocarbon (PAH) mixture was dependent on the spatial

    distribution of organic carbon at a site in southern Sweden

    polluted with creosote using sequential Gaussian simulation

    and indicator kriging models for 1.8 meter (m) by 1.8 m

    blocks and site-specific data; Monte Carlo simulations for 5

    m by 5 m blocks and yielded similar results.

    Hierarchical models used to predict benchmark

    dose (BMD) estimates of the effects of sodium chloride on

    reproduction of Ceriodaphina dubia were found to produce

    BMD estimates which more accurately reflected system

    variability (Wheeler et al. 2009).

    Rowney et al. (2009) used a geographic

    information system approach to assess the risk of cytotoxic

    drugs in the drinking water of the Thames River catchment.

    Predicted concentrations of these drugs were many times

    lower than human daily intake thresholds and would not

    pose a risk to the general public.

    Risk Characterization, Management, and

    Policy. A survey of local public health officers in

    California was conducted between August and October

    2007 to evaluate concerns regarding the potential public

    health effects that may result from climate change and the

    level of preparedness of the various agencies to deal with

    those issues (Bedsworth, 2009). The survey results

    indicated a high degree of concern regarding the potential

    health effects that may be triggered by climate change, but

    a sense that the level of preparedness was not sufficient,

    although the author concluded that, based on programs

    being developed by local public health agencies, the level

    of preparedness may be higher than perceived at that time.

    The availability of federal funding in

    the U.S. to evaluate and respond to the anticipated human

    health effects associated with climate change was

    incorporated into a study by Ebi et al. (2009) who

    examined the potential health risks expected to result from

    climate change and determined the estimated current

    federal funding level to be less than $3 million per year.

    Based on the perceived level of risk, the authors concluded

    that a more realistic funding level would be in excess of

    $200 million annually for both intramural and extramural

    programs within the U.S. Environmental Protection

    Agency, National Institutes of Health, and Centers for

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    Disease Control, with oversight to be provided by the

    National Academy of Sciences.

    Through a review of applicable scientific

    literature, English et al. (2009) were able to identify

    surveillance indicators for climate change including

    climate-sensitive health outcomes and environmental

    vulnerability indicators, and mitigation, adaptation, and

    policy indicators of climate change. The authors review

    showed existing data for many of the indicators, but also

    identified data gaps including an evaluation of sensitivity

    and usefulness of the indicators.

    A geographic mapping system was

    used to determine vulnerability to the effects of heat waves

    within the U.S., based on 10 factors that included

    demographic and social variables, land cover, prevalence of

    diabetes, and air conditioning (Reid et al., 2009). Four

    factors were shown to account for greater than 75% of the

    total variance among the 10 factors and included

    social/environmental vulnerability, social isolation, air

    conditioning prevalence, and proportion of elderly/diabetes

    incidence and the areas of the U.S. with generally higher

    vulnerability were in the Northeast and Pacific Coast areas,

    the lowest was in the Southeast.

    In a literature-based study, Karn et al. (2009)

    examined the benefits and risks pertaining to the

    application of nanotechnology and the resulting use of

    nanomaterials in environmental remediation projects in the

    U.S. and internationally, using information obtained from

    45 sites regarding the nanomaterials used, the types of

    pollutants being remediated, and the responsible

    organizations, focusing especially on the use of nanoscale

    zero-valent iron. The authors concluded that the use of

    nanomaterials in site remediation has the potential to

    reduce cost and time of cleanup, eliminate treatment and

    disposal of contaminated soil, and substantially reduce

    contaminant concentrations, all using in situ applications,

    but also identified the need for evaluation of the potential

    adverse environmental impact of nanomaterials.

    The contribution of indoor air pollution to

    cumulative cancer risk and the potential disparities in

    cancer risk between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white

    groups was evaluated using data from participants in the

    Relationships of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air

    (RIOPA) study through the evaluation of 12 of the volatile

    organic compounds and carbonyls that were sampled and

    considering sociodemographic factors and building

    characteristics (Hun et al., 2009). The study results

    indicated cumulative cancer risks for both groups that were

    higher than the U.S. EPAs current 10-6 benchmark with

    Hispanics having statistically higher cumulative cancer

    risks than non-Hispanic whites due to differences in

    exposure leading to the conclusion that Hispanics were

    disproportionately affected by certain indoor air pollutants,

    with contribution from outdoor sources, and that indoor air

    pollution should be considered in policies designed to

    reduce risk resulting from exposure to hazardous air

    pollutants across all potential exposure groups.

    Indoor air quality of schools in Oporto, Portugal

    along with the health symptoms of the teachers was studied

    to determine the present impact. Madureira et al. (2009)

    identified many health concerns and determined that the

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    increase in disease symptoms could be decreased with the

    installation of adequate ventilation.

    A Study was done by Rodionova et al. (2009) to

    analyze gathered information relating to perceived societal

    risks by people in the Russian cities of Moscow and Tula.

    The highest risk perceptions were for violence, sex, and

    addiction type hazards and the study compared these

    perceptions by gender and education levels.

    The medicinal plant Colebrookia oppositifolia

    was used in a study to determine its antibacterial activity

    against waterborne pathogens found in drinking water in

    the Pothwar region in Pakistan. Using the API 20 E

    method, Ahmed et al. (2009) assessed the activity of leaves

    roots and shoots against Gram positive and Gram negative

    bacteria that had been isolated.

    The Catalan stretch of the Ebro River in Spain

    was studied by Huguet et al. (2009) for a human health risk

    assessment for exposure to the metals arsenic, cadmium,

    chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, nickel and lead

    from soil and water. The results from sampling indicated

    low metal concentrations in the tap water and

    concentrations in soils comparable to recent worldwide

    surveys indicating minimal health concerns for the local

    population with the exception of arsenic which needs

    continued monitoring.

    Ahmed et al. (2009) collected water samples

    from filtration plants in the Potohar region in Pakistan to

    analyze for faecal coliform bacteria and assessed Solanum

    surrattense against waterborne pathogens. Results of the

    water samples showed significantly elevated levels

    compared to the recommended World Health Organization

    guidelines, and a great potential exists with plants being

    used for purification against waterborne pathogens found in

    drinking water.

    Siriwong et al. (2009) conducted a study of

    organochlorine pesticide residues found in the Rangsit

    agricultural area in central Thailand to create a human

    health risk assessment looking at the potential dermal

    contact exposure that local fishermen face. Using liquid-

    liquid extraction and gas chromatography low

    concentrations were detected, but a risk of concern is

    present when looking at the worst case scenario based on a

    maximum exposure.

    An assessment of vulnerability was conducted by

    Zhang (2009) providing a definition of socioeconomic

    vulnerability and indicators arising from typhoon storm

    surges in Guangdong Province, China. Methods of

    numerical prediction, Gumbel Extreme Value Distribution

    Function, information diffusion, fussy comprehensive

    evaluation method with the Delphi method, and an

    integration of these indicators allow the vulnerability to be

    assessed.

    After hurricane Katrina, Fox et al. (2009)

    evaluated the potential for chemical mixture exposures to

    identify health effects of concern. This study points out the

    limitations of single substance risk assessments and urges

    the need for disaster preparedness and response.

    The Global International Council of Chemical

    Associations (ICCA) Amine Oxides Consortium conducted

    an environmental risk assessment on aquatic environments

    using the United States exposure tool E-FAST (Sanderson

    et al., 2009). A low risk to the environment was predicted:

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    predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and the

    predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) ranged from 0.04

    to 0.003.

    The result of a survey of two urban, English

    regions on risk contaminated land in each neighborhood

    and potential sources of information indicated trust is

    reliant on perception of honest motives and perceived

    expertise; if the public believes an expert sources is

    motivated to distort information less knowledgeable

    resident groups or friends/family were more likely to be

    believed.

    Regulatory Agency Guidance, Standard, and

    Policy. The USEPA, Regions 3, 6, and 9, in cooperation

    with the U.S. Department of Energy Oak Ridge National

    Laboratory, developed and launched a website containing

    the Regional Screening Levels for Chemical Contaminants

    at Superfund Sites (USEPA, 2009c); it is noted that this

    website was updated in May 2010. The website includes

    tables of generic risk-based screening levels, the equations

    used to develop the screening levels, and a calculator that

    can be used to develop site-specific screening levels or

    default screening levels for chemicals not included in the

    generic tables.

    An update to the Integrated Risk Information

    System (IRIS) process was announced by the USEPA in

    May 2009 (USEPA, 2009d). The new process includes a

    streamlined review schedule intended to result in the

    posting of new toxicological assessments to IRIS within

    two years of the start date of the assessment.

    White et al. (2009) published the findings of an

    April 2007 workshop sponsored by the USEPA and Johns

    Hopkins Risk Sciences and Public Policy Institute where

    the state of the science on low-dose extrapolation

    modeling as it applies to environmental health risk

    assessments was reviewed using discussion topics

    identified based on a literature review. Alternate

    approaches were recommended for high-dose animal to

    low-dose human extrapolation.

    In May 2009, the USEPA announced its plan to

    conduct various activities related to environmental

    exposure to dioxin and related compounds. As part of the

    implementation of this plan, the agency released several

    reports, including a review of a dioxin exposure study

    conducted by the University of Michigan (USEPA, 2009e),

    a review of various state soil cleanup levels for dioxin

    (USEPA, 2009f), and draft agency guidance on preliminary

    remediation goals for dioxin for both Comprehensive

    Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

    and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act sites

    (USEPA, 2009g). The USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum

    released an external review draft of its recommended

    toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) to be used in

    conducting human health risk assessments for dioxin and

    dioxin-like compounds (USEPA 2009h). Public comments

    were obtained through correspondence and during an

    October 2009 teleconference and have been made available

    at www.regulations.gov(search under Docket ID No. EPA-

    HQ-ORD-2009-0605).

    The USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum released

    external review drafts of guidance for the use of

    probabilistic models to enhance risk analysis in the decision

    making process with regard to human, ecological, and

    http://www.regulations.gov/http://www.regulations.gov/http://www.regulations.gov/
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    environmental risk (two separate documents, one including

    case study examples and the other, a Managers Summary)

    (USEPA, 2009i). The documents describe aspects of the

    decision-making process where probabilistic tools may be

    helpful and provide further discussion regarding

    probabilistic risk assessment; public comments were made

    available at: http://www.regulations.gov (search under

    DOCKET ID NO. EPA-HQ-ORD-2009-0645).

    The findings of a June 2008 workshop regarding

    population-level ecological risk assessment was published

    by the USEPAs Risk Assessment Forum (USEPA, 2009j).

    The workshop focused on current approaches, methods,

    and tools; strengths, limitations, trade-offs, and research

    needs; and technical needs regarding the development of

    additional guidance with respect to the agencys current

    Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment.

    The Global Change Research Program, under the

    National Center for Environmental Assessment, released a

    draft report concerning a proposed method for categorizing

    the relative vulnerability of various species to the effects of

    climate change (EPA 2009k). The framework document

    includes four modules, including 1) categorizing baseline

    vulnerability to extinction or major population reduction, 2)

    categorizing vulnerability to future climate change, 3)

    developing a matrix to score vulnerability to non-climate

    and climate change stressors, and 4) qualitatively

    determining uncertainty in estimating vulnerability.

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    References

    Ahmed, Toqeer; Kanwal, Rashida; Hassan, Maqbool. (2009)

    Assessment of Antibacterial Activity of Solanum

    surrattense Against Waterborne Pathogens Isolated

    from Surface Drinking Water of the Potohar Region in

    Pakistan. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess, 15, 624-635.

    Ahmed, Toqeer; Kanwal, Rashida; Hassan, Maqbool; Ayub,

    Najma. (2009) Assessment of Antibacterial Activity of

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