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20 Animal Development: From Genes to Organism

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Page 1: Early Development Animal

20Animal Development:

From Genes to Organism

Page 2: Early Development Animal

20 Animal Development: From Genes to Organism

• Development Begins with Fertilization

• Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• Extraembryonic Membranes

• Human Development

Page 3: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• Fertilization is the union of a haploid sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote.

• The entry of a sperm into an egg activates the egg metabolically and initiates the rapid series of divisions that produces the multicellular embryo.

• In many species, the point of entry of the sperm creates an asymmetry in the radially symmetrical egg.

• This asymmetry enables the bilateral body plan to emerge from the radial symmetry of the egg.

Page 4: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• Nearly all the cytoplasm of the zygote is from the egg.

• The egg cytoplasm is rich in nutrients, ribosomes, mitochondria, and mRNAs.

• The sperm’s mitochondria degenerate, so all mitochondria in the zygote come from the egg.

• In many species the sperm contributes a centriole, which becomes the centrosome of the zygote.

• This produces the mitotic spindles for subsequent cell division.

Page 5: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.1 Sperm and Egg Differ Greatly in Size

Page 6: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• In mammals, certain development genes are active only if they come from a sperm; others are active only if they come from an egg.

• This phenomenon is called genomic imprinting.

• Zygotes constructed in the laboratory with two male or two female nuclei fail to develop properly.

Page 7: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• The entry of the sperm into the egg establishes the polarity of the embryo.

• When cell division occurs, the cytoplasm of the zygote is not distributed equally among the daughter cells.

• The uneven distribution of cytoplasmic elements results in signal transduction cascades that orchestrate the three steps of development: determination, differentiation, and morphogenesis.

Page 8: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• In frogs, pigments in the egg cytoplasm allow easy study of development.

• The dense nutrients accumulate in the vegetal hemisphere, which has no pigment.

• The haploid nucleus of the egg is located in the animal hemisphere. The outermost (cortical) cytoplasm of this hemisphere is darkly pigmented.

• Specific sperm-binding sites ensure that the sperm always enters the egg at the animal hemisphere.

• After fertilization, the cortical cytoplasm rotates toward the site of sperm entry and exposes a less pigmented band opposite the point of sperm entry. This band is called the gray crescent.

Page 9: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.2 The Gray Crescent

Page 10: Early Development Animal

20 Development Begins with Fertilization

• Organelles and proteins move from the vegetal hemisphere to the gray crescent.

• -catenin, a transcription factor, and GSK-3, a protein kinase are found throughout the cytoplasm, but an inhibitor of GSK-3 is segregated in the vegetal pole.

• After sperm entry, the inhibitor moves to the gray crescent and prevents degradation of -catenin.

• The concentration of -catenin is higher on the dorsal side than on the ventral side of the embryo.

• -catenin is a key player in cell–cell signaling cascade that begins the process of determination.

Page 11: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.3 Cytoplasmic Factors Set Up Signaling Cascades

Page 12: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Cleavage is the rapid series of mitotic cell divisions that follows fertilization.

• In most animals, there is little cell growth or gene expression.

• The embryo becomes a solid ball of small cells called a morula.

• The ball eventually forms a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel, and the embryo is then called a blastula. The individual cells are blastomeres.

• The pattern of cleavage is influenced by two factors: the amount of yolk and the formation of mitotic spindles.

Page 13: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Yolk is the nutrient material stored in an egg. Yolk impedes the formation of a cleavage furrow.

• In embryos with little or no yolk, all daughter cells tend to be of similar size, as in the sea urchin.

Page 14: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.4 Patterns of Cleavage in Four Model Organisms (Part 1)

Page 15: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• When yolk quantity is larger, asymmetry of cell size is observed.

• In the frog egg, the vegetal hemisphere ends up with fewer but larger cells than the animal hemisphere.

• Both sea urchins and frogs have complete cleavage.

Page 16: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• In eggs with a lot of yolk, such as the chicken egg, cleavage is incomplete. The cleavage furrows do not penetrate the yolk.

• The embryo forms a disc of cells, called the blastodisc, on top of the yolk.

• This type of incomplete cleavage is called discoidal cleavage and is common in birds, reptiles, and fish.

Page 17: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.4 Patterns of Cleavage in Four Model Organisms (Part 2)

Page 18: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Another type of incomplete cleavage, called superficial cleavage, occurs in Drosophila and other insects.

• The yolk is in the center of insect eggs. In early development, mitosis occurs but not cytokinesis. The nuclei migrate to the periphery of the egg, and the plasma membrane grows inward, partitioning the nuclei into individual cells.

Page 19: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Orientation of the mitotic spindles determine the cleavage planes and arrangements of daughter cells.

• If the mitotic spindles form at right angles or parallel to the animal–vegetal axis, a radial cleavage pattern results.

• If the mitotic spindles are at oblique angles to the animal–vegetal axis, the pattern has a twist, and is called spiral cleavage.

Page 20: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• In mammals, the first cell division is parallel to the animal–vegetal axis and the second cell division occurs at right angles.

• This pattern of cleaves is referred to as rotational cleavage and is unique to mammals.

• Cleavage in mammals is slow, with divisions occurring 12 to 24 hours apart.

• The cell divisions are not synchronous, so the number of cells in the embryo does not follow the regular progression (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.) typical of other species.

Page 21: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.5 The Mammalian Zygote Becomes a Blastocyst (Part 1)

Page 22: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.5 The Mammalian Zygote Becomes a Blastocyst (Part 2)

Page 23: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Unlike other animals, gene expression plays a role during mammalian cleavage.

• At the 8-cell stage of a mammal embryo, the cells form tight junctions and a compact mass.

• At the transition from the 16-cell to 32-cell stage, the cells separate into two masses.

• The inner cell mass develops into the embryo; the outer cells become the trophoblast, which becomes part of the placenta.

• The trophoblast cells secrete fluid which forms the blastocoel. The embryo is called a blastocyst.

Page 24: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Fertilization in mammals occurs in the upper oviduct; cleavage occurs as the zygote travels down the oviduct.

• When the blastocyst arrives in the uterus, the trophoblast adheres to the uterine wall (the endometrium), which begins the process of implantation.

• Early implantation in the oviduct wall is prevented by the zona pellucida.

• In the uterus, the blastocyst hatches out of the zona pellucida, and implantation can occur.

Page 25: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• In all animals, cleavage results in the repackaging of the egg cytoplasm into the cells of the blastula. The cells get different amounts of nutrients and cytoplasmic determinants.

• In the next stage, the cells of the blastula begin to move and differentiate.

• The cells can be labeled with dyes to determine what tissues and organs develop from each. Fate maps of the blastula are the result.

Page 26: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.6 Fate Map of a Frog Blastula

Page 27: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• Blastomeres become determined, or committed to a specific fate, at different times in different animals.

• Roundworm and clam blastomeres are already determined at the 8-cell stage.

• If one cell is removed, a portion of the embryo fails to develop normally. This is called mosaic development.

• Other animals have regulative development. If some cells are lost during cleavage, other cells can compensate.

Page 28: Early Development Animal

20 Cleavage: Repackaging the Cytoplasm

• If blastomeres are separated in an early stage, two embryos can result.

• Since the two embryos came from the same zygote, they are monozygotic twins, or genetically identical twins.

• Non-identical twins are the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm and are not genetically identical.

Page 29: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.7 Twinning in Humans

Page 30: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Gastrulation is the process in which a blastula is transformed into an embryo with three tissue layers and body axes.

• During gastrulation, three germ layers form:

The inner germ layer is the endoderm and gives rise to the digestive tract, circulatory tract, and respiratory tract.

The outer layer, the ectoderm, gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.

The middle layer, the mesoderm, contributes to bone, muscle, liver, heart, and blood vessels.

Page 31: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• The sea urchin blastula is a simple, hollow ball of cells.

• When gastrulation starts, the cells around the vegetal hemisphere flatten. The region invaginates into the blastocoel.

• Some cells migrate away from the invaginating region and become primary mesenchyme cells.

• The invagination becomes the primitive gut or archenteron, and the mesenchyme cells become mesododerm.

Page 32: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Secondary mesenchyme cells break free from the tip of the archenteron.

• The secondary mesenchyme cells are attached to the archenteron and send out extensions to the overlying ectoderm. The extensions contract, pulling the archenteron inward.

• The region where the archenteron contacts the far side of the sphere becomes the mouth.

• The anus forms at the region around the origin of the invagination, called the blastopore.

Page 33: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.8 Gastrulation in Sea Urchins

Page 34: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Amphibian gastrulation begins when cells in the gray crescent change shape and bulge inward. These cells are called bottle cells.

• The dorsal lip of the blastopore forms here. Successive sheets of cells move over the lip into the blastocoel in the process of involution.

• The first cells form the archenteron. The following cells form the mesoderm.

• Cells from the surface animal hemisphere migrate toward the blastopore, a process called epiboly.

• Gastrulation is complete when three germ layers have been established.

Page 35: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.9 Gastrulation in the Frog Embryo (Part 1)

Page 36: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.9 Gastrulation in the Frog Embryo (Part 2)

Page 37: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.9 Gastrulation in the Frog Embryo (Part 3)

Page 38: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Experiments by Spemann and Mangold in the 1920s revealed much about amphibian development.

• Spemann constricted salamander embryos with a single human baby hair.

• Bisection with a shared gray crescent produced twins, but if just one side received a gray crescent, only that side developed.

• Spemann hypothesized that cytoplasmic detrminants in the gray crescent are necessary for gastrulation.

Page 39: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.10 Spemann’s Experiment

Page 40: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• The next experiments involved transplanting gastrula tissues onto other gastrulas.

• In transplants in early gastrulas, the transplanted pieces developed into tissue that were appropriate for the location where they were placed. The fates of the cells had not yet been determined.

• If late gastrulas were used, the fates were determined, and transplants did not develop into the same tissue.

Page 41: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Next, they transplanted the dorsal lip of the blastopore onto the belly area of another gastrula.

• A second whole embryo developed.

• Spemann and Mangold called the dorsal lip the primary embryonic organizer.

Page 42: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.11 The Dorsal Lip Induces Embryonic Organization

Page 43: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• The role of -catenin in gastrulation has been verified using molecular biology technology.

• When the production of -catenin is depleted by injection of antisense RNA into the egg, no gastrulation proceeds.

• If -catenin is experimentally overexpressed in another region of the embryo, it can induce a second axis of embryo formation.

• The protein -catenin appears to play critical roles in generating signals that induce primary embryonic organizer activity.

Page 44: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.12 Molecular Mechanisms of the Primary Embryonic Organizer

Page 45: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• There are a number of known genes necessary for normal left–right organization of the body.

• If one of these genes is knocked out, it can randomize the left–right organization of the internal organs.

• The complete details of this mechanism are not fully known.

• It appears that a left–right differential distribution of some of the of some of the transcription factors triggers a mechanism that acts very early during gastrulation.

Page 46: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Bird and reptile embryos have modified gastrulation to adapt to huge yolk sizes.

• Cleavage forms a blastodisc composed of an epiblast, which will form the embryo, and a hypoblast, which gives rise to the extraembryonic membranes.

• The blastocoel is the fluid-filled space between the epiblast and the hypoblast.

Page 47: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.13 Gastrulation in Birds (Part 1)

Page 48: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Gastrulation begins when cells move toward the midline of the epiblast, forming a ridge called the primitive streak.

• A primitive groove forms along the primitive streak.

• The primitive groove becomes the blastopore. Cells migrate through it and become endoderm and mesoderm.

• At the forward region of the groove is Hensen’s node, which is equivalent to the dorsal lip of the amphibian blastopore.

• Cells that pass over Hensen’s node become determined by the time they reach their destination.

Page 49: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.13 Gastrulation in Birds (Part 2)

Page 50: Early Development Animal

20 Gastrulation: Producing the Body Plan

• Mammal eggs have no yolk.

• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst splits into an epiblast and hypoblast with a fluid-filled cavity in between.

• The embryo forms from the epiblast; the extraembryonic membranes form from the hypoblast.

• The epiblast also splits off a layer of cells that form the amnion. The amnion grows around the developing embryo.

• Gastrulation is similar to that in birds; a primitive groove forms and cells migrate through it to become endoderm and mesoderm.

Page 51: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• Gastrulation produces an embryo with three germ layers.

• Organogenesis occurs next and involves the formation of organs and organ systems.

• Neurulation occurs early in organogenesis and begins the formation of the nervous system in vertebrates.

Page 52: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• The first cells to pass over the dorsal lip become the endodermal lining of the digestive tract.

• The second group of cells become mesoderm. The dorsal mesoderm closest to the midline (chordomesoderm) becomes the notochord.

• The notochord is connective tissue and is eventually replaced by the vetebral column.

• The chordomesoderm induces the overlying ectoderm to begin forming the nervous system.

Page 53: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• Neurulation begins with thickening of the ectoderm above the notochord to form the neural plate.

• Edges of the neural plate thicken to form ridges. Between the ridges a grove forms and deepens.

• The ridges fuse, forming a cylinder—the neural tube.

• The anterior end of the neural tube becomes the brain.

Page 54: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.15 Neurulation in the Frog Embryo (Part 1)

Page 55: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.15 Neurulation in the Frog Embryo (Part 2)

Page 56: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• In humans, failure of the neural tube to close completely at the posterior end results in spina bifida.

• If the tube fails to close at the anterior end, the result is anencephaly, in which the forebrain does not develop.

• Neural tube defects can be reduced if pregnant women receive adequate folic acid (a B vitamin).

Page 57: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• Body segmentation develops during neurulation.

• Blocks of mesoderm called somites form on both sides of the neural tube.

• Somites produce cells that form the vertebrae, ribs, and muscles of the trunk and limbs. They also guide the organization of the peripheral nerves.

• When the neural tube closes, cells called neural crest cells break loose; they migrate inward between the epidermis and the somites and under the somites.

• The neural crest cells give rise to many structures, including peripheral nerves, which connect to the spinal cord.

Page 58: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.16 The Development of Body Segmentation

Page 59: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• As development progresses, the body segments differentiate.

• Differentiation on the anterior–posterior axis is controlled by homeotic genes.

• Four families of genes, called homeobox or Hox genes, control differentiation along the body axis in mice.

• Each family consists of 10 genes and resides on a different chromosome.

• Temporal and spatial expression of these genes follows the same pattern as their linear order on their chromosomes.

Page 60: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.17 Hox Genes Control Body Segmentation (Part 1)

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Figure 20.17 Hox Genes Control Body Segmentation (Part 2)

Page 62: Early Development Animal

20 Neurulation: Initiating the Nervous System

• Other genes give dorsal–ventral position information.

• Sonic hedgehog is an example of a dorsal–ventral gene that is expressed in the notochord and induces cells in the overlying neural tube to become ventral spinal cord cells.

• Another family of homeobox genes, the Pax genes, are important in nervous system and somite development.

• Pax3 is expressed in neural tube cells that will become dorsal spinal cord cells.

• Pax3 and sonic hedgehog interact to determine dorsal–ventral differentiation of the spinal cord.

Page 63: Early Development Animal

20 Extraembryonic Membranes

• Extraembryonic membranes originate from the germ layers of the embryo and function in nutrition, gas exchange, and waste removal.

• In the chicken, the yolk sac is the first to form, by extension of the endodermal tissue of the hypoblast.

• It constricts at the top to create a tube that is continuous with the gut of the embryo.

• Yolk is digested by the endodermal cells of the yolk sac, and the nutrients are transported through blood vessels lining the outer surface of the yolk sac.

Page 64: Early Development Animal

20 Extraembryonic Membranes

• The allantoic membrane, an outgrowth of the extraembryonic ectoderm, forms the allantois, a sac for storage of metabolic wastes.

• Ectoderm and mesoderm combine and extend beyond the embryo to form the amnion and the chorion.

• The amnion surrounds the embryo, forming a cavity. The amnion secretes fluid into the cavity that provides protection for the embryo.

• The chorion form a continous membrane just under the eggshell. It limits water loss and functions in gas exchange.

Page 65: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.18 The Extraembryonic Membranes

Page 66: Early Development Animal

20 Extraembryonic Membranes

• In mammals, the first extraembryonic membrane to form is the trophoblast.

• When the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, the trophoblast cells attach to the uterine wall, This is the beginning of implantation.

• The trophoblast becomes part of the uterine wall, and sends out villi to increase surface area and contact with maternal blood.

• The hypoblast cells extend to form the chorion. The chorion and other tissues produce the placenta.

• The epiblast produces the amnion. Allantoic tissues form the umbilical cord.

Page 67: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.19 The Mammalian Placenta

Page 68: Early Development Animal

20 Extraembryonic Membranes

• Cells from the embryo that are in the amniotic fluid can be sampled and tested for defects. The test is called amniocentesis.

• Problems such as Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and Tay Sachs disease can be detected using this technique.

• A newer technique is chorionic villus sampling which makes earlier detection possible.

Page 69: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.20 Chorionic Villus Sampling

Page 70: Early Development Animal

20 Human Development

• The events of human gestation (pregnancy) are divided into three trimesters.

• The first trimester begins with fertilization. Implantation takes place 6 days later.

• Then gastrulation takes place, the placenta forms, and tissues and organs begin to form.

• The heart first beats at 4 weeks and limbs form at 8 weeks.

• The embryo is particularly vulnerable to radiation, drugs, and chemicals during the first trimester.

• Hormonal changes can cause major responses in the mother, including morning sickness.

Page 71: Early Development Animal

20 Human Development

• During the second trimester the fetus grows rapidly to about 600g.

• Fingers, toes, and facial features become well formed.

• Fetal movements are first felt by the mother early in the second trimester.

• By the end of the second trimester, the fetus may suck its thumb.

Page 72: Early Development Animal

20 Human Development

• The fetus and the mother continue to grow during the third trimester.

• Throughout the third trimester, the fetus remains susceptible to environmental factors such as malnutrition, alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking.

• Kidneys produce urine, the liver stores glycogen, and the brain undergoes cycles of sleep and waking.

Page 73: Early Development Animal

Figure 20.21 Stages of Human Development

Page 74: Early Development Animal

20 Human Development

• Development does not end at birth.

• The organization of the nervous system exhibits a great deal of plasticity in the early years, as patterns of connections between neurons develop.

• For example, a child born with misaligned eyes will use mostly one eye.

• The connections to the brain from this eye will become stronger, while the connections to the other eye will become weak.

• This can be changed if the alignment is corrected within the first three years.

Page 75: Early Development Animal

20 Human Development

• A current area of research into this developmental plasticity in the nervous system examines the role of learning in stimulating the production and differentiation of new neurons in the brain.