earth science, soil chemistry, and archaeology
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Earth Science, Soil Chemistry, and Archaeology
Author(s): Enzo FerraraSource: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 109, No. 1 (Jan., 2005), pp. 87-90Published by: Archaeological Institute of AmericaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40025106 .
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REVIEW
ARTICLES
Earth
Science,
Soil
Chemistry,
and
Archaeology
ENZO
FERRARA
Soil
Science
and
Archaeology:
ThreeTest
Cases
rom
Minoan
Crete,
by
Michael
W.
Morris.
(Prehistory
Monographs
4.)
Pp.
xviii +
141,
figs.
38,
pls.
11,
tables
19,
map
1.
Institute for
Aegean
Prehistory,
Academic
Press,
Philadelphia
2002.
$60.
ISBN
1-931534-03-9
(cloth).
Geochemical
Evidence
or
Long-Distance
Exchange,
edited
by
MichaelD.
Glascock
Scientific
Archae-
ology
for the
Third
Millennium.)
Pp.
viii +
282,
figs.
68,
tables 14.
Bergin
and
Garvey,
Westport
2002.
$64.95.
ISSN
1529-4439;
ISBN
0-89789-869-
9
(cloth).
GeophysicalData in
Archaeology: A Guide
to Good
Practice,
by
ArminSchmidt
(Archaeology
Data Ser-
vice.)
Pp.
v +
81,
tables 11.
Oxbow
Books,
Oxford
1998.
$20.
ISSN
1463-5194;
ISBN
1-900188-71-6
(paper).
Soil science and
geology naturally
combine in
archae-
ology
to
study
landscape,
environment,
the
history
of
sites
belonging
to
previous
civilizations,
to
supply
evi-
dence for household and rural
activities,
or to retrieve
fabrication and
provenance
of artifacts made of earth
resources
(e.g.,
chert and obsidian
blades,
gemstones,
earthenware,
and even
glass
and
metallic
objects).
The
long-term
records of
geophysics
and
geochemistry
are
practical
also
for radiocarbon studies of soil
organic
mat-
ter
and
pedogenic
carbonates,
for
archaeomagnetic
dat-
ing,1
and for
resolving
the
sequence
of
archaeological
deposits.
During
the
occupation
of a
site,
humans
exploit
the
environment and affect the
recycling
of the
ecosystem
in
distinctive
ways. Anthropogenic
sediments form
1
Evansand Heller 2003;Eighmyand Sternberg1990.2
Henderson
2000;
Pollardand Heron
1996;
Cilibertoand
Spoto
2001.
3Guilain
2002;
see also Renfrewand Bahn 1991.
4
A
well-known
xample
of contaminationdue to
human
occupation
is the amount of lead and other
heavy
metals
introduced into soils
during
the Roman
period.
It is well
knownalso that
phosphates
are
the
resultof
food
preparation
and
consumption;
odiumand
potassium
re
generatedby
he
production
f wood
ash,
while
ron
oxides
and
mercuric ulfide
accumulate
hrough
use of hematite and cinnabar
pigments
(often
used in
ritual),
along
with
high
concentrations
of
phosphorous,
alcium,
magnesium,
nd
organic
matter.
through
interaction
between
human
and
natural
agents,
leaving
traces in
the
soils.
Eventually,
after
abandonment
of
a
site,
pedological
processes
drive
the
transformation
of
the
evidence
left
behind.
Some of
the
elements
asso-
ciated with
human
occupation
are
relatively
inert
once
fixed in
the
soil,
thus
sediment
analysis
has
been
fruit-
fully
employed
in
site
prospection
for
centuries.
In
addition,
over
the
past
half-century,
with
the
aid of
physics,
chemistry,
and earth
science,
the
archaeological
investigation
of
material
resources
has
developed
rapidly.2
Characterization
of
ancient
artifacts
and
sources
based on
mineralogical,chemical,andisotopicpropertieshasgreatly
enhanced
exchange
studies:
better
models
have
been
pro-
vided to
understand
long-distance
trade
and
aspects
of
production
and
social
relations.3
After
decades of
studies,
variation in
certain
chemical
contents
and
features of
the
soil
can
now be used
to
address
rural,
domestic,
and com-
munal
activities,
such
as
crop
growing,
cooking,
storage,
craft
manufacture,
and
ritual
practices.4
Therefore,
in
the
last few
decades,
archaeologists
have
taken
greater
inter-
est in
more
subdisciplines
of soil
and
earth
science and
have
increasingly
employed
these
sciences in
systematic
surveys
of the
landscape
before
digging
begins.
Soil
chemistry
and
pedology5
n
particular
have
emerged
as
promising
ools for
recognizing
he
location
and
structure
of ancient areas of
activities. Soil
chemistry
shares a
long
history
with
agronomy,
but
applications
o
archaeology
have
been used since the
early
1920s,
when Olaf
Arrhenius6
b-
served hatsoils rom areasof
medieval
occupation
contained
elevated levels of
phosphorous
when
compared
to
unoccu-
pied
areas.
Phosphorous
is the constituent in
proteins,
co-
enzymes,
nucleic
acids,
and
metabolic
substrates;
its
abundance
n
soil
compared
o other
non-metal
compounds,
such as
nitrates,
s
a markerof
persistent
human
settlement.
Soils have distinctive
morphological
characteristics,7
and
pedology
focuses on
the soil
system
as
the
interface
between the
physical (parent
material,
climate)
and
the
biological
environments
(vegetation,8
humans).
Consid-
5
Pedology s the studyof soil formationand classification,
the
development
of
landscape
at the
earth's
surface, and,
particularly,
eatheringprocesses
and
stability.
6
Arrhenius
921.
7
Jenny
1941.
8
Metals like
manganese,
copper,
and
zinc,
which are
common micronutrients f
plants,
along
with strontium
and
barium,
are
retained
n
surface
oilhorizons
after
extraction
by
root cells and
recycling
in the
form of
residual
organic
compounds.
Increased
concentrationsof
extractablemetals
and abundance
of iron oxides
with
respect
to the
total iron
content are indicativeof
former
stablesurface
horizons.
87
American
Journal ofArchaeology
09
(2005)
87-90
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88
ENZO
FERRARA
[AJA109
eration of
physical
and chemical alteration
can assess
changes
in
climate and
vegetation,
or
in the
anthropo-
genic impact
that occurred
in
the
past.
Surveying pedol-
ogists
and
geologists
should be
included on the archaeo-
logical
team
conducting
excavation
projects,
in
addition
to botanists, zoologists, and forensic anthropologists.9
Much of their work
in
the
past
focused on the
identifica-
tion of
sites,
but the new
studies of
anthropogenic
inter-
actions with the environment reveal new
aspects
of
pre-
historic
existence.
The
goal
is to extend the use
of earth science
beyond
site
prospection
and
provenance,
and aim at an
integration
with
cultural ssues
by
drawing
on a
complex
assessment
of the
links between soil
features and
various human
behaviors.
Although every
site is
unique,
there are
general
rules
of
deposition
that serve
as basic tenets of
geology
and
archaeol-
ogy. Examples
of the successful
application
of these
rules,
along
with
multi-element studies
of
sediments,
are detailed
in
Michael W.
Morris' Soil Science
and
Archaeology:
Three Test
CasesromMinoanCrete. hisbook resulted rom an extended
investigation
n
pedology
and
geomorphology
(the
Kavousi
Project)
carried out
by
the
Department
of Plant
and Soil
Science of the
University
of
Tennessee,
Knoxville.The text
provides examples
of
using
soil
reading
or
clarifying
ar-
chaeologicalsettings
and
stratigraphic
haracteristics.
Careful
sampling
and
analytical
strategies
have
been
used to reconstruct
the vertical
profiles
of the
soils
in
three Late Minoan IIIC and
one Sub
Minoan
(12th-
11th
centuries
B.C.)
refuge
sites in eastern Crete:
Karphi,
Chrysokamino,
and Vondra and
Kastro
(Kavousi).
The
history
of the area's environment
and climate has
been
outlined,
and ancient
zones of
agricultural practices
have
been identified. The
strategy
to assemble
information
about
archaeological
soils included a field
study
of the
landscape, descriptions of soil profiles, and laboratory
characterizations.
The results are
presented
after a review of the
history
of excavation on Crete. A
description
is offered also of
the
physiography
of the
island,
including geology,
an
extended
vegetation
and soils
analysis,
and a reconstruc-
tion of
the
paleoenvironment
in
the eastern Mediterra-
nean,
all of
which are
essential for
assessing
the effects
of
climate on the
resource base of
past populations.
In
an
appendix,
the
analytical
procedure
is listed in
detail,
which
allows the reader
to track the
complex laboratory
work,
including
weak
acid-extraction,
strong
acid-digestion,
examination of
organic
and
inorganic
carbon
content,
pH study,
particle
size
analysis,
and
elemental
analysis by
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical
Emission
Spectros-
copy
(ICP-OES)
and
X-ray
Diffraction
(XRD).10
Karphi
(on
the
Lasithi
plateau)
was
inhabited for
a
relatively
short
period
(1200-900
B.C.),
providing
the
opportunity
to
observe
short-term
human
impact
on
a
soil
system
some
3,000
years
ago.
Chrysokamino,
Vronda,
and
Kastro
are
located in
the
northeastern
coastal hills
of
Crete,
near
the
village
of
Kavousi.
Chrysokamino
is
located
immediately
north of a
large
sinkhole;
its
soil
properties
were
investigated
to
document
the effects
of
pedogenic process
in an
archaeologically
disturbed
con-
text. Vronda
and
Kastrowereinhabited
continuously
from
the Neolithic
to the
Middle
Minoan
period
and
also in
Late Minoan
III.
Deglaciationprocessesin the Mediterraneanduringthe
Early
Holocene
were followed
by
soil
development
charac-
terized
by
loam horizons.
The evidence collected
assesses
broad
changes
in the Late
Minoan
environment
and
discontinuities
in
the
depth profiles
of
sediments,
reveal-
ing
the
dynamics
of alluvial
aggradations
n
this
Mediterra-
nean
region:
a moist
climate
existed
prior
to the
Late
Minoan
period,
a
dry
climate
developed
afterwards.
At
Karphi,
the
human inhabitants
adapted
the
landscape,
es-
pecially
through
the construction
of
agricultural
erraces.
In this coastal
region,
a substantial
change
in land use oc-
curred
at the
end of the
Bronze
Age:
degradation
and
ero-
sion ensued
after
abandoning
the
cultivation
terraces
in
favor
of
inland settlements.
Soil
analysis
s
becoming
an
ordinarypractice
n
archaeo-
logical
research,
and
has obtained
a critical
mportance
in
some areas
of
investigation,
especially
when
reconstructing
prehistoric
agricultural
raditions.
SoilScience
nd
Archaeology
describes
the
chemical
examination
of
anthrosols,
soilsthat
combineboth
organic
and
inorganic
residues;
t
is a
powerful
tool
for
reconstructing past
human
behavior
in a
range
of
environmental
contexts.
For
understanding
ethnoarchaeological
assessments
of
the labor
of
prehistoric
peoples
using geology
and
the
environment,
students
should
also consult
the
collection
of
essays
edited
by
Michael
D.
Glascock,
Geochemical
vi-
dence
or hong-Distance
xchange.
Twelvecase
studies
orga-
nize the collection
according
to
geographic
region.
While
the
major
focus
is on the New
World,
especially
Mesoamericaand the Southwest and Great Plains of the
United
States,
the studies embrace
a wider
perspective
of
production
and
distribution,
including
obsidian,
ceramic
pastes
and
glazes,
and basalt
in
South
America,
the east-
ern
Mediterranean,
southern
Africa,
and Oceania.
The
major
theme concerns how
long-distance
exchange
(LDE)
networks function
in
relation to
the environment and
natural
material resources
in
historical
periods.
The
techniques applied
for
investigation
nclude
petrog-
raphy,
Instrumental Neutron Activation
Analysis
(INAA),
X-ray
Fluorescence,
Particle nduced
X-ray
Emission,
Atomic
Absorption Spectroscopy,
and Laser
Ablation-Inductively
Coupled
Plasma-Mass
pectroscopy.
When
compared
with
previous
studies,11
what characterizes he
essays
n Glascock
is their robust
approach
that relies on
experimental
data.
In
each case
study,
the
analytical
results constitute the evi-
dence and
furnish the base for
discussion,
although
the
emphasis
s
moreabout the
interpretation
of evidence and
what it
reveals about the
people
involved in the
exchange
(6).
The studies in
this volume on
obsidian artifacts docu-
ment a
great
mobility
from
source to
findspot.
Obsidian
LDE
networks
in
the
Andes have been
identified
3ScottandGitin
1999.
10
Whittig
and
Allardice
1982.
11
Guilain
2002;
see also Ericsonand
Timothy
1982.
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2005]
EARTH
SCIENCE,
SOIL
CHEMISTRY,
AND
ARCHAEOLOGY
89
through
the
location
and
geochemical
characterization
of
obsidian
sources
(ch.
9:
Obsidian
Traffic in
North-
western
Argentina ).
The
spatial
and
temporal
distribu-
tion of
obsidian
is
interpreted
as
part
of
a
more
general
long-distance
network
existing
in
the
southern
Andes.
Sources in central Mexico dominated obsidian econom-
ics in
the
Late
Classic
to
Post-Classic
period
(ninth
to
11th
centuries
A.D.),
and
there were
connections
be-
tween
the
Maya
of
Chichen
Itza and
the
non-Maya
peoples
of
central
Mexico
(ch.
3:
Obsidian
Exchange
in
TerminalClassic
Yucatan ),
and
between
the
Hohokam
and
Mogollon
Salado
people
in
the
Tonto
Basin of Ari-
zona
(ch.
4:
Obsidian
Studies in
the
Greater
North
American
Southwest ).
INAA
and
petrography
were
used to
investigate
clay
coffins,
ossuaries,
and roof
tiles
from
Cyprus,
Israel,
and
the eastern
Mediterranean
assigned
to
the
so-called Cof-
fin
Group
(A.D.
150-350).
A
restricted
source
location
has been
confirmed
(ch.
10: A
Geochemical
Vector
for
Trade:Cyprus,AsiaMinor,and the RomanEast ) although
the wealth
of materials
distributed
along
the
routes of
the Coffin
Group
attests to
the
prosperity
of
connec-
tions
between
territories of
the
Roman
Empire.
For
prehistoric
ceramics,
interregional
interaction is
documented
by geochemical, stylistic,
and
technological
analysis
(ch.
5:
Archaeological
Evidence for
the
Long-
Distance
Exchange
of
Caddo
Indian
Ceramics in
the
Southern
Plains,
Midwest
and
Southeastern United
States ;
h. 6:
Production
and
Long-Distance
Movement
of
Chupadero
Black on
White
Pottery
in
New
Mexico and
Texas ).
In
some
cases,
scientific
analysis
supported by
vessel
morphology
and
manufacturing
techniques
has
confuted
stylistic
and
iconographic interpretation
(ch.
2:
Indigena
Ware:
Spain
to
Valley
of
Mexico ).
One studyconcerns the role of geographic landmarks
in LDE
and trade
patterns
of mobile
hunter-gatherers
(ch.
7:
Exploring
the
Landscapes
of
Long-Distance
Ex-
change:
Evidence from Obsidian Cliffs and Devil's
Tower,
Wyoming ).
Models of
trade,
exchange,
and
sociospatial
behaviors,
it is
observed,
should also
pay
attention to the
role
of
physical
and social
landscapes
in
deducing
dis-
persal patterns
of material culture.12
In an
attempt
to
understand
thoroughly
how
ceramic commodities
circu-
lated
in
the American
Southwest,
prominent geographi-
cal features
like
Obsidian
Cliffs in
Yellowstone Park and
Devil's Tower
in
Wyoming
have
proven
to be
significant
landmarks connected with the
centrifugal
and
centrip-
etal
patterns
of
exchange,
both of artifacts and ideas.
Chapter13 ( Centrality nd Collapseof Long-Distance
Voyaging
n
East
Polynesia )
uses basaltic adzes from east-
ern
Polynesia
to demonstrate the
interdependence
of
social
relationships
and natural constraints.13Their
spa-
tial and
temporal
distribution
attests to a withdrawal of
the
exchange
networkafter environmental
degradation.
Evidence
from
Mangareva
Island,
within
the
interaction
sphere,
suggests
that
the
entire
LDE
network
collapsed
after an
abandonment
of
the
territory
due
to
depletion
of the
natural
resources.
In
this
book,
several
contributors
stress
the
need
for
integrating
archaeological
and
ethnographic
data with
geochemical
support;
they
advocate
standardization,
uni-
form
data
presentation,
and
the
sharing
of
analyses
be-
tween
laboratories. In
general,
these
researchers
argue,
according
to
Glascock,
in
favor
of
implementation
of
a
systematic
approach
to
source
characterization
such
that
subsequent
artifacts
studies
will
be
more
successful
be-
cause
the
sources have
been
identified
first
and
the reli-
ability
of
source
determination
can
be
quantified
(6).
An
illuminating
demonstration
of
the
value of
this
ap-
proach
is
furnished in
chapter
12
( The
INAA
Evidence
for
an
Asian
Dragon Jar ):
it
only
takes
one
piece
of
evidence
to
prove
early
contact
between
Yapese
(Caroline
Islands
of
Micronesia,
16th-20th
centuries)
and
Euro-
pean cultures, one exotic sherd characterized against
thousands of
pieces
catalogued
in
the
University
of
Mis-
souri
Research
Reactor
Center
database.
Planning
for a
systematic
approach
is
exactly
the in-
tent of
the
third
book
considered in
this
review,
Geo-
physical
Data in
Archaeology:
Guide o
Good
Practice.
This
manual
belongs
to
a
series
designed
to
provide
stan-
dards for
the
creation,
preservation,
and
use of
instru-
mental and
digital
resources
relevant to
archaeology,
history,
and
the arts.
The
publication
consists of a
num-
ber of
strategies
for
developing geophysical
applications
for
elucidating
the location and
character of
buried ar-
chaeological
materials. The
techniques
of
soil
science
are
similar to those of
geophysical
surveys,
as
well as
the
methodologies
of
data
acquisition
and
display,
so
the
guidelines recommended here
apply
to both the
types
of
scrutiny.
The introduction
furnishes an
historical
survey,
basic
rules,
and a
rationale suitable for
a basic
project.
A
se-
lection of
geophysical procedures
and methods
(mag-
netic
susceptibility,
earth
resistance,
ground-penetrating
radar)
is
given,
along
with
ways
for
documenting
results
(grid layout,
size,
resolution).
Information is
then
pro-
vided for an
orderly
treatment and
interpretation
of
data
through archiving
and
the
manipulation
of
digital
images.
A
glossary
is
included,
as are
examples
for
refer-
ence and an
overview of
geospatial
coordinates.
In his
introduction to
Geochemical
vidence
for Long-
Distance
Exchange,
Glascock
affirms,
Along
with
the ex-
change of goods comes the exchange of information and
ideas . . .
studying
the
types
and
amounts of
materials
[and]
the
directions and
distances over which
they
were
moved,
archaeologists
. . .
examine the
dynamic
proper-
ties of
exchange systems
that
is,
how
they
operate
and
why
they undergo
change
(1).
But
in
order to
appreci-
12
Guilain
(2002)
notes that a
community'sregard
for an
object
often
depends
more on its
symbolic
value than on its
utilitarianor economic
function;
an artifact'
prestige
and
value
and
a sense of its worth are associated more with
its
specialproperties
color,
hardness,
rarity)
and how it came to
be
possessed.
In
the
past,
the
geographic
remoteness of an
artifact's
source was
rarely
not
linked
with a
sense of
its
venerable
antiquity
or its
connection
to
inaccessible
supernatural
ealms.
13
see also Butzer
1982.
7/26/2019 Earth Science, Soil Chemistry, And Archaeology
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/earth-science-soil-chemistry-and-archaeology 5/5
90 ENZO
FERRARA,
EARTH
SCIENCE,
SOIL
CHEMISTRY,
ND
ARCHAEOLOGY
ate a
prehistoric
et of dataas a
whole,
it is
necessary
o
extend one's
investigationbeyond
the locus of excava-
tion to
the
surrounding
nvironmentand treat
anthro-
pogenicdeposits
and
products
holistically,ncorporating
knowledge
about the
societal behavior
with that of the
landscape tlarge.
Geophysical
ata
in
Archaeology
hares this
perspective,
cautioning
hatthe reasons
or
doing geophysical
urvey
can be diverse: esearchers
may
want nformation bout
a
specific aspect
of
geology,
rom a certain
area,
about a
particular ype
of
site,
or to
support
some
theory.
It is
precisely
because hese
purposes
are so diverse
hatstan-
dardized
procedures
re
necessary
nd that
dataand ex-
periences
be shared. While
scientific
contributions
n
archaeology
rom
dissimilar
isciplines
ontinue o cross-
fertilize
n
exciting
and
unforeseen
ways,
perhaps
pre-
saging
a new
unified form
of
knowledge,14
ommon
frameworks re essential
or the
integration
of
research
and discussion.The
access o standardized
rchives
s
key
for facilitating ommunication nd avoidinga duplica-
tion of effort.
Moreover,
rchives
provide
resources
or
testing
and
developing
novel
techniques
or datatreat-
ment and
analysis,
llowing
uture
studiesthat
manipu-
late
already
xisting
data.
In
short,
we need to
be aware
hat earth
science and
soil
chemistrysuccessfully
combine
with
traditional
archaeological
esearch
n
detecting
and
datingprehis-
toric
sites,
in
determining
he location
and structureof
ancient
activity
areas,
and
in
reconstructing
xchange
patterns
of
material
and cultural ssues.
The books dis-
cussed here show
that
integrating
studies
of
ethnoarcheology
with
geochemical
evidence can
give
valuable
nsight
nto those
earlyperiods
when domestic
and rural ndustries
emerged, engaged
with other
cul-
tures,andtriumphed verantagonistic nvironments.
In
assessing
he audiences or these three
books,
Soil
Scienceand
Archaeology
nd Geochemical vidence
or Long-
Distance
xchange
oth use a didacticand
plain style
and
are to be
recommended o
those scholars
eaching
and
specializing
n
archaeological
nvestigation;
he latter
book should
also be attractive o
nonspecialized
read-
ers.
Geophysical
Data
in
Archaeology
hould be more
ap-
pealing
to those
planning
and
organizing
fieldwork
projects.
MATERIALSDEPARTMENT
ISTITUTO
ELETTROTECNICO
AZIONALE
GALILEO
FERRARIS
STRADA
DELLE
CACCE,
Cjl
IOI35
TORINO,
ITALY
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P.W.
1972.
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K.W.
1982.
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