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EAGLES and FARMERS

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Contents

Introduction

How do eagles benefit the farmer?

How to avoid small stock losses?

What can be done if an eagle is suspected of killing stock?

How can farmers help eagles?

Some general characteristics of eagles

Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus

Black Eagle Aquila verreauxii

Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax

Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus

Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus

African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer

African Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus fasdatus

Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis

Longcrested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis

Wahlberg’s Eagle Aquila wahlbergi

Brown Snake Eagle Circaetus cinereus

Black-chested Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus

Falcons and Kestrels

Information

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Eagles and farmers

Throughout the world eagles are regarded as symbols of strength, courage and freedom, and through the ages mankind has admired these powerful predators. Eagles are proudly displayed as corporate symbols by large businesses and appear on the flags and emblems of many nations.Paradoxically, despite this obvious admiration, man has persecuted eagles and other birds of prey for centuries. This persecution has developed and persisted through a sad misunderstanding of the habits of these predatory birds. Although southern Africa has many fine national parks and nature reserves, these sanctuaries are often too small to incorporate the full ranges of the larger eagles. For this reason, many eagles must extend their home ranges beyond sanctuary boundaries into privately owned land where their long-term survival is dependant upon the attitudes of farmers. While the presence of a large predatory bird on a farm stocked with sheep or goats may seem undesirable to some farmers, it will be shown in the pages that follow that this is not the case. Eagles, by assisting in the control of pests and problem animals, are in fact allies to the farmer and should be carefully conserved.

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Tawny Eagle

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How do eagles benefit the farmer?

Eagles, as predators at the top of food pyramids, assist in the control of populations of their prey. Although the numbers of herbivorous animals such as dassies and hares are largely determined by available food, the removal of their natural predators often results in a rapid population explosion. This can be particularly detrimental to smallstock farmers as dassies and hares may then compete with domestic stock for grazing.

Dassies and hares feature prominently in the diets of the Martial, Black and Crowned Eagles and it is ironic that these three species have been most heavily persecuted by farmers. Although these large eagles have been found to occasionally prey on very young domestic stock, analysis of prey remains from predominantly small-stock areas has shown that these form only a small percentage of their diet. It is also very likely that those domestic animals taken by the eagles may have been sick, injured or even dead since all eagles scavenge to varying degrees.

Any small-stock losses should be weighed up against the contribution that the eagles make in controlling their prey species, many of which are regarded as problem animals by farmers. A pair of Black Eagles and their nestling require up to 350 dassies per year. This number of dassies would, in turn, consume enough vegetation to support 22 healthy sheep! In addition to the dassies that are actually caught, the mere presence of the eagles inhibits the movement of dassies away from their rocky shelters and on to the open plains where they are vulnerable to attack. Large eagles can, and do, catch the young of Caracal and Blackbacked Jackal both of which may pose a threat to thesmall-stock farmer. It should, however, be remembered that these predators also play a role in the control of dassies and hares. Suricates and mongooses are implicated in the spread of rabies – a disease that affects animals and man. The Bateleur, Tawny, Martial, African Hawk and Wahlberg’s Eagles all play an important role in the suppression of these small mammals. Rabies is essentially a symptom of overpopulation but if numbers of carriers such as mongooses are kept low, the disease is effectively controlled. In limited numbers these small carnivores are also beneficial to the farmer as they help control rats and mice.

Most eagles are surprisingly opportunistic feeders and will sometimes consume large quantities of very small animals that occur in high densities. Termites, queleas, locusts and rodents are all preyed upon voraciously by many birds of prey such as Steppe, Tawny, Wahlberg’s and Longcrested Eagles, and also Lesser Kestrels and Redfooted Falcons. Monkeys can become pests in fruit orchards but the presence of their archenemy, the Crowned Eagle, will usually prevent them from venturing out of dense bush into the orchards, where they are easily caught by the eagle. Vultures are very useful to farmers through their habit of clearing the veld of rotting carcasses. The vultures do, however, often rely upon smaller scavenging birds such as the Bateleur or Tawny Eagle to locate carcasses and in this way, these eagles play an important role in the scavenging system.

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How to avoid small-stock losses

Only Martial, Black and Crowned Eagles are large enough to pose a threat to smallstock. In rare cases “rogue” individuals of these species have been known to prey on young lambs or goat kids up to an age of about three weeks. Cattle farmers have nothing to fear from eagles – even a newborn calf is far too big for the largest eagle to tackle. “Rogue” eagles which are responsible for killing young small-stock are invariably inexperienced, young birds. The continued presence of a pair of resident adult eagles will ensure that these roving, opportunistic youngsters are kept away from their territory - so protect eagles which breed on your farm. Guard against overstocking and consequent veld deterioration. The maintenance of sufficient ground cover will provide habitats for a wide range of small animals – the natural prey of the eagles. Research indicates that predators are only likely to attack domestic animals when their natural prey becomes scarce. Sound stock farming practices should be employed to ensure that eagles are not tempted to switch from their natural prey to small-stock young:

• have a minimum number of lambing seasons per year to allow for better and easier care of lambs;

• do not situate lambing herds in the immediate vicinity of an active eagle nest site but rather near to the homestead or a place of human activity;

• if there is no alternative to grazing lambing herds in remote areas ensure that they are accompanied by a shepherd whose presence will deter any attack by the eagles; ewes which abandon newly born young should be culled from the flock;• poultry should, where possible, be kept in closed runs or enclosures.

What can be done if an eagle is suspected of killing stock?

Study the Innocent Until Proven Guilty brochure to determine whether eagles were truly responsible for livestock losses. If an eagle is suspected of killing stock a farmer should establish beyond doubt that the eagle is guilty before taking any action. All large eagles will readily take car-rion and their presence at a carcass does not necessarily mean that they killed the animal. Such a carcass should be carefully examined to determine the cause of death – if the eagle has been responsible, four to eight puncture marks made by the talons, on the back or back of the head, will provide the evidence. More often than not, the animal has died from causes other than predation - 83% of lamb mortalities in the Cape Province are a result of disease, malnutrition or poor management.

(Bird of Prey Survey– Dept. of Nature and Environmental Conservation, Cape). Should proof of eagle predation be found, contact the Birds of Prey Programme.

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How can farmers help eagles?

Many farmers have realised the beneficial role that eagles can have on the farm and are now attempting to reinstate them in areas in which they previously occurred. There are two basic requirements for a pair of eagles to breed on your farm – a reliable food source and an undisturbed nesting site. Provided that these are available, eagles will eventually find their way back to suitable habitats. Eagles do, however, have very large territories (one pair may range over several farms) and it is important that all farmers in one region allow the eagles to return. It takes only one individual, with one gun or carelessly placed poison bait, to wreck the hopes of an entire community of concerned farmers.

1. Keep disturbance at the nest site to a minimum. Do not cut down trees that could provide potential nest sites, and protect nesting trees from fire.

2. Do not use poison bait irresponsibly in “problem animal” control. If you have no alternative to poison bait or traps, for the control of mammalian predators, the following simple rules should be followed:• never bait a large carcass as this will attract and kill many scavengers other than the target

species;• set baits just before sunset and retrieve them at dawn to ensure that only nocturnal scavengers such as jackal and caracal feed on the bait;• set baits or traps in places which cannot be seen or reached by birds (eg. under a bush) –

dogs and jackals locate food by smell, birds by sight;• never use more poison than is required for a single lethal dose as this may lead to secondary poisoning if the dead target species is fed upon by eagles or vultures.• Poisons should always be a last resort. A farmers’ association in Namibia estimated that

over 100 non-target species are killed for every jackal or dog when strychnine poison baits were used, many of the non-target species being eagles and vultures.

3. Create awareness among the farmers in your district by telling them about the useful role that eagles can play in assisting with the control of pests.

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Some general characteristics of eagles

Eagles are, in general, large and powerful birds superbly adapted to catch and kill small to medium prey. Eagles have certain adaptations depending upon their way of life. For example, those which hunt over open countryside have long, broad wings for soaring while forest dwelling species have shorter, rounded wings and long tails which enable them to manoeuvre easily between trees. Adult eagles have very few natural predators and may live for 20 to 30 years. In common with many long-lived animals, they have a very slow breeding rate and an extremely high incidence of mortality among young birds. On average, only 25% of young eagles survive their first year and only half ofthese will eventually reach maturity and raise their own young. This situation is acceptable provided that the adult survival rate remains high. If the balance is disturbed by unnatural mortality factors such as poisoning or shooting, which affect adults and young, the population may exhibit a drastic decline or even disappear.

Eagles build large nests in trees or on cliffs and may use the same site for many years. Prior to egg laying the nest is lined with fresh green leaves and for many species, the female does most of the incubating which rarely lasts for less than 40 days. It is unusual for more than one nestling to be raised each year and in cases where two eggs are laid the stronger chick often kills its sibling in what has become known as the “Cain and Abel” struggle. Most eagles do not breed every year, but rather may make four attempts every five or six years (eg. Black Eagles), while others have such a long breeding season, lasting longer than one year, that they can raise young only every second year (eg. Crowned and Martial Eagles in some parts of Africa).

Once hatched, the nestling grows rapidly but will spend two to three months in the nest before being able to fly. The parents deliver food to the nest and when the chick is very small, will delicately tear up small pieces and mouth feed the youngster. Once it has left the nest, the youngster is forced out of its parent’s territory and will go through various changes in plumage as it matures into an adult over four to seven years. The presence of a resident pair of eagles in an area is a sure indication of a balanced environment. The eagles cannot survive without their natural prey, which is in turn dependent upon sufficient vegetation for food and shelter. The disappearance of birds of prey from an area can ultimately contribute to serious environmental problems.

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Lesser Kestrel

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Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus

This is the largest eagle in Africa and perhaps the most impressive. The dark head and chest, contrasting against the spotted belly, are distinguishing features of the adult. It may be confused with the Black-chested Snake Eagle although this species has unfeathered legs and shows a white, not dark, underwing in flight. The immature Martial is grey on the back and white on the face and body. The nest is a large stick structure built under the canopy of a tall tree and may be used for many years. In some parts of the region, nests are now sometimes built on large electricity pylons. The ter-ritory of these eagles ranges from 100 to 300 km2 but may be even more in arid areas. A single egg is laid, typically in mid-winter, and it is five months before the chick is ready to leave the nest. The preferred prey varies according to the habitat in which the bird lives. Hares, dassies, leguaans and game birds are most often taken. Prey may be sighted from a vantage point such as a tall tree or from the air, when a spectacular stoop terminates in a powerful strike of the victim. The Martial Eagle is found in open country and bushveld throughout Africa. It is currently classified as “vulnerable” in the SA Red Data Book - Birds, which lists all species of conservation concern. The future survival of this majestic eagle lies in the hands of the farmer. Farmers are concerned about Martial Eagles and participate in the conservation of these birds in rural areas by preventing disturbance and actively protecting nesting sites.

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Black Eagle Aquila verreauxii

The jet-black plumage with a white “V” on the back and white rump, renders this eagle unmistakable. It is most often seen in flight when the pale wing patches are also distinctive field characters. The immature is pale mottled brown. The nest is built on cliff ledges or massive boulders and may be used for many years. Two eggs are usually laid in mid-winter, but only one nestling survives when the stronger of the two attacks and kills its sibling in the “Cain and Abel” struggle. The territory size is determined by topography and prey availability. The Rock Dassie comprises over 90% of the prey ofthe Black Eagle and the two species share the same habitat throughout Africa. The male and female often hunt cooperatively with one bird making itself obvious to the prey while the other stoops and veers around rocks to surprise the unsuspecting victim. This eagle will readily take carrion such as dead lambs. The Black Eagle is limited to mountain ranges and rocky outcrops throughout Africa, but young birds may wander widely. Once severely persecuted, the Black Eagle is being increasingly recognised as the farmer’s friend and may one day return to all its old haunts.

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Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax

The Tawny Eagle may be confused with several similar brown eagles and there is a considerable amount of colour variation within the species. The most common colour form is the reddish “tawny”, but very dark, streaked birds are also frequent. The nest is built at the very top of a tree, exposed to sun and rain, and may be used for several years. Like the Martial Eagle, it has now taken to nesting on electricity pylons. The territory size varies for different habitats but averages at about 100 km2. Ra-dio telemetry studies in Namibia indicate that they may be very much larger in arid regions. Two eggsare laid but the stronger nestling kills its sibling so that only one chick survives. The Tawny Eagle is an opportunistic feeder and consequently has a very variable diet of birds, small mammals and reptiles. Prey may be taken from a perch or a spectacular dive when the pair may hunt cooperatively. It is an expert “pirate”, robbing other eagles or hawks, and it often joins vultures to feed at carrion. Although this is the most common eagle in large reserves, the Tawny Eagle has, due to its scavenging habits, disappeared from most farming areas as a result of the irresponsible use of poisoned bait for problem animals. The more responsible use of poisons resulted in the return of Tawny Eagles to many farms where they started actively breeding in certain parts of the country.

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Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus

Though slightly smaller than the Martial Eagle, this is undoubtedly Africa’s most powerful bird of prey. The heavily barred, rufous underparts and the broad, short wings are the best field characters since the crest or “crown” is raised only in excitement. The immature is pure white on the front, head and underparts and may be confused with the young Martial Eagle. The Crowned Eagle is a forest dwelling species and the nest is built within the fork of a giant tree. In addition to performing regular territorial aerial displays the pair are very vocal throughout the year. One or two eggs are laid but only a single nestling survives the “Cain and Abel” struggle. The chick is dependent upon its parentsfor many months and they may consequently breed only every second year. Very large prey items, such as young Bushbuck, may be taken but smaller mammals such as tiny forest antelope, dassies and monkeys are most common. A classic “cloak and dagger” hunter, prey is captured in a lightning dash from a hidden perch. The Crowned Eagle can help to control monkeys in areas where they have become a menace to the farmer.

In southern Africa, the Crowned Eagle is found only in the evergreen forests along the east coast, on mountain escarpments and along major rivers. It rarely poses a danger to farming activities and the biggest threat to the survival of this magnificent bird is the destruction of its forest habitat.

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Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus

The Bateleur is easily distinguished from other eagles by its bright scarlet face and legs, black and white plumage and short tail. The immature bird is plain brown and, like the adult, has a short tail and a bare face. The smallish nest is built within the canopy of a bushveld tree, quite often near a watercourse. In its breeding cycle, the Bateleur shows many differences to other eagles – a single egg is laid in late summer and incubation is shared equally by both sexes. These birds are particularly vulnerable to disturbance at their nest and will readily desert the egg or nestling if there is any human interference. In most areas, medium-sized birds such as Francolins and small mammals are the favoured prey, but reptiles, including venomous snakes, are also taken. Prey is sighted from low level glides above the treetops and seized in a swift stoop. Carrion is also located in this way and vultures watch the movements of Bateleurs with great interest in their own search for food. Not too long ago, the evocative image of the soaring Bateleur was a daily sight throughout southern Africa in most habitats from bushveld to semi-desert. Due to its fondness for carrion it has suffered from the irresponsible use of poison bait and is today rarely seen outside of the larger wildlife reserves. The Bateleur is the most vulnerable of southern Africa’s eagles. The Bateleur however recovered remarkably in the Kalahari. The Birds of Prey Programme’s Kalahari Raptor Project managed to put an end to the poisoning and persecution of the Bateleur. Twenty five breeding pairs have already settled on the Kalahari farms between 1993 and 2004.

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African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer

The cry of the Fish Eagle is one of the characteristic sounds of Africa and this striking raptor presents no difficulty with identification. Special adaptations are the unfeathered legs and roughened feet to aid in grasping slippery fish. The immature is mottled but predominantly white in front. The conspicuous stick nest is built in any large tree, usually near water. One to three eggs are laid in mid-winter and although sibling aggression may occur, two chicks are often reared. The juveniles are nomadic and may congregate in groups away from territorial adults. Fish are, of course, the favoured prey and are caught in a spectacular swooping dive as the eagle glides low across the water. Fish Eagles regularly rob storks and herons of their catches. Any large open water body with a healthy fish population and trees suitable for nesting is an ideal habitat for the African Fish Eagle. Fish Eagle numbers have probably increased as a result of the large number of manmade dams. There is however, the constant threat of accumulation of pesticide residues in dams, rivers and lakes that contaminate the Fish Eagle’s prey base and eventually may negatively affect the eagle’s breeding success. Zurich sponsored a study on the effects of DDT of Fish Eagle eggs during the 1980’s. DDT is not widely used any longer but a few decades ago it posed a serious threat to the survival of the African Fish Eagle.

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African Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus fasdatus

The dark back and head, contrasting with the heavily streaked underparts, identifies this attractive eagle. It may be confused with the very similar but rare Ayre’s Hawk Eagle. Distributed throughout the northern bushveld regions, their favoured habitat is hilly, well-wooded countryside. A wide variety of prey is caught, ranging from francolins and dassies to queleas and bats. The nest is built within the canopy of a large tree and although two eggs are laid only one chick survives.

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Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis

This close relative of the Tawny Eagle is a non-breeding, summer migrant to southern Africa where it may be seen in groups of up to 100 individuals. It is distinguished from the resident Tawny Eagle by its gregarious habits and the large gape that extends to a point level with the back of the eye. These large eagles follow rain-fronts that stimulate the emergence of termites, their highly nutritious principle prey. At the end of summer they return to their breeding grounds in east Asia.

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Longcrested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis

This small eagle is easily identified by its long crest and black plumage. It is distributed throughout the higher rainfall regions of the eastern part of the sub-continent where it favours grassland and vleis in which to hunt. Rodents are the most common prey with the Vlei Rat being particularly sought after. Nests are built in tall trees, including exotic eucalypts, and two chicks are often reared each season.

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Wahlberg’s Eagle Aquila wahlbergi

A smallish brown eagle that may also occur in a pale colour form. In flight, the tail is usually held in a characteristic closed, and un-fanned, position. Found only in the northern and eastern bushveld regions, this summer migrant arrives in early spring when pairs may reclaim their nest from the previous season and commence breeding. A versatile predator able to catch small mammals, birds and reptiles that are often taken in a spectacular stoop. This is a common eagle, in suitable habitat, during the summer months but departs for central Africa in autumn.

Pale phase

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Brown Snake Eagle Circaetus cinereus

This plain, brown eagle can be distinguished from all but the young Bateleur by its unfeathered legs. The typical upright stance and piercing yellow eyes, lacking in the Bateleur, are further identifying features. It prefers well-wooded country where the small, shallow nest is built at the top of a thorn tree or euphorbia. A single egg is laid in mid-summer. Snakes, including Puff Adders and Black Mambas, make up most of their prey and all but the largest are swallowed whole.

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Black-chested Snake Eagle Circaetus gallicus

Distinguished from the similar, but much larger, Martial Eagle by its unspotted belly, bare legs and white underwings. This handsome eagle also has a bright yellow eye like its close relative, the Brown Snake Eagle. Open grassland and lightly-wooded savannah is the chosen habitat where snakes, such as cobras, are pounced upon often after extended periods of hovering. Rats, mice and lizards are also caught. A single egg is laid, usually in mid-winter, in a small treetop nest.

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Falcons and Kestrels

Although they are generally smaller than eagles, falcons and kestrels also play an important role in the control of rodent, insect and problem bird populations and should thus be considered an important ally to farmers. Species such as the Lanner (Falco biarmicus) and Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) prey almost exclusively on smaller birds and often live in towns and cities where large numbers of pigeons, mynahs and starlings concentrate. The pigeons often make a huge mess through the accumulation of their droppings on buildings and other structures. This requires frequent clean-ups and can lead to fires and other damage if not regularly attended to. Exotic species suchas Indian Mynahs and Eurasian Starlings cause similar problems at their roosts and are also a source of noise pollution with the deafening din created in the early morning and evening when these birds are at their roosts.

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Greater Kestrel

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Falcons

Peregrine and Lanner Falcons often establish breeding territories close to such large concentrations of their prey and often prey almost exclusively on such birds, having a considerable impact on their numbers and often causing them to move their roosts to a “safer” area. Unfortunately, these falcons do come into conflict with pigeon fanciers and are often illegally shot and killed for the odd domestic pigeon that they catch. Apart from the fact that it is illegal to discharge firearms in an urban environment, the shooters often are unaware of benefits of having these birds around. One of therarest breeding birds in southern Africa also belongs to the falcon family, namely the Taita Falcon (Falco fasciinucha). These small falcons are found along the escarpment of the Limpopo/Mpumalanga Drakensberg where they nest on the high, inaccessible cliffs of the region. Despite their nesting habits, these birds occur in small numbers across their entire range and are under pressure due to competition with larger raptors, the robbing of their nests by egg collectors and the destruction of the habitat wherethey find their food.

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Amur Falcon

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Kestrels

The kestrels are a group of smaller falcons that feed mostly on rodents and insects. The Rock Kes-trel (Falco tinnunculus) hunts from a perch or by hovering over its territory until it picks up the movement of its prey on the ground. There are three more species of kestrel that, in some species, occur in South Africa in large numbers and high concentrations during summer, namely the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) and Redfooted Falcon (Falco vespertinus). Despite their smaller size, the migratory feats of these three species are generally more impressive than that of the larger raptors that have a more leisurely approach to covering the distance between their breeding and wintering grounds. The Amur Falcon, for instance, covers a distance of some 6 000km in a non-stop flight between mainland Africa and the Indian peninsula during its migration. This feat is achieved twice a year! This species breeds in eastern Siberia and China as well as North Korea and covers a total distance of about 11 000km on their migratory route before reaching theirwintering grounds on the highveld of South Africa. The other two species occur further to the west on the Eurasian mainland with a substantial degree of overlap in their ranges. The migratory kestrels generally arrive in southern Africa in mid to late November and then depart again for their breeding grounds in late February to mid-March.

Another interesting trait of kestrels is that they are more gregarious than most other raptors. In their breeding range, birds are commonly found breeding in congregations of varying size with pairs nesting in close proximity to each other. Colonies of up to 250 pairs have been recorded for the Lesser Kestrel. In southern Africa these birds congregate in large flocks, sometimes numbering several thousand birds of all three species, which make use of communal roosts in large trees such as bluegums. They also readily perch in large numbers on telephone lines during the day when they forage over the adjacent grassveld and crops in search of their food, which mostly consists of insects and other invertebrates. Unlike most other raptors, it is fairly easy to visibly distinguish between the sexes of all three species in the field as males and females look distinctly different from one another.Of the three species, the Lesser Kestrel currently faces the largest threat of extinction due to the overlap of its breeding range with the more densely populated areas of Europe and western Asia, and a marked decline in the numbers of this species has been noted over the last 30 years. The decline in numbers can mostly be ascribed to radical changes in land-use and agricultural practices causing severe degradation of its habitat, available food sources and breeding sites. It is currently considered to be ‘Globally Vulnerable’ according to the publication Threatened Birds of the World by BirdLife International.

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Migratory Kestrel Project

Currently not much is known about the activities, diet and other aspects of the migratory kestrels in their wintering range in southern Africa. The Birds of Prey Programme of the Endangered Wildlife Trust however aims to change this by the implementation and promotion of population monitoring of these birds in southern Africa every summer.

The Migratory Kestrel Project makes use of volunteer observers that visit known colonies of these species and do at least three counts at each site when the birds are present in the region. In addition, regurgitated pellets containing undigested food material are collected under the roosts to establish the exact nature of their diet. Interested individuals who would like to participate in the monitoring activities of the Migratory Kestrel Project of the Birds of Prey Programme, are welcome to contact us at the numbers provided on page 30. There are far more colonies that need to be monitored thanwhat the project currently focuses on and the help of volunteers would be greatly appreciated.

As mankind develops more and more of planet Earth, species and habitats are lost at an alarming rate. In southern Africa, we are fortunate in having a wide variety of animals and spectacular scenery that can evoke within us a strong feeling of contact with our planet. Human population pressure has meant that many large animals are now confined to wildlife sanctuaries, but there are others, such as the large eagles, which can, and must, co-exist with modern farming practices. Not only do eagles and falcons provide one of nature’s most awe-inspiring sights, they are also a valuable asset to the farmer who must now play a vital role in their continued survival. It would be sad indeed if future generations were deprived the privilege of seeing a wild eagle on the wing and we must save a space in the sun for these magnificent birds.

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Suggested further reading

Birds of Africa (vol. 1). LH Brown, EK Urban & K Newman. Academic Press, London, 1992.Birds of Prey I. Newton. Merehurst, London, 1990.Birds of Prey of Southern Africa. P Steyn. David Philip, Cape Town, 1982.Birds of Prey of the World. P Burton’S T Boyer. Dragons World, Surrey, 1989.Eagle Days. P Steyn. Sable Publishers, Sandton, 1973.Handbook of the Birds of the World (vol. 2). J del Hoyo, A Elliot & J Sargatal. Lynx Edicions,Barcelona, 1994.Hawks, Eagles and Falcons of the World. LH Brown & D Amadon. The Wellfleet Press, Secaucus, 1989.Innocent Until Proven Guilty/Onskuldig tot Skuldig Bewys. F Bekker, AE Bowland. D Brand, R Davies, P Steyn & E VerreynneRaptor Conservation Group & Zurich, Johannesburg, 1993.Population Ecology of Raptors. I Newton. T & AD Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1979.Raptor In-Hand Identification Guide. WS dark & R Yosef. IBCE, Eilat, 1998.Robert’s Birds of Southern Africa. Hockey, Deon & Ryan. John voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town, 2005.Roofdiere en Boere/Predators and Farmers. AE Bowland, MGL Mills & D Lawson.Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg, 1991.SAPPI Newman’s Birds of Southern Africa. K Newman. Macmillan, Johannesburg, 1995.SASOL Birds of Prey of Africa and its Islands. A & M Kemp. New Holland Struik. Cape Town, 1998.SASOL Birds of Southern Africa (3rd edition). I Sinclair, P Hockey & WR Tarboton. Struik. Cape Town,2002.Southern African Birds of Prey. P & B Pickford & WR Tarboton. Struik. Cape Town, 1989.Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Barnes, 2000.Status and Conservation of the Birds of Prey in the Transvaal. WR Tarboton & DG Alien. TransvaalMuseum, Pretoria, 1984.The Atlas of Southern African Birds (vol. 1). JA Harrison et al. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, 1997.The Black Eagle. V Gargett. Acorn Books & Russel Friedman Books, Johannesburg, 1990.The Complete Book of Southern African Birds. PJ Ginn, WG Mcllleron & P Ie S Milstein.Struik Winchester. Cape Town, 1989.The Owls of Southern Africa. A Kemp & S Calburn. Struik Winchester, Cape Town, 1987.Vanishing Eagles. T Boyer & P Burton. Eagle Star Insurance, London.Vultures and Farmers/Aasvoels en Boere. D Butchart, Vulture Study Group, Johannesburg, 1994.Sappi Identification Guide to Raptors of southern Africa. Oberprieler and Cillié, 2002.Nests and Nesting. Warwick and Michele tarboton, 2000.

Order the following materials from the Endangered Wildlife Trust at (011) 372 3600

Predators and FarmersInnocent Until Proven GuiltyVultures and FarmersEagles and Farmers videoEagles: Shadows on the Wing video 22

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Bat Hawk

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Endangered Wildlife Trust

The Endangered Wildlife Trust was established in 1973 and is registered as a Non-profit Organistion. The EWT fills the key niche of on-the-ground conservation action with the focus on identifying the key factors that threaten biodiversity and to develop mitigating measures to reduce these.

Private Bag X11, Modderfontein, 1645, Gauteng, South Africa. Tel (011)372-3600, Fax (011) 608-4682

Birds of Prey ProgrammeA Specialist Programme of the Endangered Wildlife Trust

The Birds of Prey Programme (BoPP) is committed to the conservation of the natural populations of diurnal and nocturnal raptors in southern Africa by the initiation and support of research, conservation and education programmes based on sound scientific and conservation principles. A number of conservation projects operate under the auspices of the BoPP all over southern Africa. The BoPP publishes the journals Gabar and Vulture News and the electronic newsletter The Eagle’s Eye. National and international collaboration with other conservation organisations strengthen the work of the BoPP.

Private Bag X11, Modderfontein, 1645, Gauteng, South Africa. Tel (011)372-3600, Fax (011) 608-4682, E-mail raptor@ewt.org.za

Acknowledgements

This booklet has been greatly enhanced by the input of four of southern Africa’s foremost field conservationists: André Boshoff, Christopher J Brown, Rob Davies and Johan van Jaarsveld. All four are experienced in raptor conservation and have been engaged in research projects on various eagle species. Their assistance is greatly appreciated. Linda Paxton provided valuable comments on the text and overall concept. Additional comments on an earlier draft were provided by Tisha Greyling, Dave Johnson, John Ledger, Kenneth Newman and Warwick Tarboton. Fifi Bierman translated the text into Afrikaans and, together with Linda Paxton, proofread the final copy. Finally, a big thank you to Omnia for their generous sponsorship of the printing of this booklet which will hopefully become an effective means of changing attitudes towards eagles and thus contribute to their conservation. Zelda Hudson was responsible for the revision of the newest edition in 2012.

Published by the Endangered Wildlife Trust:ISBN: 0 620 11147 X© 1987. 7th Imprint, 2012.

Photographs: André Botha

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Pale Chanting Goshawk

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This booklet was printed by

The Endangered Wildlife Trust was established in 1973 and is registered as a Non-profit Organisation. Registration number 015-502 NPO and PBO number 930 001 777. The EWT is 501 (c) (3) compliant, US IRS Reg. EMP98-0586801.

Private Bag X11, Modderfontein, 1645Tel: +27 11 372 3600 Fax: +27 11 608 4682

www.ewt.org.za