early minoan colonization of spain

7/26/2019 Early Minoan Colonization of Spain

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W. Sheppard Baird

The Early Minoan Colonization of Spain

The author discusses the archaeological evidence for an Aegean Minoan maritimecolonization

of southeastern Ieria. The primary causal factor for this !as the development ofthe alloying

technology of arsenical copper. The alloy"s hardness and castaility made the!ood!or#ing tools

of the sa!$ o! drill$ and lathe possile. These tools set the stage for the inventionof the %rst

e&ciently produced plan#ed !ooden ships !ith #eels in the Aegean that set out onvoyages of

e'ploration early in the (th Millennia B.C. in search of the prestige metals of goldand silver

resulting in the )os Millares culture in southeastern Spain.

)os Millares *econstruction

Santa +e de Mond,-ar$ Almeria$ Andalusia$ Spain

The discourse egins !ith the %rst archaeological evidence of human travel on theopen sea

efore /// B.C. and continues !ith the development of the Aceramic Anatolianand 0atu%an

0eolithic pac#age$ the radiation of the Aegean 0eolithic pac#age$ the rise and fall ofthe

Millaren culture$ the Atlantic Tin trade !ith Britain during the Bronze Age$ and ends!ith the

catastrophic collapse of the Aegean El Argar culture in aout 123/ B.C.

The +irst Evidence of 4uman Travel on the 5pen Sea

efore /// B.C.

The earliest archaeological evidence of human transport over the rough open seathat is #no!n to


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me is the A#rotiri Aeto#remnos roc# shelter occupation site on the southern coast ofCyprus

6S!iny 7//18. The remains of the site associate humans !ith urnt ones of thepygmy

hippopotamus. Before this time Cyprus !as inhaited only y the indigenous9leistocene fauna.

While sea level !ould have een lo!er at this time the minimum distance from thecoast of

Cyprus to the mainland of Anatolia !ould still have een aout :3 #m. Theundeniale

deduction is that some form of raft or oat must have een used to transport thehumans to the

site. A#rotiri Aeto#remnos is dated to the late 9leistocene in the 1/th millennia B.C.

A raft is a device that relies on the ;oatation of the material 6typically !ood8 used toconstruct it.

+or any given carrying capacity a raft is much heavier and more un!ieldy !hencompared to its

oat e


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rough and stormy conditions of the open sea than !ell>uilt !ooden ones. S#inoats !or# !ell

enough in rivers and near land along the coast$ ut one split seam can e deadly!hen out at sea

far from land. It is possile that strong sea>!orthy !ooden oats sculpted !ith stonetools and

%re and stitched together !ith the %ers of hemp or ye! !ood !ere navigating theeastern

Mediterranean Sea !ell over 11$/// years.

The ?evelopment of the Anatolian Aceramic 0eolithic 9ac#age

11/// B.C. to :/// B.C.

The asic technological assemlage that comprised the 0eolithic pac#agedeveloped et!een

11/// B.C. and @/// B.C. in places li#e Tell es>Sultan 6ericho8 in the )evant amongthe

0atu%ans and 9inarasi in south!estern Anatolia. This !as an amazingly innovativeand

creative period in human recorded history. +or the %rst time large groups of peoplecame

together in an interdependent !ay to solve their prolems of survival and toimprove their


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formed in 3// B.C. in southeastern Anatolia and developed elaorate uildings!ith terrazzo

;oors. They used a!ls and %shhoo#s of cold>hammered native copper$ and sho! theearliest

evidence of the possile use of ;a' to !eave linen te'tiles. At aout this same time0evali Cori

uilt monumental stone structures that !ere proaly shrines. After /// B.C. Asi#li4yD#

ecame a real to!n surrounded y a city !all !ith a large osidian industry. 5verthe ne't 7$///

years these trends to!ard uranization culminated in the settlements of atal4yD# and Can

4asan in Anatolia.

atal 4yD# *econstruction

Fonya$ Tur#ey

While maintaining the Mesolithic practices of hunting$ %shing$ and gathering theyegan to

systematically cultivate crops of !heat$ arley$ rye$ ;a'$ legumes$ peas$ and vetch6faa eans8.

They domesticated sheep$ goats$ pigs$ and dogs and !ould egin the process ofdomesticating

cattle 6Bos Taurus8 !hich provided them !ith a stale and reliale source of food$ra! materials$

and laor for the %elds. The domestication of the large Anatolian Aurochs !ould ecompleted

sometime et!een :3// and :/// B.C. Their tool#it included ;int and osidianlades and

ladelets$ polished stone celts 6a'es8$ grinding stones and mortars$ and harpoonsand %sh hoo#s

of one. The Anatolians developed stone and mud ric# architecture$ as#etry$ and!or#s of


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leather and the 0atu%ans had stone shaft straighteners indicating the use of spearsor archery.

atal 4yD# Interior *econstruction

Fonya$ Tur#ey

CreditG BHla Stipich

The 5rigin of the Aegean Minoans

@/// B.C.

By @/// B.C. the 0eolithic culture at atal 4yD# that !orshipped the Motheroddess and

Sacred Bull spanned Anatolia from aynD in the east to 4acilar in the !est andoldly reached

over the sea to Fhiro#itia on Cyprus and$ more profoundly$ to the hill of Fephala6Fnossos8 on

the Aegean island of Crete. The Fnossos settlement near the coast of north>centralCrete

represents the origin of the Minoan civilization. Before this time Crete !as$ li#eCyprus efore

A#rotiri Aeto#remnos$ uninhaited y humans. There can e no arguments of any

indigenousdevelopment here. This is un


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At the time the %rst settlers set foot on Crete$ the island !as carpeted y vastancient forests of

old>gro!th Cypress trees. Many of them !ere over (/ meters in height !ith verythic# trun#

diameters. It must have een a very arduous and time>consuming tas# for!oodcutters to ta#e

do!n one of these trees !ith their polished stone a'es. Cypress is an e'cellent!ood for oat

uilding and is still used for that purpose today. It is relatively strong yet light and;e'ile and is

naturally repellent to insects. Its est feature from the point of vie! of a cre!man ofa Cypress

oat in distress out at sea is that the !ood ;oats in !ater. Jnder normal conditionsa Cypress

oat or ship !ill not sin#. A person alone out at sea far from land stands littlechance of

surviving$ ut if they could cling to their s!amped$ yet still ;oating$ ship they havea good

chance of eventually ma#ing it to safety.

The Aegean Sea has over 1$(// islands and islets$ many of !hich are !ithin sight ofone other.

This ma#es it a natural incuator for naval and maritime technologicaldevelopment. The strong

north !inds and uncompromising gales of the Aegean are !ell #no!n and musthave een


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+erriy Boat 4alf Scale *econstruction K 1// BC

0orth +erriy$ East Lor#shire$ England$ JF

They !ere proaly similar to the +erriy Boats from Britain dated to aout 1//B.C. They

!ere constructed of thic# Cypress plan#s sculpted !ith %re and stone tools 6a'e$adze$ chisel$

a!l$ etc.8 and stitched together !ith ye! %ers. Theoretically$ some of these strongdurale oats

could have easily e'ceeded 2/ meters in length and may have used a sail made ofanimal hide.

With or !ithout the use of the sail$ they !ere po!ered primarily y human muscle

!or#ing theoars and tiller. A 2/ meter ship of this type could have een propelled y !ell overthirty oars

and carried a cargo of 2/ to 3/ tons.

The *adiation of the Anatolian 0eolithic 9ac#age in the Aegean

@/// B.C. to :/// B.C.

By :// B.C. the Argissa settlement appeared in Thessaly on the mainland of

reece. It !assoon follo!ed y estalishment of Ses#lo in aout :3// B.C. together !ith theAraptepe>

Be#irlertepe settlement north of the Bay of Izmir in the eastern Aegean. Withinaout %ve

hundred years 6:3// B.C.8 of the settlement of Fnossos the Anatolian 0eolithicpac#age had

moved into the Mesara 9lain of south>central Crete. The seaport settlement of

Fommos !as

founded on the coast to the !est of the plain at aout this time. The settlements of0ea

0i#omedeia in northern reece and Faranovo in Bulgaria and Thrace appeared inaout :7//


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B.C. In the timeframe of :/// B.C. Emporeio on the island of Chios in the easternAegean !as

founded$ ut Fhiro#itia on Cyprus and 9inarasi in Anatolia seem to have eenaandoned.

4acilar in south!estern Anatolia !ould continue on for another 1$/// years ofoccupation efore

%nally collapsing. Also$ the 0eolithic 9ac#age reached the +ranchthi Cave settlementon the

Argolid ulf in the 9eloponnese in aout :/// B.C. +ranchthi Cave had eenoccupied for at

least 1($/// years efore the arrival of the 0eolithic.

The ?evelopment of 9ottery::// B.C. to :/// B.C.

9ottery egan to appear in Thessaly and Catal 4oyu# around :3// B.C. Theinvention of pottery

solved several prolems for the 0eolithic people. It enaled them to securely storelarge volumes

of !ater and other li


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:/// B.C.

The invention of pottery$ the domestication of cattle$ and the development of largedurale

!ooden ships completed the Aegean 0eolithic assemlage that !ould soon spill into

Europe

through e'ploration$ colonization$ and the assimilation of the local Mesolithicpeoples y t!o

main routes. The southern route !as predominantly ta#en y shipping from theAegean that

!or#ed their !ay !est along the northern coastlines of southern Europe using theMediterranean

Sea as a high!ay. The northern route rapidly spread into central Europe using the?anue river

asin as its high!ay. The southern radiation is #no!n as the Cardium 9ottery orCardial culture

after the incised Aegean pottery carried on their ships$ much of !hich !as imprinted!ith the

shells of the marine mollus# Cardium edulis.

The northern ?anuian e'pansion of the Aegean 0eolithic is mainly represented

initially y the

Faranovo culture and then y the almost simultaneous appearance in aout 3://B.C. of the

inca$ Cucuteni$ and )inear 9ottery cultures in southeastern Europe. All four of thesecultures

!ere ased on the Aegean 0eolithic pac#age and directly lin#ed to it. While theFaranovo$

inca$ and Cucuteni generally remained in the southeast$ the )inear 9ottery culture

led the

advance up the ?anue into central Europe. Mysteriously$ after a rapid advanceover the ne't

fe! hundred years the Aegean 0eolithic"s march to the northern coast of Europe!as suddenly


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halted and the southern route"s advance also stopped after reaching the Atlanticcoast of Ieria

69ortugal8. The only viale e'planation for this is that there must have een largepopulations of

Mesolithic people inhaiting the coastal regions of northern and !estern Europe thatactively

resisted any further colonization$ assimilation$ or acculturation 69rice 7///8.

The Aegean 0eolithic 6Cardial8 9ac#age arrives in Ieria

3:// B.C.

The %rst archaeological evidence of Aegean settlement in Ieria is the appearanceof shards of

Cardium incised pottery around 3:// B.C. 69rice 7///8. This pottery is also referredto as

Cardial or Impressed Ware. Cardium pottery has een found from the )evant in theeastern

Mediterranean to the Atlantic coast of Ieria 69ortugal8. When the Aegean 0eolithicpac#age

arrived in Ieria it included the same stone and one tools$ cultivated crops$ andreeds of

domesticated sheep$ pigs and cattle !hen it started its advance a fe! hundredyears earlier

6NilhOo 7//1$ 9ereira 7//:$ Fennett 7//:8. The settlement of the Ierian coastlinesseems to

have een a relatively non>violent process of oth pioneer maritime colonizationand inland

di=usion to the indigenous peoples until the sudden halt of its advance on theAtlantic coast.

0eolithic Cardium 9ottery$ )a Sarsa Cave

alencia$ Spain

The Ierian settlers lived in caves$ roc# shelters$ and open>air settlements li#e )a?arga in


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Catalonia 69rice 7///8 !ith structures estimated to e 2 to ( meters high !ithseveral hearths. In

Caecicos 0egros they uilt small structures made of stone and mud !ith roofs ofvegetation.

They used tools of one$ polished stone a'es$ !ood diggers$ sic#le lades$ andstone hand mills.

They produced stone pro-ectiles$ pottery$ as#etry$ leather !or#$ and produced ;our!ith their

mills. Te'tile production !as limited to small looms$ as evidenced y !eaving threadseparators$

similar to the ac#strap type.

The Age of 9ure Copper3// B.C. to (/// B.C.

Copper is one of the fe! metallic elements that e'ists in its pure form in nature60ative Copper8.

It is much more commonly found comined !ith other elements in the form of o'ideor sul%de

mineral ores. The o'ide ores include Azurite$ Cuprite$ and Malachite !hile the mostaundant

sul%de ore is Chalcopyrite. Tools of pure copper can e hardened y reheating6annealing8 and

hammering$ ut there is a limit to the degree of hardening that can e achieved. Acopper a'e

!ould have een superior to its polished stone e


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regular sharpening during usage !ould have een rehammering native copper and could have een carved !ith stone tools.Many o-ects of

cold>hammered copper have een found in CaynD in southeastern Anatoliaincluding a!ls and

%shhoo#s dated to aout 3// B.C. A single copper ead !as discovered in 0evaliCori that has

een dated from 3// to /// B.C. Asi#li 4yD# produced several copper eads6/// > @3//

B.C.8 made from rolled thin sheets of native copper 6LalPin 7///8. Several coppereads li#e

those at Asi#li have een unearthed at atal 4yD# dated to aout :@3/ B.C.6Mellaart 1:@8. A

1(.2 cm long copper a!l !as found in Balomir$ *omania in a conte't dated efore:/// B.C.

6Mulhy 1:8. All of this culminated in the discovery 6:/// > 3// B.C.8 of a largemace head of

cast native copper in the Anatolian settlement of Can 4asan 6LalPin 18.

Evidence of e'tensive copper !or#ing in a fully developed form has recentlyappeared in the


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0eolithic inca settlement of 9ro#upl-e in southern Seria. The unpulished site haseen dated

to 33// B.C. y archaeologist ul#a Fuzmanovic>Cvet#ovic from the 9ro#upl-eMuseum and

?usan Sl-ivar of SeriaQs 0ational Museum. This !as not -ust the cold>hammering ofnative

copper. It included the e'traction of copper o'ide ores from a mine located on theneary Mlava

river. The ores !ere transported to a local copper smelting !or#shop and melted forcasting. The

tools found included a chisel$ a t!o>headed hammer$ and an a'e. By comparisonthe copper

artifacts found at 4acilar in south!estern Anatolia in 32// B.C. !ere nothing morethan a fe!

eads and pieces of pins. It appears that the origin of organized metallurgy mayhave ta#en place

in the 0eolithic Bal#ans. Bet!een (3// and (/// B.C. Bal#an metal !or#ers !eremining

copper ores in underground shafts and galleries and they had discovered ho! tosmelt the sul%de

ores of copper as !ell. They !ere producing hundreds of a'es and adzes6Betancourt 7//:8. The

Bal#ans looms large over the entire Aegean 0eolithic period !ith respect to thedevelopment of

metallurgy.

Copper Ingot

Crete$ reece

Metallurgy developed at a later time on Crete. There is no evidence #no!n to me ofcopper$ or

any other$ mining on the island in ancient times. Copper>earing ores have eendiscovered in


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modern times ut they are very insigni%cant and uneconomical. All metals had to eimported to

Crete y ship either as mineral ores$ processed metal$ or %nished products.Chryso#amino is a

copper smelting site on the Bay of Miraello in northeastern Crete e'cavated in1:>@ !ith

dates eginning in (3// B.C. 6ohnson 1:8. The source of the ore smelted atChryso#amino

has not een de%nitively identi%ed y provenance studies 6Betancourt 7//:8. Thenearest

possile sources are )aurion in Attica and the island of Fythnos in the Cyclades. Thesite is an

isolated$ !inds!ept place ideal for smelting operations. The !ind !ould heat thefurnace and

lo! the fumes a!ay from the !or#ers. ?uring this period many ne! settlements!ere

estalished in the eastern part of the island and in the south>central Mesara plain.

The 9restige Metals > old and Silver

Besides )aurion in Attica$ Macedonia and Thrace are the only areas !here

signi%cant deposits of

gold can e found in reece. The Bal#ans have a relative aundance of gold andsilver ores

especially in southern and !estern Bulgaria and some areas of Seria. Silverdeposits are


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(3// > (/// B.C.

arna$ Bulgaria

old eads have een e'cavated in ?imitra in eastern Macedonia and are claimedto e from

33// to 373/ B.C. If con%rmed they could e some of the earliest gold o-ects yetdiscovered

6Betancourt 7//:8. A dis# of gold has een found at +telia on the northern coast ofthe island of

My#onos dated from 3/// to (3// B.C. 6+acorellis and Maniatas 7//78. 5-ects ofgold ma#e

their appearance in a very opulent !ay especially in the period from (73/ to (///

B.C. in theBal#ans. The arna necropolis on the eastern coast of Bulgaria has hundreds ofgraves. ust four

of the most lavish ones contained some 7$7// golden o-ects 6*enfre! 1:8. Thisis an

indication of the immediate and great value placed on gold y the elites of theperiod. Many of

these o-ects !ere dis#s and pendants of the Rring>idolR design !ith a perforation in

the center.

This seems to have een a common theme in the Aegean and Bal#ans at this time.

Many o-ects of gold and silver have een unearthed in the Aegean from (3// to23// B.C. This

!as the period !hen gold and silver metallurgy emerged to roustly developthroughout the

region. The evidence includes gold pendants from Theopetra cave$ Anavissos$ and

9latomagnoulia on the mainland of reece. Silver pendants appear in Alepotrypacave in the

Mani peninsula$ Amnisos cave on Crete$ and the cave of Euripides on Salamis. Ahoard of silver

-e!elry !as discovered in ournes in Central Crete in an Early Minoan I cemeterythat included


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racelets and 1: eads.

The Age of Arsenical Copper

(/// B.C. to 73// B.C.

Most of the Early Bronze Age !as actually an age of arsenical copper 6Betancourt7//:8 and the

distinction should e made for the sa#e of clarity. The advent of the controlledmi'ing of an

alloying element 6arsenic8 !ith copper in an e=ort to ma#e their tools harder !as agreat advance

in tool ma#ing. 0ot only did it ma#e their tools much harder$ the alloy melted at alo!er

temperature and its greater ;uidity made the casting of comple' and %nely shapedmolds

practical. This led to the realization that they could no! for the %rst time cast toolsli#e the drill

head and sa!s !ith sharp$ hard teeth for cutting !ood and stone that !ould standup much etter

in a production environment. This !as the eginning of a revolution in stone and!ood !or#ing

and especially ship uilding. The alloy of arsenical copper 6nominally 1 to :arsenic8 !as

related to the development of furnace technology and to the use of copper ores andnot native

copper 6)amert 1@8.

Standard !ith T!o )ong>4orned Bulls

Arsenical Copper$ 7(// 7/// BC$ Early Bronze Age III$ 0orth Central Anatolia

4. : 1U( in. 613. cm8

In Timeline of Art 4istory. 0e! Lor#G The Metropolitan Museum of Art

7///. 65ctoer 7//:8

+inds of arsenical copper have een made throughout the Aegean and especially onCrete > the


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island !ith no metals of its o!n. +our artifacts$ a dagger and three needles$surfaced in

Thaurrounia cave in Euoia !ith an average 2.17 arsenic content 6Mangou>Ioannou 18

dated to aout (/// B.C. 6Sampson 1:8. Some 1: artifacts !ith an arseniccontent of 1 to

: have een found in an Early Minoan conte't in 4agia 9hotia on Crete 6ale1/8. These

may e the earliest in the Aegean esides those in the Thaurrounia cave. 9oros$ aharor to!n for

Fnossos on Crete$ !as an important center for the production of arsenical copperduring the

Early Minoan period 6Betancourt 7//:8. ?aggers have een found in the Cyclades$4agia

Triadha$ and the 9yrgos cave associated !ith Early Minoan pottery. )ong daggers$sa!s$ #nives$

chisels$ and %shhoo#s have een recovered from the many tholoi on the Mesaraplain at this

time. 0ine artifacts !ith an average of 7. arsenic !ere discovered in9etromagoula in

Thessaly dated from 2@// to 22// B.C. 6ohnson 18. Eight artifacts from thepalace hoard of

Arslantepe level IA in eastern Anatolia sho!ed an average of (.1: arsenic64auptmann et. al

7//78.

Since the 1/"s the S#ouries foundry site on the Cycladic island of Fythnos !asassociated y

pottery and radiocaron dated charcoal found in the slag to the %rst half of 2rdMillennia B.C.

The lead isotope analysis of the ores and slag done at that time suggested that theR%ngerprintR

matched many o-ects found in the Cyclades and the copper ased artifacts foundin the Minoan


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Mesara toms 69latanos$ Maratho#ephalo$ 4agia Traidha$ Foumasa$ Falathiana$4agios

5nouphrios$ 9orti8 6ale 1/8 and those at 4agia 9hotia 6Stos>ale 18. But thiscame into

serious


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ship made y sculpting plan#s !ith the a'e and adze.

In the eginning they !ere proaly stitching the plan#s together !ith ye! orhemp$ ut in time

they invented or adopted the use of the o! drill and lathe so they could more

securely mate the

plan# edges of their hulls !ith loc#ed mortise and tenon -oinery. They !ould have tocut the

round holes for the inding pegs using a drill and cut the smoothly rounded sides ofthe pegs on

the lathe to %t them snugly into the loc#ing holes. This very strong !ood -oinerytechni


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!ould proaly need to e manned y something li#e 1// cre!men to maintain agood constant

ro!ing pace.

Minoan Miniature +rieze Admirals +lotilla +resco Shipping Scene

)ate Bronze Age 6)BA8$ 0eo>9alatial 9eriod

A#rotiri$ Santorini 6Thera8$ reece.

5nce the %rst of their large plan#ed Cypress ships too# to the seas there !asnothing any!here

else in the !orld that could compete !ith them either economically or militarily. TheAegean

Minoans !ere the %rst true masters of ship construction and the use of the

movements of the Sun

and 0orth Star6s8 to determine their latitude !ere !ell understood allo!ing them tocon%dently

navigate on the open sea. Their s#ills in navigation !ere not e'ceeded until ohn4arrisonQs

invention of the marine chronometer in the 1th century A.?. that allo!ed ships atsea to

accurately determine their positionQs longitude. The Minoan technological maritimeand naval

advantage !as so great that they !ould eventually come to dominate and imposetheir !ill on all

shipping in the entire Mediterranean Sea including the Blac# Sea. Their commercialshipping

!as proaly unopposed$ e'cept y pirates$ any!here they traveled in theMediterranean until

the massive eruption of the Theran volcano 6Santorini$ reece8 in aout 1:2/ B.C.

The Ierian 9yrite Belt

and

+irst Minoan Settlements in Southeastern Ieria

2// B.C. to 27// B.C.


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The !estern Mediterranean area is much more heavily mineralized than in the easte'cept in the

Bal#ans and northern reece. 5ver time their ships !ould have come to a place inthe !estern

seas that provided them !ith all the valuale mineral ores they had so little of andcould ever

desire. That place !as southern 9ortugal and Spain. This is the location of thereno!ned

geological formation #no!n as the VIerian 9yrite Belt. It is one of the most heavily

mineralized places on earth !ith an aundant supply of the prestige metals of goldand silver as

!ell as copper and tin that is still eing mined to this day.The ne! Cypress ships must have een a source of amazement !herever they !eresighted y

the coastal 0eolithic peoples. ?uring the time since the completion of the spread ofthe Aegean

6Cardial8 0eolithic pac#age$ local and regional coastal maritime trading !as activeas !ell as the

in;u' of ne! settlers every year from the eastern Mediterranean. The Minoans

proaly egan

e'ploring the shores of the Mediterranean for mineral ores et!een 2// and 2@//B.C. and

arrived on the eastern coast of Ieria during this time. At least one person on theseships of

e'ploration !ould have een #eenly oserving the eaches and rivers along thecoast for the

glittering signs of alluvial gold in the sands and sediments. If gold !as found at the

mouth of a

river they !ould #no! that some!here up that river !ould e the earingores that

produced it. The same !ould e true for silver !ith its mineral ores of Argentite andAcanthite


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and the rightly colored ores of copper 6Azurite$ Cuprite$ and Malachite8.

Aside from their ships$ the use of metals$ and their Mesaran Crete funerarypractices they !ould

have used the same 0eolithic agro>pastoral technological pac#age as the

indigenous Ierians.

When they surveyed the river asins of Almeria in southeastern Spain they foundeverything

they !ere loo#ing for. +or several centuries they proaly !ould have een satis%edto sift the

alluvial sediments for metals and estalished settlements in the river asin areas.Eventually$

they !ould have moved up to the inland sources of the alluvial metals to formpermanent mining

settlements and that"s e'actly !hat they did. By 27// B.C. many of the forti%edto!ns of the

Aegean Minoan colony 6)os Millares culture8 had een founded and all of them !eredirectly

lin#ed to mining operations or their defense 6Almizara Silver$ El Barranold$ El

Tara-al > old and Silver$ )os Millares > Copper$ )os 9ilas > old$ etc.8.

The Xuestion of the 5rigination of Metallurgy in Ieria

Before the early radiocaron dates for the Millarens !ere con%rmed$ many scholarsmista#enly

elieved that the culture !as the result of Mycenaean colonization and associatedtheir tholos

toms !ith the famous circular toms at Mycenae in reece from the )ate BronzeAge. The

Myceneans !ould not come onto the scene until much later. So it is understandalethat many of

today"s scholars elieve that Ierian metallurgy !as an independent invention ofthe indigenous

0eolithic people. But this can"t e correct.


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Besides the ovious selection of settlement sites directly associated !ith theEastern

Mediterranean prestige metals of gold and silver$ there appears to e no discernileperiod for the

e'clusive use of puri%ed copper y the Millarens as seen in the east !here it trulydid originate.

In aout 27// B.C. 5tzi the Iceman !as still using the old technology of pure copper6a'e head >

.@ pure copper8 !hile the Millarens !ere !or#ing !ith the advanced Aegeanalloy

technology of arsenical copper. This does not spea# !ell for the indigenousorigination of

Ierian metallurgy. While artifacts of relatively pure copper are found among theMillarens they

appear to e contemporaneous !ith those of arsenical copper. The Millarens seemto have

ypassed the RAge of 9ure CopperR and egan !ith$ at least$ a asic understandingof the alloy

technology of arsenical copper from the eginning. T!enty>seven copper artifactsfrom the )os

Millares site have een found to contain an average of 7.2 arsenic and si'teeno-ects from El

Malagon had a concentration of 1.@ arsenic 6)amert 1@8. The most proaleconclusion

from this evidence is that there !as no indigenous origination of metallurgy inIeria. It !as the

direct result of Minoan maritime e'ploration and pioneer colonization.

The Millaren Tholoi of Ieria

)os Millares Tholos Toms


Many of the to!ns and settlements of the Millarens had cemeteries consisting oftholos 6eehive8


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toms. )os Millares had a necropolis of some / tholoi uilt in the distinctive style ofthe Early

Minoans of the Mesara plain in south>central Crete that !ere used y the elites ofthe society.

The %rst evidence of tholos uilding techni


25/35

The appearance of Minoan tholoi among the Millarens is certainly more than -ust acuriosity. The

idea of the spontaneous origination of this very uni


26/35

cratered$ destroyed$ and polluted places on earth.

Apparently they found no metallic ores of interest south of the 9illars of 4erculesalong the

north!estern African coast. But the sediments of the northern coastlines of !estern

Europe

!ould have yielded the alluvial evidence of aundant metal ores. They may havediscovered the

gold$ silver$ and tin in Brittany in north!estern +rance efore ma#ing the discoveryof gold$ tin$

and other metals in south!estern Britain and Wales. Even though the superioralloying properties

of tin !ith copper !ere un#no!n at this time its availaility should have noted ythe e'plorers.

Also$ there !ere deposits of gold$ silver$ and copper in Ireland. The e'plorers mayhave

discovered the Canary$ Madeira$ and Azore islands and traveled far eyond$ ut I#no! of no

archaeological evidence to support this. 4o! far the Minoan voyages of discovery!ent north

from the 9illars of 4ercules along the coastlines of Europe can only a!ait futurearchaeological

evidence.

The )os Millares Culture

27// B.C to 7:// B.C.

)os Millares +orti%cations


The R)os Millares CultureR$ also #no!n as the RCulture of the ThousandsR$ eventuallycovered

an area of aout 7/$/// s


27/35

the !est around the *io Tinto mines north of and including the modern city of4uelva on the

southern Atlantic coast. The to!n of )os Millares !as a large copper miningsettlement of over

1$/// people aout 1@ #m north of Almeria on the southeastern coast near Santa +ede Mond,-ar

that !as discovered in 11 y )uis Siret. It !as protected y several outpost fortsand used

concentric rings of defensive stone !alls. There must have een consideraleresistance to this

foreign incursion from the indigenous peoples.

)os Millares *econstructionSanta +e de Mond,-ar$ Almeria$ Andalusia$ Spain

The period of 2/// B.C. to 7:// B.C. !as the height of the Millaren Culture. There!as an

e'pansion of the to!n"s !alls and forti%cations. There is evidence of maritime trade!ith the

eastern Mediterranean from the remains of pottery$ hippopotamus ivory$ and ostricheggshells.

The distriution of accumulated !ealth !ould have een uneven from the eginningand led to

the development of social strati%cation and economic elites that -usti%ed theirstatus !ith rituals

and symolism. The hierarchical nature of the society !as demonstrated y theprivatization of

property and the presence of prestige o-ects found in the graves of the elite. Thereis evidence

for the e'istence of an early form of nation state !ith centrally controlledcommercial net!or#s.

The *ise of the Bronze Age

and


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+all of the Millarens

7:// B.C. to 77// B.C.

True ronze 6copper !ith : to 13 tin8 egan to rise to dominance over arsenicalcopper as the

metal of choice among the Aegean Minoans y 7:// B.C. and ecame one of theessential

ingredients of their economy. Many scholars elieve that the change to ronze fromarsenical

copper !as ecause of the arsenic"s poisonous e=ects on humans and this may etrue to an

e'tent$ ut ronze is a superior metal and is signi%cantly harder than arsenical

copper. Tin is rareand sparsely distriuted geographically relative to the sources of gold$ silver$ andcopper.

Cassiterite and stannite are the main mineral ores of tin. Cassiterite is the primary6o'ide8 ore of

tin and li#e gold can e found in alluvial settings. Stannite is a secondary sul%de oreof tin. The

ores of tin are very rare in the eastern Mediterranean. The only #no!n source of

cassiterite in the

area !as the mining to!n of Festel>ltepe in the Taurus mountains of south>central Tur#ey. It

!as occupied and supplying tin to the east from 27/ B.C. to 1(/ B.C. !hen theores ecame

uneconomical or ran out. Cassiterite !as aundant in the !est in places li#e centraland !estern

Ieria$ Brittany in north!estern +rance$ and especially Corn!all in south!estern

Britain.

?uring the period of 7:// B.C. to 7(// B.C. there !ere signs of stress eginning toappear in the

Millaren culture. Their forti%cations !ere reinforced and enlarged to their ma'imume'tent


29/35

indicating violent encounters or !ar !ith the neighoring peoples from the !est andnorth of

them. It !as in this period that the %rst Maritime Bell Bea#er pottery appearedamong the

Millarens. The pottery spread


30/35

over time spread north!ard along the Atlantic and Mediterranean maritime traderoutes into the

coastal regions of +rance$ Britain$ Ireland$ the 0etherlands$ ?enmar#$ and east!ardinto the

interior of central Europe. These !ere the people that erected the %rst stones atStonehenge in

aout 7:// B.C.

The earliest #no!n copper mining in the British Isles !as in Ireland at *oss Island inFillarney

in aout 7(// B.C. It is interesting to note that the three small #nife lades found inthe grave of

the Amesury Archer near Stonehenge in southern Britain dated to aout 72// B.C.!ere cast

!ith puri%ed copper that came from +rance and Spain. This is the same technologyused in 5tzi

the Iceman"s a'e head almost 1$/// years earlier. Britain !as still in the RAge of9ure CopperR in

72// B.C.$ ut y 77// B.C. ronze !as availale and in use. There !as$ essentially$no RAge of

Arsenical CopperR in Britain and y 7/// B.C. ronze !as eing used in Brittany andIreland. A

short time later the huge deposits of copper ore at reat 5rme near )landudno innorthern Wales

egan to e seriously mined in aout 1:/ B.C.

The El Argar Culture

and

Atlantic Tin Trade !ith Britain

ust as in modern times !here oil is a primary commodity necessary for thefunctioning of the

!orld economies$ tin !as a primary commodity in the Bronze Age. There !ere threesources of


31/35

tin availale to the Aegean Minoans efore 1(/ B.C. > the tin from fara!aynortheastern

Afghanistan$ ores from the Festel>ltepe mines in south>central Tur#ey$ and thevast amounts

of tin in the !est 6Ieria$ Brittany$ and Corn!all8. In aout 1(/ B.C. the Festel>oltepe mines

shut do!n and tin from the !est ecame more important. The Minoans !ould havetotally

monopolized the supply of !estern tin into the eastern Mediterranean !ith theirnavy and

shipping.

The nearest tin ores availale to the Millarens in 7:// B.C. in Ieria !ere in theareas of

Cardenas and Madrid in central Spain 6mindat.org8. The stress that egan to uild inthe Millaren

society at that time may have een due to their attempts to gain access to theseresources of tin.

The Bea#er groups a=ected y this policy may have een highly resistant to anyincursions into

!hat they considered their lands. *ather than have the Millaren colony fall to itscomplete

destruction in 77// B.C. and e faced !ith the inevitale loss of Ieria"s vastmineral !ealth the

Aegean Minoans may have come to their aid militarily to sustain the ;o! of metals.An in;u' of

settlers from the urgeoning populations of the east may have reinforced thesurviving Millarens

to found the ne! settlements of the El Argar and advanced to secure the sources oftin in the

Ierian interior y military force.

9enalosa > El Argar +orti%ed To!n *econstruction

4uelva$ Andalucia$ Spain


32/35

It could e -ust a coincidence ut the fall of the Millarens$ the rise of El Argar$ andthe %rst use

of ronze in Britain occur at aout the same time > 77// B.C. This may have eendue to the

eginning of a Minoan Atlantic tin trade !ith Corn!all in Britain 6the CassiteridesY8ased from

their Ierian El Argar colony to supply the mar#ets of the eastern Mediterranean.The Minoan

leadership in the Aegean !ould have to e strongly centralized$ uni%ed$ ande=ective in order to

implement these aggressive and sustained policies. They may have secured thesupply of metals

they desired ut the friction and hostility that had een long re!ing among theIerian Bea#er

peoples !ould have een greatly e'acerated and smoldered into an evolvingcon;agration.

The shutdo!n of the Festel>ltepe mines in 1(/ B.C. may have een due to theMinoans

;ooding the mar#et !ith cheap tin from the !est or the mines may have simply runout of tin.

Whatever the case the Minoans controlled the price of tin in the easternMediterranean until

something completely e'traordinary occurred. In aout 1:2/ B.C. the huge Theran6Santorini$

reece8 marine volcano in the south>central Aegean Sea e'ploded !ith suchcolossal violence

that it nearly destroyed the Minoans in the Aegean. The social dynamic constructed

on economicimperatives had continued to uild until the ule !as urst y the volcaniceruption that

changed the !orld.

Several decades after the eruption the Mycenaeans from mainland reececon


33/35

surviving Minoans in Crete and assumed control of the !estern maritime tradenet!or#s of

metals from the !est. The Ierian El Argar !ere incorporated and continued tofunction as an

Aegean colony under the Mycenaeans. The Motillas 6forts8 of the Bronze of )evanteculture li#e

the Motilla del Azuer in )a Mancha !ere proaly Mycenaean era defenses for a VTin*oad

connecting the inland tin mines of Cardenas and Madrid !ith their ports in thesoutheast. The

Mycenaean El Argar era lasted for aout t!o hundred and %fty years until itscatastrophic

collapse in aout 123/ B.C.

W. Sheppard Baird

CreatedG une 7/$ 7//@.

JpdatedG ?ecemer $ 7//@.

BiliographyG

+. Molina$ . A. Camara$ . Capel$ T. 0a-era$ ). Saez. V)os Millares y la periodizaciZn de

la9rehistoria *eciente del Sureste. III Simposio de 9rehistoria Cueva de 0er-a$ 7//($ols. II y

III. 0er-aG 1(7>13.

9. ?iaz>?el>*io$ R+actionalism and Collective )aor in Copper Age IeriaR$ Traa-os de

9rehistoria :1$ n.o 7$ 7//($ pp. 3>.

The +oundation of the 4ellenic World. 0eolithic 9eriod in reece. 7//:.

T. ?ouglas 9rice. REurope"s +irst +armersR. 7///.

R9rehistoria > Calcolitico y Cultura de )os MillaresR. )os 5rigenes de Ieria.

TASF > The 4istory$ Archaeology$ Art and Cultural 4eritage +oundation > TAL 9ro-ect.

FuruPesme Cad. :@UB$ 2(2(3 FuruPesme$ Istanul$ Tur#ey.


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9hilip 9. Betancourt. RThe Chryso#amino Metallurgy Wor#shop and Its TerritoryR. The

American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 7//:.

oseph B. )amert. RTraces of the 9astG Jnraveling the Secrets of ArchaeologyThrough

ChemistryR. 1@.

oao Nilhao. R*adiocaron Evidence for Maritime 9ioneer Colonization at the 5riginsof

+arming in West Mediterranean EuropeR. 90AS$ 0ovemer 7/$ 7//1$ ol. $ 0o. 7($1(1/>

1(13.

*. . Fing$ S. S. 5zcan$ T. Carter. R?i=erential L>chromosome Anatolian In;uences on

the

ree# and Cretan 0eolithicR. Annals of 4uman enetics$ 7//$ @7$7/371(.

F. Aslihan Lener. RAn Early Bronze Age Tin 9roduction Site at ltepe$ Tur#eyR. The5riental

Institute and the ?epartment of 0ear Eastern )anguages and Civilizations.Jniversity of

Chicago.

+. 0ocete$ E. [le'a$ .M. 0ieto$ *. S\ez$ M.*. Bayonaa. RAn archaeologicalapproach to

regional environmental pollution in the south>!estern Ierian 9eninsula related toThird

millennium BC mining and metallurgyR. ournal of Archaeological Science olume27$ Issue 1/$

5ctoer 7//3$ 9ages 13::>13@:.

eremy B. *utter. RTholos Toms of the MesaraR. )esson :G The Early Minoan 9eriodGThe

Toms. Aegean 9rehistoric Archaeology. ?artmouth College.

Stuart S!iny. RThe Earliest 9rehistory of Cyprus$ from Colonization to E'ploitationR.American

Schools of 5riental *esearch. 7//1.


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