eastern religions: compare and contrast buddhism...

Final version with Dr. Robert Minor’s edits, corrections and changes. December 2008 Original draft from DIT class 2008 compilation assignment. Approved for disbursement. Tabitha Schmidt, Manager-Tour Programs

Eastern Religions: Compare and Contrast

Buddhism Zen Buddhism Confucianism Daoism Hinduism Shinto

Belief in a

Supreme

Deity

There is no Supreme

Deity who creates and

rules the universe. Karma,

the law of cause and

effect governing all one’s

actions, is responsible for

the universe as it is. Other

cultural deities, like

humans, also participate

in samsara, the continual

“passing through” karma

and rebirth.

The title buddha means

“enlightened one,” a

human who has awakened

to see reality as it is.

Thus, there can be many

buddhas.

The historical Buddha,

Gottama, reportedly said

his role was to point the

way. Rejecting ignorance,

grasping to things, and

greed, a buddha embodies

the Dharma (the Truth,

Law): wisdom,

generosity, compassion,

non-attachment, and non-

violence.

On a popular level, as in

temples, however,

numerous buddhas and

bodhisattvas (enlightened

beings who vow to end

the suffering of others,

e.g. Kuan Yin) function

for the people as deities

who grant wishes.

There is no Supreme

Deity. The word "Zen"

(Chinese: Chan;

Sanskrit: dhyana) means

"meditation." Zen

Buddhists believe that

everyone has the

Buddha nature within.

Though Zen in principle

saw no need to use

images or to concentrate

on the study of Buddhist

scriptures (sutras), both

continued to be used in

Zen temples.

Crucially central to Zen

practice is the master,

roshi, who must be

within an authoritative

tradition of personally

passing down satori

from master to disciple

that is traced back to the

historical Buddha. Thus,

the importance of the

Chinese Patriarchs of

Zen (e.g., the First:

Bodhidharma or

Daruma). The roshi

passes on the means to

enlightenment. He has

complete authority for

he embodies the very

presence of

enlightenment and the

Buddha to the Zen

monks, unsui, and is

assumed to know

exactly what each unsui

needs to reach satori.

Confucianism is a

system of morality that

was heavily influenced

by government

adaptation and

promotion from the Han

dynasty to the present.

Government sponsored

Confucian temples

taught national morality,

as did passing a civil

service examination

system for government

employment, which

created a uniform

ideology in government

and a powerful

scholarly class.

Confucius, according to

the Analects, believed in

a supreme divine king

called Tian, “Heaven,”

which since the Han

dynasty has become an

impersonal “Nature.”

However, Confucius’

interests were more in

restoring the crumbling

social order of his day

than discussing spirits.

On a popular level,

numerous cultural

heroes and legendary

figures who embodied

Confucian virtues were

raised to the status of

worship by the

government and are

found in temples today.

On the level of Daoist

texts and thinkers, the

Dao is not a personal

divine being. There is

none. It is the “Way” of

the universe, the

primordial ordering

principle of all of

reality whose

movement is

characterized by the

forces of yang

(positive) and yin

(negative). Good is a

balancing of these two

forces; evil their

imbalance.

At a popular level,

many Chinese people

include in their

pantheon of

suprahuman beings

Daoist Immortals

(popularly eight): i.e.

folk figures who upon

attaining immortality

have been raised to the

status of functioning to

grant people’s wishes.

Even Lao-ze, riding his

ox to the Western

regions, the legendary

author of the Dao-de-

jing, has been deified.

Daoist temples are

dedicated to one or

more of these. They are

not creator deities but

merely answer prayers.

At an elite level, often

today called “Vedanta”

(relating back to the

last texts of the ancient

Vedas), and

particularly popular

among English-

educated Indians, the

highest reality is the

One impersonal

absolute often

identified with the true

Self within and called

Brahman. Within this

understanding, the

numerous popular

deities are therefore

considered to be

personifications of

Brahman and organized

in various schema.

On a popular level,

these gods (e.g.

Krishna, Vishnu,

Shiva) and goddesses

(e.g. Durga, Kali) are

worshipped as creators,

sustainers, and

destroyers of all, and

different sects worship

various Lords (Ishvara)

as supreme. For some a

goddess is considered

the power, shakti, of

the god; for others she

is the highest lord in

herself. Most people

are henotheists, some

polytheists or

monotheists.

Kami are the gods,

forces, and powers,

worshipped by the

Japanese people in

Shinto shrines. The

traditional number is

800 million.

These can include both

good and evil forces,

often related closely to

nature, and in earliest

times they were the

ancestral gods of each

clan (ujigami).

Today kami are

worshipped for their

functions -- to aid

people with the

problems of life. Shinto

practices are mixed

with Buddhist

practices.

Ancestor spirits may

also be kami and a long

tradition dating back to

the Chronicles of Japan

from the 8th

century CE

says the Emperor is a

living kami directly

descended from the

Sun Goddess,

Amaterasu. Only in

these early texts and

when the government

promoted Shinto were

there attempts to rank

kami, such as

considering Amaterasu

the most powerful.



View of

Life After

Death

The goal is nirvana, not a

heaven -- an intuitive

experience which is the

release from suffering and

samara, the otherwise

endless cycle of birth,

death, and rebirth caused

by one’s actions, karma.

Nirvana is an

indescribable state of

consciousness beyond

reality as we know it in

which one knows reality

the way it is. Buddhists

stress the concept of

impermanence for

understanding the world.

Human desire causes

suffering, frustration, and

disappointment; it is the

clinging to things,

including one’s sense of

ego, all of which are

impermanent. In some

traditions one must

become a monk to attain

this; monks are thus

central symbolic figures.

Some Buddhists at a

popular level developed

the idea of a “Pure Land,”

a heaven into which one

can be born as a result of

devotion. Once there,

attaining nirvana is

guaranteed. This became

Jodo, a major movement

in China and Japan. Also,

temporary hells and

heavens were posited to

live out one’s karma

before an earthly rebirth.

The goal is satori

(nirvana), an intuitive

experience that is the

release from, and end of,

suffering and samara, the

otherwise endless cycle

of birth, death, and

rebirth caused by one’s

actions, karma.

Because Zen (Chan)

developed in China, Zen

thinkers emphasize the

this-worldly aspects of

the new indescribable

insight one achieves with

satori -- how it causes

one to relate to, see,

experience, and live in

the present reality from a

perspective of oneness

and non-attachment, a

rejection of the approach

to reality of analysis of

things and stand-back

objectification.

Different schools of Zen

varied on whether the

experience of satori

came suddenly, like a

shock to one’s system

(Rinzai Zen), or more

gradually, attained during

zazen (seated meditation)

but deepening as one

continued to practice

zazen (Soto Zen).

According to the

Analects of Confucius,

Confucius was

uninterested in

discussing life after

death and a hereafter.

He apparently

recognized ancestral

spirits but was single-

mindedly concerned

with social order and

stopping the fall of his

civilization. He

therefore held that life

and its problems were

sufficient to tax the

energies of a junzi,

ideal gentleman-leader.

Because no texts

survive that can be

shown to be authored

by, or contemporary

with, Confucius, most

scholars are wary to

attribute specific ideas

to Confucius himself.

Later Confucian

scholars, such as

Mencius, continued

this concern for social

order, defined in terms

of maintaining

appropriate

relationships, li. They

encouraged worship of

ancestral spirits as acts

of filial piety that

maintained the family

structure. Chinese

governments heavily

supported these

thinkers.

The earliest Daoist texts,

the Dao-de-jing and

Zhuang-zi, are concerned

with restoring the social

order that was

deteriorating during the

fall of the Zhou dynasty.

Death is seen as merely

another regular

movement of the Dao to

be accepted just as one

accepts life. Neither of

these texts will become

popular beyond the elite,

scholarly classes.

Later popular

movements often called

Daoist will search for

means to attain xian,

immortality. The outer

elixir schools use

alchemy with gold and

cinnabar to find a potion

to produce it. The inner

elixir schools will

practice, yoga, massage,

sexual practices, breath

control and other means

to reorder one’s body to

attain immortality.

Popular temple practices

around worship of

Daoist Immortals in

response to Buddhist

influence will develop

funeral and memorial

services led by Daoist

priests to ensure the

happiness of the

departed in the afterlife.

Hindus believe in

samsara, the cycle of

life, death, rebirth,

and redeath. If a

person’s karma has

been exceptionally

good or bad, they will

be reborn only

temporarily in one of

the heavens or hells to

live out their good or

bad karma before

being reborn on the

earth.

Elite Hindu thought

teaches that moksha,

liberation from

samsara, is a state of

consciousness in

which one is One with

Reality, described as

pure being (sat), pure

consciousness (chit),

and pure bliss

(ananda).

At the popular level

of bhakti, devotion,

by worshiping deities

people can be reborn

into increasingly

higher positions in the

class system until

they escape samsara.

This final liberation is

often conceived as

permanent rebirth in a

heaven in the

presence of one’s

ishtadeva, chosen

deity.

Shinto has been

reluctant to deal with

death since death is

considered polluting.

Death as a concern has

been left to Buddhist

priests.

It thinks of some kami

as the spirits of the

dead, such as ancestors,

who can affect the

living. Those who die

inauspiciously can

become evil spirits who

cause community

disasters or personal

misfortunes.

When a child is born, a

local Shinto shrine may

add the name to a list

and declare him or her

a “family child” or

ujiko. After death, an

ujiko becomes a

“family kami”

(ujigami). Names can

be added without

consent regardless of

the beliefs of the

person added, such as

the names of military

spirits at the

controversial Yasukuni

Shrine in Tokyo.

Such children and adult

spirits can be

“appeased” in a Shinto

shrine dedicated to

stilling their anger and

sadness.



Relationship

with Nature

All living beings are

caught up in karma

and rebirth and thus

to be valued on the

same level as human

beings -- deserving

compassion and not

to be treated as

useful for our

egoistic selves. Even

the deities of the

cultures in which

Buddhism exists are

considered to be

caught up in this

samsara though on a

higher plane than

humans.

Traditionally

Buddhists have

taken little interest in

nature because

Buddhist monks and

nuns were expected

to withdraw from the

world and its

attachments. Some

modern Buddhist

thinkers have begun

applying Buddhist

ethics to issues of

environmental

justice.

Zen roshi promoted the

cultural practices and styles

of the upper, military

classes of their day, and

through their emphasis on

discipline and desire to

express satori in this world

became masters of these

arts: gardening, flower

arranging, the tea ceremony,

ink painting, calligraphy,

haiku, swordsmanship.

An indefinable “mood”

(fuin) of Zen was posited.

Nature is imbued with the

same vitality as the Buddha

nature within. It is to be

seen in oneness with it,

intuitively, without the

objectification that takes it

apart to analyze it.

Zen arts, including gardens,

are representational of the

strict Zen discipline

required for attaining satori:

the importance of detail, the

spontaneity of egolessness,

and the breaking of

common distinctions such

as artificial/natural. The

placement of each of the

elements of the garden or

other artistic work is crucial

but the ultimate goal is the

over-all intuitive effect

upon the viewer. They are

objects of meditation, not

analysis.

Confucianism was a

pragmatic & moralistic

philosophy focused

upon the human being,

one’s place in society,

and appropriate,

government. It is

concerned with order

and structure.

While the worship of

natural spirits of

ancient China was

respected, these were

considered inferior by

Confucian scholars to

worship by the

Emperor of the

supreme Lord in

Heaven (Tian) and the

veneration of ancestors

as a part of filial piety.

Natural disorders were

thought to be the result

of neglecting traditions

that were dated back to

the idealized Zhou

dynasty. The Emperor

was the central figure,

the go-between

between Tian and the

state. Some thought

that disasters were

punishments from

Tian, but most

understood them to be

the automatic response

of Nature to improper

government.

Nature is the model for

human action. It has a

Dao, Way, about it that

acts as a pendulum

ever-balancing yang

and yin. All of nature

was divided up to be

understood in terms of

these two forces:

man/woman,

summer/winter,

heat/cold, day/night.

The correct action is to

be in touch with this

Way of Nature, reject

(contra the Confucians)

artificial structuring of

society, practice lasse

faire in government.

According to the texts,

Daoists are to follow

wu-wei, the “action of

non-being,” which is to

let nature take its

course, not stand out,

do nothing artificial,

embrace simplicity,

and manifest plainness.

Popular beliefs related

to the Dao promote

traditional Chinese

medicine, massage, tai-

chi, acupressure, and

other practices meant to

balance the yang and

yin by allowing the chi,

material force, to flow

freely.

Hindus have varied in

their interest in nature.

Some, like Buddhists,

believed the way to

attain moksha was

monastic or ascetic.

Since purity was

defined first as

personal, there was less

interest in issues of

cleanliness outside

oneself.

There were hierarchies

of purity with the dog,

for example, being one

of the most impure

animals and the cow

the purist. On the

human level, the

traditional caste system

declared lower castes

impure and, at the

bottom, some even

untouchable. Marriage

and food taboos

centered around the

desire to maintain

personal purity.

Modern Hindus at elite

levels apply the belief

in the oneness of

reality to Nature. If all

is Brahman, then

Nature is sacred and to

be “liberated” as well.

Modern Hindu ethicists

see this as the basis for

environmental

improvement.

The kami are often

associated with natural

phenomena including

the seasons of rice

cultivation. The Sun

Goddess, Amaterasu,

was the ujigami of the

imperial clan. She is the

center of worship at the

national, imperial

shrine at Ise.

Striking aspects of

nature -- a waterfall, an

outcropping of rocks, a

mountain, an island, a

dominant tree -- are

either considered kami

or are associated with

kami as their abodes.

Mt. Fuji, for example,

is a shrine to the kami

Izanami, the female co-

creator of Japan.

Kami often have animal

“messengers” who

represent them at the

shrines.

As the National

Learning School

defined Shinto in the

Tokugawa Period, it

was understood to flow

from a national

characteristic of the

Japanese, claiming they

were uniquely, deeply

emotionally attached to

nature. This sense now

commonly defines

Shinto identity.



Places of

Worship

Buddhists often

worship in temples.

In the past, caves

(e.g. Ajanta, Ellora in

India) were places of

worship for monks.

Earliest worship in

South Asia, and some

today, took place at

stupas, funerary

mounds, which first

represented the

Buddha. In Southeast

Asia these places for

relics are called

dagoba and in East

Asia pagoda.

Eventually they

became part of

temple complexes.

In some monastic

traditions, worship at

a Buddha image

should only be to

thank the Buddha for

teaching the Dharma.

Popularly, though,

Buddha and

Bodhisattva images

are used in prayers

for everyday

concerns and success

in the afterlife.

Bodhisattvas became

popular objects of

worship. Many who

worship in Buddhist

temples also visit

other temples.

Zen monasteries

were typically built,

in isolated locations

that would offer the

solitude necessary

for discipline and

meditation. One

could meditate as

one performed

simple everyday

work in the upkeep

of the monastery.

Monasteries have

become known for

their gardens,

screens, painting,

and calligraphy.

Zen temples

affiliated with the

various sects can be

found in cities and

rural areas all

around Japan. There

Zen priests function

like other Buddhist

priests with their

main duty the

performing of

funeral ceremonies

and memorial

services for the

dead.

Confucian temples were built by

government edicts to instill

Confucian virtues in the populace.

Instead of anthropomorphic images,

the presence of Confucius and other

well-known scholars and Confucian

heroes is represented by mortuary

tablets like those of a family’s

ancestral spirits found on home

shrines. An honorific name of

Confucius is inscribed on the

central tablet while those of

disciples and illustrious followers

are inscribed on others that

surround the central altar. These act

as the focus of veneration. Being

surrounded by the “spirits” of these

great paradigms of Confucian

virtues is meant to provide a

culturally unifying experience.

Official sacrifices to Confucius

began in 195 BCE when the Han

emperor Gaodi offered the “Great

Sacrifice” including the offering of

an ox. On Taiwan today,

Confucius’ birthday (September 28)

is celebrated in these temples with

official ceremonies.

Temple architecture echoes that of

the emperor’s palace – e.g, the

north-south axis on which the

important halls are located. Civil

service examination results were

posted in these temples, which were

used for music and ritual training.

Popularly, the family altar or

ancestral shrines are the most

common places of sacred activity.

Deities and spirits as well as family

ancestors (in memorial tables) may

reside here.

For the elite textual

and philosophical

traditions there is no

concept of worship

since there are no

suprahuman beings.

Living in touch with

the Dao, in sync with

nature’s rhythms, is

practiced, but there

are no places to

worship.

On a popular level,

there are temples

where the main image

is usually one of the

Eight Daoist

Immortals. These

temples have

hereditary priests who

perform rituals.

Devotees bring

offerings and practice

divination and the

securing of one’s luck

through fortunetelling,

in a similar fashion as

in those temples

devoted to a

Bodhisattva or a folk

deity.

Some Daoist priests

participate in a

hierarchical clerical

organization.

Worship of one’s

chosen deity or deities

takes place at a home

shrine or in a temple on

a regular basis. Daily

worship at the home

shrine is most popular

since it is not

obligatory to visit

temples.

Images are usually

crucial because seeing

and being seen by the

image, darshan, is

central to worship. A

few Hindus reject

images; most treat the

image as a form of the

deity or a visual aid.

Hindu temple priests

serve the deities of the

temple and enable

people to do puja,

worship through

offerings. Some

temples are built

according to classical

plans set as far back as

the Gupta period, but

their structure is more

likely to reflect

regional styles. South

Indian temples have

large, elaborate

gateways. Others have

great towers over their

inner sanctum.

Besides the main

shrine, temples usually

have subsidiary shrines

to other deities.

For Shinto, places of

worship are called

shrines, jinja. These

can be small shrines at

the base of a tree or

rock, or large

complexes featuring

numerous buildings.

Often they are

associated with striking

natural phenomena

such as waterfalls,

rocks, trees, etc.

Early shrines were

unpainted, made of

natural materials such

as inoko, Japanese

cypress, and fashioned

after farm homes or

community granaries.

With Chinese influence

they were often painted

with bright vermillion.

Concern for

maintaining the

worship space’s purity

prevents the public

from entering the inner

shrines. Gateways, or

torii, mark the entrance

into the sacred area.

Priests serve the kami

and shrine worshippers.

With a few exceptions

influenced by

Buddhism, kami are not

represented by images.

They reside in a sacred

object: e.g. a mirror, a

sword, a jewel.



Presence of Evil

Spirits and

Guarding

Against Them

Buddhist art often

includes guardian

figures native to

Indian or local

culture. These figures

protect temples and

the Buddha himself.

In Japan, for

example, temple

complexes often

included a Shinto

shrine to the guardian

kami of the

Bodhisattva of the

temple.

Portal guardians were

to overcome evil,

which was often

interpreted as arising

from human desire

and ignorance.

Guardian lions in fact

“guard the faith.”

In the various

cultures Buddhism

entered, local beliefs

in evil spirits and

forces were

incorporated on a

popular level. The

reciting of sutras, the

use of talismans and

charms, and other

means, could shield a

person from, among

other things, these

evil spirits who could

bring misfortune.

On the monastic level

the concept of evil

spirits is not

applicable. Evil,

suffering, and

disappointment are

caused by the way the

intellect normally

works to attempt to

understand reality. The

result is ignorance,

that is,

misunderstanding

reality in the

inexplicable way it

really is. People then

live in terms of this

misunderstanding,

cling to it, and

experience suffering

and disappointment.

In popular, non-official

Confucianism, the

worlds of the living and

of deities and ancestral

spirits closely interact.

Ancestral spirits are

deceased family

members appeased with

offerings. Those not

properly cared for after

death due to neglect, a

lack of descendants, or

those who die

prematurely or by

violence can bring

misfortune to the living.

They are likened to

bandits and vagrants of

the spirit world and are

considered to be

dangerous, malevolent

forces that need to be

placated with food and

other offerings.

Ancestors are regularly

offered carefully

prepared dishes, and

tended to at their burial

sites and in the home.

Numerous methods are

used to maintain good

fortune and prevent

evil. Feng-shui is used

to site graves and

buildings to bring

fortune, talismans are

purchased, and

divination and

fortunetelling secure

one’s fortune.

For the elite texts,

evil is an imbalance

of yang and yin,

being out of touch

with the Dao,

corrected by wu-wei

and meditation.

Popular beliefs are

indistinguishable

from those of other

Chinese regarding

evil forces in the

spiritual universe.

Evil spirits are the

unsettled souls of the

dead who roam.

Called gui, they

create havoc for the

living by their

presence in homes,

businesses, and

temples, and cause

natural, personal, and

family disasters such

as floods and

droughts. Some still

wear magic charms

and amulets to ward

evil spirits away.

Shamans, usually

women, could

destroy evil spirits by

performing

exorcisms for

believers. Elaborate

rituals determine

what needs to be

done by the devotees

to appease these

spirits.

On the elite level,

evil is a result of,

or is defined as,

ignorance and

overcome by

attaining intuitive

knowledge, often

at the feet of a

guru, master. This

might involve

lengthy study,

meditation, and

yogic practices.

Popularly evil is

recognized as a

part of nature that

can cause havoc in

the world of both

humans and gods.

For devotees of a

particular deity,

that deity

overcomes evil as

a response to

worship.

One is to practice

one’s duty,

dharma, which

was often based

on social class.

behavior.

There are also evil

spirits and forces

(e.g. the evil eye)

from whom we

must be protected.

Guardian figures

stand at the

thresholds

protecting many

temples.

Kami can be evil as well as

good and a basic explanation

for evil has been that it is

caused by evil kami

A pair of shishi (Chinese lion-

dogs; also called koma-inu)

traditionally stands guard at the

gates of temples and shrines

and on eaves of shrine roofs.

One is depicted with its mouth

open (to scare off demons) and

the other with its mouth closed

(to shelter and detain the good

spirits). Another traditional

explanation for the open/closed

mouth relates to Ah and Un

("Ah" is the first letter in the

Japanese alphabet and "Un" is

the last, as in Sanskrit). The

combination is said to

symbolically represent birth

and death. They may be

accompanied by other

protective kami, such as an

elephant/tapir-like creature

(baku) known as an eater of

nightmares in Japanese

mythology.

Evil is not interpreted as

breaking a law but as impurity.

Sacred places are typically

marked with a shimenawa (a

plaited rope made of rice,

straw, or hemp with pendants)

placed around holy areas to

indicate it is purified and ward

off evil spirits, or placed

around trees/objects to indicate

the presence of kami. Ritual

purification with water, salt or

earth is a regular practice.



Living

the Faith:

Rituals,

Festivals,

Devotion

Monks are expected to

enter a monastery to

follow the Eightfold Path

of right knowledge,

meditation, and morality

to attain nirvana. What

this entails varies

according to each

particular Buddhist

school. Most monks are

required to seek alms

regularly. Though there

were nuns in the early

period, they died out in

Southeast Asia but

continue in East Asia.

Laypeople participate

through the giving of

alms to monks on their

daily rounds, worship at

temples, and festivals.

One of the largest

festivals is “Buddha

Day” (Vesak). Held in

April or May, it

celebrates the birth,

enlightenment, and death

of the historical Buddha.

People also visit temples

to celebrate the birthdays

of Bodhisattvas.

Popular Buddhist

practices are mixed with

other religious practices

native to each culture,

including worship of

Bodhisattvas in temples,

at a small shrine, or

before an image of a

Buddha in the home, for

meditation, reflection, or

praying for one’s needs.

Zen emphasizes practice

over theory with the goal

of reaching satori.

Traditionally this means

entering a monastery as

an unsui, a disciple of a

roshi, Zen master.

Discipline is strict with

the practice of zazen,

seated meditation, and

the use of koan, problems

posed by the roshi to

challenge the mind.

Unsui also meet regularly

with the master in

personal, intense,

mentally challenging

sessions called sanzen.

They participate in the

chores of the monastery

as part of their discipline.

Zen’s broader influence

on Japan is centered in

roshi mastering the

cultivated arts of the

dominant warrior

(samurai) class that was

most influenced by Zen.

These were practiced as

expressions of the

discipline, mindfulness,

and spontaneity roshi

taught. Some monks

mastered the tea ritual as

a disciplined expression

of the mood of satori.

At more popular temples

associated with Zen

sects, people come to

hear the priests chant

sutras as part of funeral

and memorial services.

Confucian moral

principles thoroughly

pervaded China,

Korea, and Japan as

cultural mores of the

upper-class

gentleman, junzi, to be

emulated by all.

These centered on the

concepts of ren,

humaneness, li,

propriety, i,

righteousness, and

shuei, study. Li,

literally “ritual,”

meant that all life was

to be approached by

realizing that different

actions are appropriate

for each human

relationship. The five

relationships (renlun)

central to society were

that of: child to parent

(filial piety), younger

to elder (respect),

friend to friend

(reciprocity), wife to

husband (obedience),

and subject to ruler

(loyalty).

Governments

encouraged temples to

be built honoring folk

heroes who embodied

this ethic and whom

the Emperor deified.

Very popular, there

offerings, divination,

and the celebration of

the deities’ birthdays

take place.

Few Chinese identify

solely as Daoists. The

popular rituals usually

labeled Daoist are folk

and community rituals

that take place in almost

any temple, not just those

dedicated to a Daoist

Immortal.

In temples where a

Daoist Immortal is the

central image, offerings,

divination, and other

standard Chinese temple

activities take place to

ensure one’s wellbeing.

Daoist priests preside but

are unnecessary for most

everyday worship.

Home shrines may

include pictures of Daoist

Immortals along with

folk deities, ancestor

tablets, and Bodhisattvas.

The first major holiday is

Chinese New Year, (the

1st day of the 1

st lunar

month). Lao-zi’s birthday

(the 15th

day of the 2nd

lunar month) is another

of several festivals.

A synthesis of Daoist and

Confucian ideas brings

families to graves during

three annual festivals

(e.g. Qingming) to

present gifts and

reconnect with ancestors.

Spirit money and incense

are burned; firecrackers

lit.

Puja, worship through

offerings, is the most

common practice. In the

home, a small shrine may

be set aside, even in a

separate room, for daily

worship. Images of the

family’s deity or deities

are fed, bathed, dressed,

and entertained as if they

are honored guests in the

home.

In the temple, priests,

pujari, attend the image

with daily rounds of

activities modeled upon

how attendants in a palace

would wait on a king or

queen. When the image is

ready, it becomes available

for audience with its

subjects, the people who

bring offerings and, aided

by a priest, receive back a

portion after it has been in

the deity’s presence as

prasad, “kindness, grace.”

Numerous feasts, festivals,

fasts, and pilgrimages

punctuate the year, the

greatest number during the

four months known as

caturmasya on a lunar

calendar (roughly mid-July

to mid-November). Some

have a national following,

but many are regional

celebrations. Festivals are

filled with celebration,

music, food, and

decorations on homes and

even animals.

Shinto denoted

diverse ritual

activities more than

a doctrinal system.

Rituals became

more uniform with

government

promotion in the

early 20th

century.

They ensure the

kamis’ blessings

for well-being and

take place at a

kamidana, a shrine

positioned like a

shelf in the home,

or a public shrine.

Vital are harai,

purification rituals

for people, places,

and things. This is

a priests’ chief

concern. Shrines

include a font

(temizuya) for one

to wash one’s

hands and mouth

before beginning

worship.

Worship is simple:

ringing a bell,

clapping one’s

hands, praying,

writing prayers on

ema (wooden

plagues) left at the

shrine, and

acquiring talismans

and charms.

Festivals (matsuri)

are central,

especially the first

visit to the shrine

after New Years.



Honoring

Ancestors

Early Buddhist texts

taught that there was no

permanent human self or

soul and thus no place

for the worship of

ancestral spirits. One

should not cling to the

dead either.

As Buddhism

accommodated to the

variety of South,

Southeast, and East

Asian cultures,

Buddhists adopted each

culture’s ideas of

ancestral worship. In all,

the primary ceremonies

performed for the public

by most Buddhist priests

and monks are the

funeral service and the

memorial service to

remember the dead.

The family gives food to

the monks in order to

receive merit (karma),

and ensure that the

deceased will have an

auspicious rebirth, not in

one of the hells.

Buddhists typically

cremate their dead and

sometimes place the

ashes in an urn in a

grave. Some art includes

the person who paid to

have the art created in

order to get merit. This

merit would extend to

one’s family and

ancestors as well.

Given the emphasis

of Zen on attaining

satori, it might be

thought that concern

for ancestral spirits is

absent.

However, Zen monks

and priests practice

the same rituals to

honor the ancestors

as other Buddhists in

their respective

cultures.

Funeral services and

memorial services for

the dead are standard

activities priests in

Zen temples perform

for the public. These

are major sources of

income for most

popular Buddhist

temples.

The Chinese believed people

had a continuing existence

after death and venerated

ancestral spirits to help them

join the other ancestors, to

keep them from becoming

malevolent, and to secure

their blessings. Ancestral

spirits had multiple souls: one

that would ascend to be in the

place of the ancestors, one

that would remain at the

grave, and one that would

enter the memorial tablet on

the family altar. Any of these

can shower misfortunes or

blessings on the living.

Misfortune is often attributed

to an individual or

community’s failure to show

their ancestors the respect and

honor due them.

Confucian scholars added

filial piety (xiao) as the main

reason why one should honor

the ancestors. As probably the

most important virtue for the

five relationships (renlun), it

must continue after parents

are dead.

Veneration traditionally

includes substantial funerals,

families visiting gravesites

(often on specific festival

days) as if the visits were

family reunions that include

the dead, and honoring the

spirits at home shrines with

the spirit represented by a

memorial tablet inscribed

with its honorific name.

Daoist texts show

little concern for

death, much less

ancestral spirits.

Death is another

movement of the

Dao, a rest where

one returns to

one’s origin, and

therefore to be

accepted without

great fanfare.

Popularly, the

same practices as

those discussed

under

Confucianism are

practiced because

they are part of

popular Chinese

culture, not

merely tied to any

one religious

tradition.

The central concern of rituals

for the departed (shraddha

[“faith”] or tarpan rites) is

doing one’s duties (dharma)

by performing one of the

samskaras (important rituals

that sacrilize life passages).

By so honoring,

remembering, and expressing

gratitude to parental ancestors

(pitri) through prescribed

(dharmic) duties such as

shraddha, the living accrue

good karma.

The actual rituals and their

interpretations vary widely.

But they are also generally

believed to help the spirits on

their journey in the next life

in the pitriloka (realm of the

ancestors). The importance of

securing offspring to perform

the rituals for oneself is

traditionally crucial.

They are performed for both

the father and mother

separately on the days

following a death. A year

later tarpan ensures that the

soul has joined the other

ancestors. Offerings of food

are made to the pitri and gifts

to worthy Brahmins

An important two-week

period (Pitri Paksha) in

September-October honors

ancestors with offerings of

food and gifts to worthy

Brahmins with prayers for

prosperity, protection, and

wellbeing.

Spirits of dead

ancestors are

usually considered

kami. Humans are

obligated to worship

them. Yet it is more

likely that they will

be worshipped at a

Buddhist altar in the

home where they

are venerated with

memorial tablets

and photos of the

dead.

Twentieth-century,

pre-War Japanese

nationalists

particularly set

aside certain Shinto

shrines to enshrine,

honor, and appease

the souls of

Japanese military

who died in all the

20th

century wars.

The most

controversial shrine

is the Yasukuni

(“Pacifying the

Country’) Shrine in

Tokyo, the site of

protests as well as

defenders today.

eastern religions: compare and contrast buddhism...

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