Introduction___________________________________________________________________1

Background___________________________________________________________________2Recent History_____________________________________________________________________3

Environmental Degradation__________________________________________________________5

Pollution__________________________________________________________________________7

Current Status________________________________________________________________10Unilateral Approaches to Environmental Regulation____________________________________12

The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor________________________________________________15

Sustainable Development of the Guarani Aquifer System Project__________________________16

Key Positions_________________________________________________________________18Regional Positions_________________________________________________________________18

Central American/Caribbean States__________________________________________________________18South American States____________________________________________________________________19US/European States_______________________________________________________________________20

Business Interests__________________________________________________________________21

Non-governmental Organizations_____________________________________________________22

Media____________________________________________________________________________23

Summary____________________________________________________________________23

Discussion Questions___________________________________________________________25

Works Cited__________________________________________________________________26

Works Referenced_____________________________________________________________29

0

IntroductionThe states of Latin America and the Caribbean rely on their vast natural resources

to fuel economic development, but are depleting these important commodities at an

unsustainable rate. Natural resources have long been the basis for economic development

in the region, but generations of inhabitants have failed to grasp the fact that the value of

natural ecosystems goes far beyond their direct economic use. This shortsighted

perspective has led to centuries of detrimental use by virtually everyone, from European

colonists seeking gold in the 16th Century to modern cattle-ranchers. Current rates of

environmental degradation are unsustainable in the long-run, and air and water pollution

levels are mounting. In the 21st Century, states face the dangers of future environmental

and economic crises if they do not make substantial progress in curbing environmental

degradation and encouraging sustainable development.

A dominant opinion among Latin American policymakers is that a tradeoff exists

between economic growth and environmental sustainability, as Latin American and

Caribbean states seem to prioritize economic growth and productivity. As developing

states, they face the challenges of adjusting to market-based reforms, repaying enormous

debt to international agencies and developed states, maintaining economic stability in an

increasingly global environment, and coping with severe wealth inequality and

widespread poverty. Many states also rely on export-based industries and sectors to fuel

economic growth, and these sectors engage in more environmentally degrading practices.

Although states have formally recognized the need for increased efforts in environmental

conservation, immediate economic and social pressures often take precedence over long-

term environmental concerns.

In addition, modern environmental institutions face a number of challenges, as

they are often under-funded and lack sustained support from central governments.

Consequently, many of the environmental protection laws and regulations enacted in

recent years go unenforced. Environmental agencies and ministries often lack clear

mandates or have overlapping responsibilities, which can lead to conflicts and power

1

struggles with other governmental agencies. Due to the great diversity in ecosystems,

geo-political climates, and economic and social environments among Latin American and

Caribbean states, there is no universal solution to the environmental dilemma.

Ultimately, effective environmental management in the future depends on the

cooperation between government at the local, state, national, regional and international

levels as well as stakeholders that have a vested interest in environmental resources

including nongovernmental organizations, indigenous peoples, and industrial and

agricultural sectors.

BackgroundThe era of colonization in Latin America and the Caribbean, beginning with the

arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island of Hispaniola in 1492, has had an enduring

impact on the economic development and use of natural resources of the region. One can

trace many of the environmental problems plaguing Latin America and the Caribbean

back to the practices first established by European settlers in the 15th Century.

Spanish and Portuguese explorers in the 16th and 17th Centuries sought one primary

commodity, gold. European explorers rapidly explored and established settlements

throughout Latin America and the Caribbean in their quest to find and extract large

quantities of gold to bring back to Europe. Europeans established hundreds of gold and

silver mines from New Spain to the Andes Mountains in less than a century. A

particularly damaging aspect of the mining process was the use of mercury to separate

rocks from precious metal. Mercury not only caused severe neurological damage to

slaves but also had a long-lasting degrading effect on wildlife and the natural ecosystem

of the area.1

In addition to extracting precious metals to export back to Europe, colonists

introduced their own crops including sugarcane, coffee, tobacco and cotton. Huge tracts

of the best land in these new American colonies were burned and cleared to establish vast

plantations to grow and export these profitable imported crops. The production of sugar

1 J. Timmons Roberts and Nikki Demetria Thanos, Trouble in Paradise: Globalization and Environmental Crises in Latin America, (New York: Taylor & Francis Books, Inc., 2003), 8.

2

also required substantial firewood to refine sugarcane, leading to severe deforestation. In

order to meet substantial demand in Europe, intense production quickly eroded the soil

and led to rapid colonization of new tracts of land.2 The widespread introduction of

foreign plants and also animals dramatically altered the natural landscape of Latin

America and the Caribbean.

From the onset of colonization, imperial powers typically operated their

possessions through a mercantilist relationship,

which created a dependence on foreign investment.

Europeans exploited the region’s vast natural

resources primarily to drive European economic

development. Environmental issues including

deforestation and soil degradation have their roots

in the agricultural and mining practices of early

settlers.

Recent HistoryIn recent decades, significant swings in economic stability and growth have had

notable implications for the natural resources and environment of Latin America and the

Caribbean. As many states in the region financed economic growth through foreign

investment, debt crises in the 1980s sent most economies into prolonged recessions

lasting several years. When the price of oil fell early in the decade, states from Argentina

to Mexico defaulted on foreign loans and inflation

became a core problem. In order to rescue the

region’s economies from financial crises, multilateral

lending agencies including the World Bank and the

International Monetary Fund intervened with aid

packages to refinance what was sometimes crippling debt.3 To qualify for these aid

packages, states had to comply with strict regulations – IMF and World Bank aid

2 Ibid, 93 Ibid, 19

Mercantilism:A system for using the economy to enrich the state, mercantilism encouraged exports and discouraged imports to amass a surplus of gold. It flourished from the age of European discovery through the early nineteenth century and closely involved governments with their economies.

Source: www.politicalscience.utoledo.edu/faculty/lindeen/glos3260.htm

Inflation:A rise in the general price level that results in a decline in the purchasing power of money.

Source: www.senate.michigan.gov/sfa/StateBudget/glossary.html

3

packages required Latin American and Caribbean states not only to severely restrict

government spending and but also increase trade balances. These stipulations harmed

basic social services and state-supported industries, and also impaired the abilities of the

states to enforce environmental regulations. In addition, in order to increase trade

balances and pay back staggering loans with mounting interest, states in the region

struggled to quickly and substantially raise exports of basic commodities and raw

materials.4 These export-driven economies inevitably induced unsustainable use of

natural resources and placed greater strains on the environment. States commonly used

IMF loans to fund large-scale projects such as dams, highways, ranching and mines.

These enormous projects often spiraled out of control as fiscally weak states encountered

tremendous financial, environmental, social and regulatory challenges.5 Although debt-

relief programs of the multilateral lending agencies had long-term ramifications, at the

time Latin American and Caribbean states had no other option to avert further financial

crises. Originally hailed as a beacon of responsible reform the IMF’s philosophy of

deregulation, liberalization and privatization has subsequently incurred criticisms from

Wall Street financiers to the IMF and the World Bank’s own economists as too premature

and difficult to implement in Latin American and the Caribbean’s emerging markets.

The early 1990s marked a turning point from both an economic and environmental

standpoint in the region. States began recovering from the in some cases severely

recessionary period of the previous decade as inflationary and destabilizing pressures

decreased; however, overall economic growth rates still lagged behind pre-recessionary

4 Elizabeth Dore, “Capitalism and ecological crisis: legacy of the 1980s” in Green Guerrillas: Environmental Conflicts and Initiatives in Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. Helen Collinson (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997), 10.5 Roberts and Thanos, 20

International Monetary Fund:A United Nations agency to promote trade by increasing the exchange stability of the major currencies

World Bank:A United Nations agency created to assist developing nations by loans guaranteed by member governments

Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

4

levels. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),

informally known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. By

focusing on sustainable development, it represented “the most universal and coordinated

political step taken in the early 1990s towards establishing an international system of

cooperation for mainstreaming the environmental dimension into development.”6 Latin

American and Caribbean states eagerly ratified the legally-binding documents of the

1992 Earth Summit, but have lagged in effectively implementing these environmental

policies. In the 1990s, increased population growth and urbanization became additional

challenges to implementing sustainable environmental and economic policies.

Environmental DegradationStates in this region are widely known and prized for their vast natural resources

and unique ecosystems, and are considered to have the greatest diversity of species in the

world, as well as thirty-two per cent of the global

extension of closed forests.7 Centuries of destructive land

use since the beginning of European colonization have

taken their toll, resulting in the cumulative loss of millions

of hectares of plant cover. Although the region has the

highest percentage of closed forest cover, it is also losing more hectares of forest than any

other region of the world each year.8 The continuation of unsustainable agricultural,

industrial and governmental practices has severe implications for the survival of the

unique and valuable natural ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean in future

years.

The prevailing approach for forest use has been to “mine” forests for all raw

materials of commercial value and to then move on to new tracts of forest once all

potential sources of profit have been exhausted. European colonists first practiced this

6 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities (Santiago: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2002), 181.7 Ibid, 828 Kevin Hillstrom and Laurie Collier Hillstrom, Latin America and the Caribbean: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2004), 95.

Closed Forest:An area completely dominated by the tree stratum due to the closure of the crowns. See canopy closure.

Source: www.geobotany.uaf.edu/toolikgeobot/definitions.html

5

environmentally degrading approach, and many states actively promoted this practice to

promote economic growth in the latter half of the 20th Century. 9 After utilizing the

existing forest resources, landholders then convert the land to agricultural use,

constituting the greatest factor leading to overall deforestation in Latin America and the

Caribbean. The rich plant cover contains much of the ecological value of forests, thus

overexploitation of land quickly erodes the soil. Historically, peasants farmed small plots

of land for subsistence and traded only in local markets. With the advent of

globalization, agriculture became commercialized as a commodity, and small farmers

could not compete with wealthy ranchers and plantation owners who produced cash crops

for export. These wealthy landowners paid little heed to local environmental conditions

and overtaxed land.10 The agricultural sector focuses on cash crops including cocoa,

coffee, sugar, tobacco, beef and cotton, and few farmers are producing these crops in an

environmentally sustainable manner. As land use devoted to crop cultivation and

livestock pasture grew by more than seven per cent in the 1990s, agricultural activity has

placed an increasing stress on the region’s forest ecosystems.11

Government policies in recent decades also promoted deforestation in Latin

America and the Caribbean. In the 1970s and 1980s many states promoted governmental

projects designed to spur economic growth that often did little more than seriously harm

the environment. In Mexico and Brazil, governments actively sought the deforestation of

enormous areas of vegetation for agricultural use and stock-raising. Tax breaks and

cheap credit gave wealthy landowners the ability to easily purchase land to expand

already vast ranches and plantations, and did little to promote either local development or

safe stewardship of the land. Past government policies have had enduring effects as

medium and large-scale landholders accounted for more than seventy per cent of

deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon in the 1990s. Other government activities such as

road-building have directly increased deforestation rates. Apart from the initial clearing

necessary to build a road, squatters and land speculators that move into areas near

9 Ibid, 9410 Roberts and Thanos, 7611 Hillstrom, 114

Renewable Water Supply:Water continuously renewed within reasonable time spans by the hydrologic cycle, such as that in streams, reservoirs or other sources that refill from precipitation or runoff. The renewability of a water source depends both on its natural rate of recharge and the rate at which the water is withdrawn for human ends. To the extent water is withdrawn faster than its source is recharged, it cannot be considered renewable.

Source: www.cnie.org/pop/pai/glossary.html

6

government-constructed roads further induce illegal deforestation.12 Controlling the

illegal cutting of wood presents a significant problem in the region, as illegal logging

accounts for more than two-thirds of overall logging in the region.13 In addition, states

have promoted commercial forest plantations for logging purposes, but these plantations

have overtaken large tracts of land with rich and varied native forests.

Although the vast forests of Latin America and the Caribbean boast the highest

biodiversity and species richness in the world, the inadequate assessment of the value of

these lands by both policymakers and private interests has contributed to the high rates of

deforestation in the area. The practice of assessing forests purely by their commercial

value does not account for the numerous other vital functions of forest ecosystems

including carbon sequestration, non-timber

forest production, climate moderation, and

the maintenance of species that have

chemical and medicinal uses.14

Deforestation has posed major detriments to

biodiversity and the fragile ecological balance of natural ecosystems in Latin America

and the Caribbean. Economic as well as population growth in the region have also placed

high pressure on forests. Overall, the trends in agricultural practices and government

policies of the 20th Century generally lacked a sustainable approach to environmental

management, which will prove to be an inhibiting factor to economic growth.

PollutionIn terms of freshwater resources, the Latin American and Caribbean region boasts

the highest availability of water supplies in the world. Although the region has only 8.5

per cent of the world’s population, it has one-third of the world’s total renewable water

supply.15 Some of the world’s most extensive

watersheds are in the region, including the vast

12 Ibid, 10113 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 8514 Hillstrom, 8615 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 111

Carbon Sequestration:The ability of forests or other natural systems to "sink" or store carbon, thereby preventing it from collecting in the atmosphere as CO2. Forests absorb carbon when they break down CO2 during photosynthesis.

Source: www.pacificforest.org/about/glossary.html

7

Amazon River Basin that covers more than six million square kilometers.16

Unfortunately, the perception of seemingly unending water supply has promoted wasteful

and careless use of water resources and has masked growing problems of diminishing

water availability in certain areas. During the 20th Century, the rate of water extraction

and consumption increased much faster than the world rate and outstripped the level of

growth attributable to population growth. This unprecedented demand for water has led

to increased competition for useable water resources. Extraction has exceeded the

restoration of groundwater to aquifers rendering the consumption level unsustainable.17

Economic and population growth has also contributed to the degradation of

existing resources as competition for water supplies has increased between various

sectors of the economy and domestic households. Agriculture has historically

represented the single greatest consumer of water, although consumption levels have

somewhat decreased from ninety-five per cent of total water consumption in the mid-20th

Century. As the majority of land in Latin America and the Caribbean is devoted to

agriculture, this dominant economic activity largely determines the environmental

conditions of water resources. Reliance on chemicals in the agricultural sector of the

region including fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides has severely degraded freshwater

systems. In rural areas, agricultural run-off has become the primary culprit of ground and

water pollution. Trends indicate that the use of agrochemicals has risen

disproportionately with respect to overall growth in the sector in recent decades.18

Despite the abundance of water resources in Latin America and the Caribbean,

states have generally lacked appropriate infrastructure for sewage treatment. As a result,

many states have only treated a small fraction of liquid wastes arising from human

settlements and industrial activities, and millions of tons of toxic liquid pollutants have

been dumped into regional water systems. This practice has not only damaged the

quality of surface water and harmed fragile water ecosystems, but has also permanently

16 Hilstrom, 13117 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 11518 Hillstrom, 145

8

reduced the availability of useable aquifers. This trend presents a troubling outlook for

the region, as cleaning severely polluted water sources is quite costly.19

In addition to these unfortunate practices, mining has contributed to pollution in

Latin America and the Caribbean for centuries. Since many states have relied on this

industry to provide valuable foreign investment and spur economic development, they

have consequently implemented few regulations regarding the manner in which ore is

extracted. Unsustainable mining practices have had dramatic detrimental effects on water

systems and other natural resources, as large mining operations have dumped millions of

metric tons of toxic waste materials directly into local river systems throughout Latin

American states.20 Small-scale mining has also historically had notable negative effects

on natural ecosystems in the region, especially in Brazil, where thousands of independent

poor miners, known as garmpeiros, search for gold in creek beds and deep rivers using

mercury to extract gold. Garmpeiros have illegally invaded indigenous and ecological

reserves in their search for gold, and years of mercury contamination has severely

impacted the Amazon River basin.21

Air quality represents another byproduct of inappropriate environmental

exploitation in the region, especially in urban areas. The trend of urbanization in the 20th

Century has led to seventy-four per cent of the region’s population living in urban areas,

making the region the most highly urbanized in the world. This combination of

economic and population growth has increased overall consumption patterns. The

demand for manufactured goods and automobiles has risen substantially in the past

decade, leading to mounting emissions of chemicals that degrade air quality during

production, not to mention the emission of pollutants during normal operation.22 The

primary cause of declining air quality in the region is the dramatic increase in motor

vehicle use in the past there decades. A particular concern is that many of these

automobiles still operate on leaded fuel, leading to unsafe concentrations of lead in the

19 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 11720 Hillstrom, 14621 Roberts and Thanos, 15322 Hilstrom, 201

9

atmosphere. In addition, the majority of vehicles on the roads every year in urban centers

are more than ten years old and lack adequate pollution mitigation technology.23

Emissions output from the industrial sector has also grown over the past decade,

especially from enterprises ranging from textile plants to oil refineries. Due to the lack of

effective regulatory mechanisms at all levels of government, many high-polluting

enterprises have continually caused damage to local environments and nearby human

settlements. That said, large multi-national firms bring greater environmentally-

sustainable operating practices to the developing states of the region. Multi-national

corporations operate under the close supervision of an international consumer market and

the high regulatory environment of states that are members of the Organization for

Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).24

Air pollution also has a significant impact on public health as it permanently

affects the lives of more than eighty million people throughout the region. States face the

added challenge of coping with the health problems associated with air pollution without

the financial means to provide adequate social services. While large urban centers such

as Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago and Buenos Aires have made substantial

progress in controlling air pollution in the past decade through antipollution initiatives

and updated emissions regulations, states have not extended these programs to medium-

sized cities. Unless states make a concerted effort to improve air quality, the mounting

number of vehicles in urban centers will continue to threaten past progress.25

Current StatusSince the Earth Summit in 1992, states in Latin America and the Caribbean have

had a mixed record of performance on economic and environmental agendas. While

states have undergone significant economic reform to cope with the effects of past

economic crises, the rates of growth and development has not been sufficient to recover

from earlier recessions, especially with the added stress of population growth. Although

23 Ibid, 20424 David Wheeler, Racing to the Bottom? Foreign Investment and Air Pollution in Developing Countries (The World Bank, 2001), 9.25 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 128

10

productivity has increased in recent years, levels of relative poverty have generally

remained unchanged. Overall, economic and social conditions to promote sustainable

development in environmental terms are no better than the conditions that prevailed

during the 1990s. As urban settlements grow by more than five per cent annually, the

rapid urbanization of the population has led to the proliferation of environmentally

degrading makeshift human settlements.26 Urban populations are increasingly

contributing to air and water pollution in the region. Additionally, increased agricultural

production is leading to worsening environmental conditions in the countryside despite

the fact that rural populations have stabilized.

States established modern environmental institutions after the 1992 Rio Summit;

however these agencies are often characterized by shortcomings that prevent effective

environmental management. States often created these new environmental bodies by

consolidating existing governmental agencies under a broader mandate. In essence, they

created new ineffectual bodies to replace old ineffectual ones. Consequently, new

environmental agencies have an excessive number of responsibilities, but lack the

capacities to carry them out.27 Mandates of different governmental agencies, for example

the ministry of environment and ministry of forestry, can conflict and lead to unnecessary

inter-agency power struggles that waste time and resources. A lack of transparency and

accountability in governmental agencies also impede effective policy implementation.28

Most significantly, environmental institutions chronically suffer from a lack of sufficient

funding. States may have adequate environmental regulations, but generally lack the

resources and financial capabilities to effectively enforce them.

Despite obvious shortcomings, the Earth Summit led to advances in terms of

environmental regulatory frameworks in Latin American and the Caribbean. Many states

have enacted legislation concerning responsibility for damaging the environment in civil,

administrative and criminal regards. Environmental laws are increasingly incorporating

26 Ibid, 12227 Ibid, 16228 William Ascher, Understanding why Governments in Developing Countries Waste Natural Resources, 42, no. 2 (2000). Academic Search Premier, via EBSCOHost, http://search.epnet.com

11

impact assessment studies and evaluations before significant projects can be undertaken,

yet throughout the region, states have only recently begun to integrate the approach of

environmental conservation and sustainable resource use with mainstream policies.29

The following examples, including Costa Rica’s Payments for Environmental

Services Program, Brazil’s ethanol production programs, the Mesoamerican Biological

Corridor and the Guarani Aquifer System represent unilateral and multilateral

environmental initiatives taken by states in the region since the 1992 Earth Summit.

Although many these initiatives were established in the 1990s, they all continue to grow

and flourish in the 21st Century.

Unilateral Approaches to Environmental RegulationIn recent decades, Costa Rica has earned a reputation as an environmental safe

haven in Latin America and the Caribbean for acting as a pioneer in legislating and

implementing innovative environmental programs. Costa Rica has high levels of

biodiversity although it is the second smallest state in Central America. The state

currently has an extensive and ambitious conservation program that protects more than

ten per cent of its land mass.30 In 1996, Costa Rica adopted a new regulatory framework

for forestry use called “Payments for Environmental Services” (PSA).31 This law relies

on “polluter pays” and “beneficiary pays” principles and represents a shift towards

market-based financing mechanisms for sustainability. Government programs reward

participating landowners through payments for environmental services including carbon

sequestration, protection of watersheds, biodiversity conservation, and the provision of

scenic beauty. Financing sources include a five per cent tax on fossil fuels, payments

from private industrial buyers, as well as international sources. The National Fund for

Forest Financing (FONAFIFO) administers funding for PSA.32

29 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 163-16430 Rhett Butler, “Costa Rica: Environmental Profile,” Rhett Butler, http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20costarica.htm (accessed April 24, 2006)31 Simon Zbinden and David R. Lee, “Paying for Environmental Services: An Analysis of Participation in Costa Rica’s PSA Program,” World Development 33, no. 2 (2005): 25632 Anthony Snider, et al., “Policy Innovations for Private Forest Management and Conservation in Costa Rica”, Journal of Forestry 101, no 5 (2003): 21

12

Current program instruments include

reforestation and forest conservation. A landowner

participating in the reforestation program allocates a

portion of his land for the planting of trees, and he

receives payment for maintaining a survival rate

greater than eighty-five per cent. Under the forest

conservation program, the landowner enters into a

contract with the government, during which time the landowner transfers his forest use

rights to the government and cannot

engage in logging or other activities

during that time period. To implement

these regulations, the PSA program

assigns forest engineers an intermediary

role between landowners and the

government, charged with establishing

management plans for participating

areas, performing control and enforcement tasks, and disseminating program

information.33

Since its implementation in 1997, Costa Rica’s PSA program has experienced both

successes and veritable failures. By the end of 2001, landowners had submitted more

than 284,000 hectares of land to the PSA program, amounting to almost six per cent of

total national territory. More than 40,000 forest owners have benefited from the program,

and there has been a persistent excess in demand since program implementation.34 The

gross deforestation rate had significantly decreased by the beginning of the 21st Century,

and reforestation efforts resulted in a net gain of forest cover.35 Despite these

encouraging statistics, the PSA program has yet to adequately fulfill its original goals of

generating income and employment in rural areas as well as providing support and

33 Zbinden and Lee, 25734 Ibid35 Snider, 19

Costa Rica

Polluter Pays:The principle which states that those who cause industrial pollution should offset its effects by compensating for the damage incurred, or by taking precautionary measures to avoid creating pollution.

Source: www.evomarkets.com/ghg_glossary.html

Beneficiary Pays:Cost sharing principle where those who benefit from an action pay for part of the action in direct proportion to the benefit they receive

Source: www.malleecma.vic.gov.au/glossarymcma.asp

13

outreach for small and medium landowners. PSA program instruments tend to favor

better-educated, wealthier landowners who possess larger tracts of land due to

administrative responsibilities, title requirements and favorable conditions for

biodiversity. The ultimate long-term success of an incentive-based program such as the

PSA will depend on its ability to reach and provide a viable economic alternative to poor

subsistence farmers.36

Ethanol Production and Use in BrazilAs the world’s largest producer of ethanol, Brazil is a global leader in promoting

the use of renewable energy sources to

reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Brazil

was one of the first states to establish a

national program to support ethanol

production. It first implemented the PRO-

ALCOHOL program in 1975 to promote

the production of sugarcane, which can be converted into ethanol through fermentation.

Despite high prices of sugarcane and slumps in consumer confidence in the 1990s,

ethanol has surged in popularity among Brazilian motorists with the introduction of the

flex-fuel motor in 2003. First introduced by Volkswagen, this technology allows

consumers to use either alcohol, gasoline, or a

mixture of both to fuel their vehicles. In less

than three years since its introduction, more

than seventy per cent of automobiles sold in

Brazil have incorporated the flex-fuel motor

system.37

The ethanol industry presents lucrative

economic prospects as well as a host of

36 Zbinden and Lee, 27037 Rohter, Larry, “With Big Boost From Sugar Cane, Brazil is Satisfying its Fuel Needs,” New York Times, April 10, 2006, late edition, Lexis-Nexis, via Rutgers Libraries, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu

Brazil

Ethanol:The most widely used renewable biofuel today. Ethanol is made by converting starch crops into sugars, the sugars are fermented into ethanol which is then distilled into its final form. Its main uses are to enhance vehicle performance and as a fuel oxygenate to improve the emissions profile of gasoline.

Source: genencordev.zoomedia.com/wt/gcor/glossary

14

environmental implications for Brazil in the future. The state expects to become energy

self-sufficient during 2006 by increasing sugarcane production. High energy yields from

sugarcane and production methods have given Brazil’s ethanol the lowest production

costs compared with similar programs. Brazilian ethanol producers expect to remain

competitive with crude oil as long as oil prices do not drop below USD $30 per barrel, a

prospect that seems very unlikely as crude oil prices hover well above that level.38

Consequently, Brazilian domestic demand for ethanol is soaring and international

demand is also on the rise, and analysts consider Brazil the only state capable of meeting

these energy demands in the near future.39 Ethanol has the potential to become another

major export-based commodity for the Brazilian economy, and conservationists worry

about the environmental implications of further promoting the intense production of

sugarcane. Ethanol production has generated more than one million direct and indirect

jobs and saved Brazil more than USD $20 billion in oil imports. Also, ethanol use has

led to a notable decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and improvements in air quality.

Expanding areas of sugarcane cultivation can lead to further land degradation; however

Brazilian officials argue that the environmental threat is not severe. Sugarcane farmers

are able to reuse land that has already been degraded and abandoned by the cattle farming

industry.40 Environmentalists argue that the surge in sugarcane production, in response to

mounting domestic and international demand, may push the cattle industry further into

forested areas of the Amazon and promote illegal forestry use as cultivated areas quickly

expand. Ultimately, while ethanol will no doubt produce great economic benefits for

Brazil, its success as an environmentally-friendly alternative to fossil fuels will depend

on the government’s ability to effectively enforce environmental legislation and promote

sustainable production methods.

38 Ibid39 Mario Osava, “High Hopes Over Rising Demand for Fuel Alcohol,” Inter Press Service News Agency, December 15, 2004, http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=2669340 Ibid

15

The Mesoamerican Biological CorridorThe Mesoamerican

Biological Corridor (MBC)

is a regional initiative

launched in 1997 that

includes areas in the states

of Central America and the

five southern states of

Mexico. This region covers

768,990 square kilometers

and contains diverse eco-

systems from coral reefs to

grasslands. Although Mesoamerica contains only one half of one per cent of the world’s

land, it has seven per cent of the world’s biological diversity. Proper environmental

management of the region is crucial for future years. The program focuses on sustainable

social and economic development to promote ecological conservation and recognizes that

“wildlife preservation efforts cannot be addressed in isolation from socioeconomic

realties that put pressure on fragile natural resources.”41 In order to be truly effective in

both conservation and sustainable development, this ambitious effort requires multi-tiered

cooperation between numerous stakeholders. These stakeholders include public agencies

at local, regional and national levels, the private sector, civil society organizations, as

well as rural populations and indigenous peoples.42

The basic framework of the MBC centers on the establishment of different of

zones to promote its various policy goals. Core Zones are areas strictly reserved to

protect wildlife and natural ecosystems. Currently, about eleven per cent of the region is

formally designated as protected areas. These areas are then surrounded by Buffer

Zones, which serve as transitional zones between reserves and land used for commercial

41 Hillstrom, 7442 Kenton Miller, Elsa Chang and Nels Johnson, Defining Common Ground for the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2001), vii.

Mesoamerican Biological Corridor

16

purposes and economic development.43 Buffer zones aim to absorb the destructive effects

of economic activities in proximity to core zones. Corridor Zones link the various Core

Zones and focus on environmentally sound land management practices to ensure a “high

level of biological connectivity.” The Multiple-use Zones are dedicated to human uses,

including human settlements, agriculture and managed forestry, but policies promote the

sustainable management of land and natural resources.44

As environmental issues span several national borders, the Mesoamerican

Biological Corridor initiative has the potential to serve as a vehicle for the development

of multilateral environmental policy, but it faces several challenges. Future success is

contingent on continued funding from various international organizations and foreign

governments along with sustained cooperation among its various stakeholders. The

failure of any of the primary stakeholders to cooperate on some level with each other,

including conservationists, governments or rural populations, could jeopardize the future

of the initiative. This endeavor has already shown success in acting as a catalyst in the

region for improving states’ overall environmental performance, as in the case of

Guatemala’s first legal mechanisms to support conservation and responsible natural

resource use.45 Although the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor is still in the initial to

medium-term stages of planning and implementation, it represents an important regional

approach to environmental management in Latin America and the Caribbean that

attempts to reconcile the interests of biological conservation with sustainable social and

economic development.

Guarani Aquifer System ProjectConcerns regarding water availability and proper management of water resources

have become increasingly urgent in the 21st Century with the combined pressures of

population growth and increased economic development on available water resources.

States in Latin America and the Caribbean have begun to recognize the need to transition

43 Hillstrom, 7544 Miller, Chang and Johnson, viii45 Hillstrom, 76

17

from a sectoral to a regional approach to freshwater management as major water systems

and aquifers generally span national boundaries.46 A number of models have failed to

show progress due to a lack of sufficient funding and institutional conflicts, however the

Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development of the Guarani Aquifer System

Project represents a promising regional initiative in terms of sustainable water

management. The World Bank is the implementing agency and the regional executive

agency is the Organization of American States – Office for Sustainable Development and

Environment. The General Secretariat of the Project is responsible for carrying out

project components between 2003 and 2007.47

The Guarani Aquifer is a critical source of freshwater for the Latin American

states of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Although it encompasses more than

460,000 square miles and is one of the largest aquifers in the world, these states are

depleting the Guarani Aquifer at an unsustainable rate. This project has given much

needed recognition to the issue of groundwater management. Groundwater is a critical

resource because it rarely needs treatment prior to consumption due to natural biological

filtering processes. In contrast, surface water is very susceptible to contamination from

agricultural run-off, industrial and domestic effluents and requires expensive water

treatment.48 The long-term objective of this project is the sustainable, integrated

management and use of the Guarani Aquifer System for current and future generations.

In order to develop an effective joint management framework, states have implemented

and coordinated data gathering networks to continually assess groundwater availability

and quality from the aquifer. States have recognized the importance of greater

participation by nongovernmental organizations and business stakeholders in effective

decision-making and management regarding the water resource. The Guarani System

Citizens’ Fund provides funding to nongovernmental institutions and academic

46 Ibid, 13847 The General Secretariat, “Guarani Aquifer System // Project,” Guarani Aquifer System Project, http://www.sg-guarani.org/index/site/proyecto/pto_introduccion.php (accessed June 11, 2006)48 Latin America and Caribbean Region - Guarani Aquifer Project - International Waters MERCOSUL (GEF) Vol. 1 (English) (World Bank, 2001), 2.

18

institutions creating a collaborative

framework sustainable even after project

completion.49

The four South American states

using the Guarani Aquifer System have

recognized the importance of regional

cooperation on trans-boundary water

issues. The project represents a first step in

terms of regional groundwater

management, and serves as a catalyst in encouraging greater dialogue on other water

issues between the participating states and reforming individual states’ water

management models. Ultimately, this project is environmentally focused in nature, but

pays heed to the economic water needs of the participating states. Recognizing that the

uses of the Guarani Aquifer System in the future will inevitably have some detrimental

environmental effects, this project aims engage in in-depth studies of these effects and

promoting policy coordination to minimize their adverse qualities.

Key PositionsIn many ways, the environment can be seen as a luxury good to poor developing

nations. Forests represent a waiting stock of valuable resources in terms of lumber, but

also represent an impediment from expanding agricultural operations. What these states

often do not recognize, or are unable to realize, is the environmental value of these lands.

While in the short term it may be profitable to harvest these areas, in the long run,

maintaining these virgin forests may prove even more valuable. As such, there is often a

marked difference among states along the spectrum of economic development.

Central American and Caribbean StatesCentral American and Caribbean states have initiated environmental programs to

varying degrees, and Mexico is a leader in the region in such efforts. For example,

49 Ibid, 4

Guarani Aquifer

19

emissions standards and regulations have led to a notable reduction of air pollution in

Mexico City, one of the largest cities in the world. Mexico must also comply with

environmental standards of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

Central American states are generally characterized by high rates of poverty, and pressing

economic and social problems have overshadowed environmental efforts. Costa Rica is

an important exception, as innovative incentive-based conservation based programs and

an extensive national party system have earned it a strong environmental record while at

the same time promoting economic growth. From a regional standpoint, the

Mesoamerican Biological Corridor represents an important multilateral initiative in the

region. In addition, due to severe losses from hurricanes in past years, many states in the

region are investing in early warning systems and improving disaster relief agencies to

mitigate the destruction from future natural disasters.

Caribbean states typically have very fragile environments, and some governments

have recognized the urgency of the ecological situation by strengthening environmental

institutions and integrating them into physical policy planning. These measures promote

sustainable tourism, biodiversity conservation and integration of coastal and marine

resources.50 The Bahamas National Trust has reseeded original hardwoods in its Exuma

National Park in an effort to promote eco-tourism. In contrast, Haiti has been overcome

by political turmoil and rampant poverty and lacks sufficient resources to promote

environmental conservation while satisfying burdensome debt service from developed

states. As many Caribbean nations are heavily reliant on the tourism industry, these

states are looking to find a delicate balance between promoting environmental

conservation to sustain but not hinder this vital economic sector.

South American StatesAmong South American States, Brazil plays a prominent role in promoting

environmental programs, but its efforts are far from sufficient. The Amazon tropical

50 United Nations Environmental Programme, “GEO-2000: Chapter Three: Policy Responses – Latin America and the Caribbean – Laws and Institutions,” United Nations, http://www.unep.org/geo/geo2000/english/0183.htm (accessed April 3, 2006).

20

forests in Brazil are home to the greatest biodiversity in the world and the state has

engaged in a number of conservation programs and has implemented environmental

regulations to protect these forests. An important policy is the Brazilian Environmental

Crimes Law, which actually applies administrative and criminal sanctions in the

regulation of natural resource use. Strong environmental interests give further support to

ecological policies in Brazil, but the state has pursued inconsistent environmental

policies, as the “Advance Brazil” development plan includes highways, dams, mines and

other industrial developments that pose major detriments to the Amazon rainforest.51

Land tenure laws promote squatting and clearing forested areas for agricultural purposes.

IBAMA, the Brazilian Ministry of Environment’s enforcement agency, has perpetually

lacked adequate funding and support to combat illegal logging in the Amazon, which

constitutes an estimated eight per cent of total logging.52

Other members of the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) have shown

support for and made progress in sustainable development policies, but have been less

active than Brazil. For example, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay have pursued less

stringent Environmental Impact Assessments than the MERCOSUR treaty has made

mandatory.53 The rise in economic productivity and growth in major South American

states presents challenges to environmental agendas, which governments have not

reconciled with economic interests. President Hugo Chavez of Venezuela plans to build

a major gas pipeline and an electricity transmission line across the state, which has major

environmental repercussions for the Amazon region. South American states also receive

a significant amount of foreign direct investment and do not want to deter foreign firms

with strenuous environmental regulations. These states also have not taken a strong

stance in preventing unsustainable human settlements in major urban centers such as Rio

de Janeiro, Santiago and Buenos Aires.

51 Greepeace International, “Amazon,” Greenpeace International, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/amazon (accessed April 4, 2006).52 Rhett Butler, “Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,” Rhett Butler, http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20brazil.htm (accessed April 24, 2006)53 Greenpeace International

21

Despite its high biological diversity, Colombia has given a low priority to forestry

management due to political turmoil and violence. The state has also engaged in

environmentally degrading aerial fumigation programs to deter the illicit coca trade.54 In

contrast, the small states of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana have the lowest

population densities in all of Latin America and the Caribbean and harbor few threats to

their environments.55

Since the 1992 Earth Summit, developed states have voiced

concerns for international environmental conservation and

sustainable development, but actual efforts have fallen short of objectives. The United

States has demonstrated its wariness of multilateral environmental agreements since its

reluctance to participate in the 1992 Earth Summit and 2001 retraction from the Kyoto

Protocol. At the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, the

US urged strengthening existing environmental laws rather than establishing additional

commitments. It strongly advocated private sector engagement in facilitating trade and

voluntary public-private partnerships as an approach to sustainable development as

opposed to conventional methods.56 In addition, the United States remains the largest

financial contributor in absolute terms to the Global Environment Facility, the

mechanism through which the World Bank funds a great deal of international

environmental protection.57 European states favor strong environmental regulation and

conservation in Latin America and the Caribbean, as they are influenced by public

environmental concerns. While they have not fulfilled all of their financial obligations of

Agenda 21 since the 1992 Earth Summit, the European Union and European parliaments

fund a variety of environmental projects throughout the region.

54 Butler, “Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,”55 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 9256 Jutta Brunnee, “The United States and International Environmental Law: Living With an Elephant,” European Journal of International Law 15, no. 4 (2004): 63557 Ibid, 621

Developed States

22

Business InterestsThe diversity among business

enterprises in Latin America and the

Caribbean has led to a variety of

environmental views depending on firms’

economic sector and size. In recent years,

firms have integrated sustainable

development approaches into business

management practices in order to act

environmentally responsible. Business

interests throughout the region have

demonstrated support for sustainable development through the establishment of business

councils and national centers for clean production and technology.58 Large multinational

firms promote environmentally-friendly practices in order to maintain a good reputation

of social responsibility and comply with OECD standards. In contrast, poor small

businesses often do not give much consideration to environmental conservation and

protection. Overall, regardless of how environmentally responsible firms want to be,

businesses from ranchers to miners and pharmaceutical companies favor policies that

promote easier access and use of natural resources in the region.

Non-Governmental OrganizationsThousands of non-governmental organizations have developed in recent decades

focusing on environmental conservation and protection. Major international

environmental NGOs, such as the World Wildlife Fund and the Nature Conservancy have

contributed to significant policy change in many Latin American and Caribbean states

and continue to be influential in policymaking at many levels of government.

Environmental NGOs generally share the same broad objectives of forest and

biodiversity conservation as well as sustainable development, but differ in how they

58 The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities, 174

Kyoto Protocol:The result of negotiations at the third Conference of the Parties (COP-3) in Kyoto, Japan, in December of 1997. The Kyoto Protocol sets binding greenhouse gas emissions targets for countries that sign and ratify the agreement. The gases covered under the Protocol include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride.

Source: www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_k.htm

Agenda 21:Agenda 21 is a plan of action for the preservation of the Earth that was adopted at the UN conference on the environment and development at Rio de Janeiro in 1992.No fewer than 181 countries signed the document. Agenda 21 not only aims to solve environmental problems but also covers the economic and social injustice in the world.Democracy,equality and the fight against poverty play an important role.

Source: www.miljo.skane.se/eng/a/pa11.htm

23

reach these goals. Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace International, act as watchdogs and

alert the public when states or economic sectors engage in destructive environmental

practices. The Nature Conservancy focuses on the conservation of parks, and others

simply promote environmental education and fund research studies.59 The World

Wildlife Fund engages in projects to explore alternative methods to agricultural

production and logging practices that are sustainable and less destructive to the

environment. For example, through its “protect-manage-restore” approach to forest

conservation, WWF promotes certified logging through the Forest Stewardship Council

(FSC) as well as forest restoration.60 Ultimately, environmental NGOs prioritize

environmental conservation over the promotion of economic development and business

interests with regard to natural resources, but also recognize the importance of

sustainable development.

MediaThe media has the capacity to greatly influence public opinion about

environmental issues and put pressure on policymakers to address important issues.

When the media does report on environmental issues, it generally does so in a pro-

environmental framework, however the amount of media coverage can vary greatly from

time to time. For example, the media was very influential in exposing Brazilians to a vast

amount of environmental information prior to the 1992 Earth Summit and led to a

dramatic increase in public awareness of environmental concerns in the 1990s.61

59 Blaca Torres, “Transnational Environmental NGOs: Linkages and Impact on Policy” in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, ed. Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson, and Marc A. Stern (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), 166.60 World Wildlife Fund, “WWF – Responsible Forestry: Certification,” World Wildlife Fund, http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/our_solutions/responsible_forestry/certification/ (accessed April 4, 2006).61 Eduardo J. Viola, “The Environmental Movement in Brazil: Institutionalization, Sustainable Development, and the Crisis of Governance Since 1987 in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, ed. Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson and Marc A. Stern (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), 98.

24

SummaryThe future of natural resources and the environment in Latin America and the

Caribbean is uncertain. States have formally recognized the need to adopt stronger

institutions and mechanisms to promote environmental conservation and sustainable

development, however actual efforts have lagged far behind policy objectives. The

current consumption of natural resources and rates of degradation to the environment in

the region is not sustainable in the long run. The region has experienced the detrimental

effects of human activity for centuries. European colonists left an enduring mark on the

region by their environmentally degrading practices of gold and mineral mining, cattle

ranching, and single crop plantation farming. The domestic economies of the region have

primarily had export-driven economies with a dependence on foreign investment ever

since.

In recent years, social and economic trends have significantly impacted the

effectiveness of environmental policies in Latin America and the Caribbean. States in the

region have experienced major swings in economic stability and growth in the 1990s has

not been sufficient to recover from past recessionary periods. Consequently states have

placed priorities on economic stability, productivity and debt repayment. Despite the fact

that most states ratified legally-binding documents aimed at fostering sustainable

development and environmental conservation, deforestation and soil degradation from

agricultural and mining activities continues at alarming rates. The increasing trend of

urbanization coupled with population growth has led to increases in air and water

pollution.

While environmental policy reforms have taken place since the 1992 Rio Summit,

numerous Latin American and Caribbean states lack the means to effectively finance

environmental institutions. Notable progress in multilateral environmental cooperation

includes the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor and the Guarani Aquifer System Project.

Nongovernmental actors including business councils and multinational firms and

25

especially non-governmental organizations have become influential in the environmental

policymaking process.

26

Discussion Questions How do states’ economic goals compare and contrast with their environmental

goals?

What effect will improved environmental regulation and conservation have on economic productivity?

Identify failed attempts to protect the environment. What caused them to fail? Was it a lack of funding? Lack of a will to make difficult decisions? Lack of support from outside entities?

What are the tradeoffs, if any, between economic growth and environmental sustainability?

What capabilities and resources do modern environmental institutions lack that impede their effective management of environmental concerns?

What incentives do states have to allow the exploitation of natural resources?

How have the interests of businesses and the industrial sector influenced environmental policymaking?

What role do non-governmental organizations play in impacting environmental policies?

Why have governments failed to enforce laws and agreements protecting the environment?

27

Works CitedAscher, William. Understanding why Governments in Developing Countries Waste

Natural Resources, 42, no. 2 (2000): 8-18. Academic Search Premier, via EBSCOHost, http://search.epnet.com

Brunnee, Jutta, “The United States and International Environmental Law: Living With an Elephant,” European Journal of International Law, 15, no. 4 (2004): 617-649.

Butler, Rhett, “Costa Rica: Environmental Profile,” Rhett Butler, http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20costarica.htm

Butler, Rhett, “Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,” Rhett Butler, Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,”

Dore, Elizabeth. “Capitalism and ecological crisis: legacy of the 1980s.” In Green Guerrillas: Environmental Conflicts and Initiatives in Latin America and the Caribbean, edited by Helen Collinson, 8-19. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997.

The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities. Santiago: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2002.

Greepeace International, “Amazon,” Greenpeace International, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/amazon

General Secretariat. “Guarani Aqufer System // Project,” Guarani Aquifer System, http://www.sg-guarani.org/index/site/proyecto/pto_introduccion.php

Hillstrom, K. and L. Hillstrom. Latin America and the Caribbean: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2004.

Miller, K., E. Chang and N. Johnson. Defining Common Ground for the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2001.

Osava, Mario. “High Hopes Over Rising Demand for Fuel Alcohol.” Inter Press Service News Agency, December 15, 2004. http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=26693

28

Roberts, J. and N. Thanos. Trouble in Paradise: Globalization and Environmental Crises in Latin America. New York: Taylor & Francis Books, Inc., 2003.

Rohter, Larry. “With Big Boost From Sugar Cane, Brazil is Satisfying its Fuel Needs.” New York Times, April 10, 2006, late edition. Lexis-Nexis, via Rutgers Libraries, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu

Snider, Anthony et al. “Policy Innovations for Private Forest Management and Conservation in Costa Rica.” Journal of Forestry 101, no 5 (2003: 18-23

Torres, Blaca. “Transnational Environmental NGOs: Linkages and Impact on Policy” in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, edited by Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson, and Marc A. Stern, 156-178. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.

United Nations Environmental Programme, “GEO-2000: Chapter Three: Policy Responses – Latin America and the Caribbean – Laws and Institutions,” United Nations, http://www.unep.org/geo/geo2000/english/0183.htm.

Viola, Eduardo. “The Environmental Movement in Brazil: Institutionalization, Sustainable Development, and the Crisis of Governance Since 1987 in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, edited by Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson and Marc A. Stern, 88-110. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.

Wheeler, David. Racing to the Bottom? Foreign Investment and Air Pollution in Developing Countries. The World Bank, 2001.

The World Bank. Latin America and Caribbean Region - Guarani Aquifer Project - International Waters MERCOSUL (GEF) Vol. 1 (English). World Bank, 2001.

World Wildlife Fund, “WWF – Responsible Forestry: Certification,” World Wildlife Fund, http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/our_solutions/responsible_forestry/certification/

Zbiden, Simon and David Lee. “Paying for Environmental Services: An Analysis of Participation in Costa Rica’s PSA Program.” World Development 33, no. 2 (2005): 255-272.

29

Works ReferencedAscher, William. Understanding why Governments in Developing Countries Waste

Natural Resources, 42, no. 2 (2000): 8-18. Academic Search Premier, via EBSCOHost, http://search.epnet.com

Athanas, Andrea. “Role of Business – The role of business in biodiversity and impact assessment,” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 23, no. 1 (2005): 29-35.

Azqueta, Diego and D. Sotelsek. “Comparative advantages and the exploitation of environmental resources” in CEPAL Review, no. 68, 115-136. The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, via ECLAC Library, http://www.eclac.cl/biblioteca/default.asp?lang=english&page=information

Brunnee, Jutta, “The United States and International Environmental Law: Living With an Elephant,” European Journal of International Law 15, no. 4 (2004): 617-649.

Butler, Rhett, “Costa Rica: Environmental Profile,” Rhett Butler, http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20costarica.htm

Butler, Rhett, “Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,” Rhett Butler, Rainforests of Brazil—An Environmental Status Report,”

Dore, Elizabeth. “Capitalism and ecological crisis: legacy of the 1980s.” In Green Guerrillas: Environmental Conflicts and Initiatives in Latin America and the Caribbean, edited by Helen Collinson, 8-19. Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997.

The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). The Sustainability of development in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and opportunities. Santiago: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 2002.

Greepeace International, “Amazon,” Greenpeace International, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/forests/amazon

General Secretariat. “Guarani Aqufer System // Project,” Guarani Aquifer System, http://www.sg-guarani.org/index/site/proyecto/pto_introduccion.php

Hillstrom, K. and L. Hillstrom. Latin America and the Caribbean: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2004.

30

Hopkins, Jack W. Policymaking for Conservation in Latin America. Westport: Prager Publishers, 1995.

Miller, K., E. Chang and N. Johnson. Defining Common Ground for the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2001.

Osava, Mario. “High Hopes Over Rising Demand for Fuel Alcohol.” Inter Press Service News Agency, December 15, 2004. http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=26693

Roberts, J. and N. Thanos. Trouble in Paradise: Globalization and Environmental Crises in Latin America. New York: Taylor & Francis Books, Inc., 2003.

Rohter, Larry. “With Big Boost From Sugar Cane, Brazil is Satisfying its Fuel Needs.” New York Times, April 10, 2006, late edition. Lexis-Nexis, via Rutgers Libraries, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu

Snider, Anthony et al. “Policy Innovations for Private Forest Management and Conservation in Costa Rica.” Journal of Forestry 101, no 5 (2003: 18-23

Sunderlin, William et al. “Livelihoods, Forests, and Conservation in Developing Countries: An Overview,” in World Development, 33, no. 9 (2005): 1383-1402.

Torres, Blaca. “Transnational Environmental NGOs: Linkages and Impact on Policy” in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, edited by Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson, and Marc A. Stern, 156-178. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.

United Nations Environmental Programme, “GEO-2000: Chapter Three: Policy Responses – Latin America and the Caribbean – Laws and Institutions,” United Nations, http://www.unep.org/geo/geo2000/english/0183.htm.

Viola, Eduardo. “The Environmental Movement in Brazil: Institutionalization, Sustainable Development, and the Crisis of Governance Since 1987 in Latin American Environmental Policy in International Perspective, edited by Gordon J. MacDonald, Daniel L. Nielson and Marc A. Stern, 88-110. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.

Wheeler, David. Racing to the Bottom? Foreign Investment and Air Pollution in Developing Countries. The World Bank, 2001.

The World Bank. Latin America and Caribbean Region - Guarani Aquifer Project - International Waters MERCOSUL (GEF) Vol. 1 (English). World Bank, 2001.

31

World Wildlife Fund, “WWF – Responsible Forestry: Certification,” World Wildlife Fund, http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/our_solutions/responsible_forestry/certification/

Zbiden, Simon and David Lee. “Paying for Environmental Services: An Analysis of Participation in Costa Rica’s PSA Program.” World Development 33, no. 2 (2005): 255-272.