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The impact of the The impact of the First World WarFirst World War

History of Germany History of Germany Lecture 5Lecture 5

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ScheduleSchedule1.1. The Road to WarThe Road to War2.2. The Course of the War 1914-1917The Course of the War 1914-19173.3. Hate PropagandaHate Propaganda4.4. Victory and DefeatVictory and Defeat5.5. The Home FrontThe Home Front6.6. RevolutionRevolution7.7. Conclusion: Lasting Conclusion: Lasting

ConsequencesConsequences

Foreign Policy of William IIForeign Policy of William II

New Course: ‘place in the sun’, world power, dominance New Course: ‘place in the sun’, world power, dominance on continenton continent

Great Britain: Germany tries in vain to win over GB to Great Britain: Germany tries in vain to win over GB to form an alliance, conflicts in colonial questions, navy form an alliance, conflicts in colonial questions, navy policy, GB forms Entente Cordiale with France in 1904policy, GB forms Entente Cordiale with France in 1904

France: containment fails (Morocco), France no longer France: containment fails (Morocco), France no longer isolated, conflicts: Alsace-Lorraine, German dominance isolated, conflicts: Alsace-Lorraine, German dominance in Central Europe, colonial questionsin Central Europe, colonial questions

Russia: refuses to renew Reinsurance Treaty, makes an Russia: refuses to renew Reinsurance Treaty, makes an alliance between France and Russia (1892) and England alliance between France and Russia (1892) and England and Russia (1907) possibleand Russia (1907) possible

Austria: supports Austrian policy on Balkans Austria: supports Austrian policy on Balkans Italy: Triple Alliance (Austria, Germany, Italy) 1882Italy: Triple Alliance (Austria, Germany, Italy) 1882

Armamentsrace

Alliancesystems

War fever No peacepolicy

Nationalism

Imperialism

Sarajevo

July Crisis

Austria decides to go to war against Serbia

German blank cheque to Austria

French blank cheque to Russia

General Russian mobilisation

German ultimatum to Russia and France

Germany declares war on Russia and France, dynamics of alliances

German invasion in Belgium England declares war on Germany

• War was forced upon Germany – traditional German view

• All nations were equally responsible, pessimistic view of inevitability of war widespread, fatal automatism of alliance systems – alternative German view

• Germany and Austria-Hungary were alone responsible – view of Allies

• German government, military & economic elites were preparing for war at least since 1912 – aim: world power and territorial gains in the east and the west (Fritz Fischer) ‘Fischer Controversy’

• Social imperialism – traditional elites feel under pressure to change social and political order to prevent reform – wage war to divert attention from domestic problems, overcome polarisation of German society (Hans-Ulrich Wehler)

Interpretations

Government (Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg): wage a limited war to stabilise alliance system and political system, taking the risk of a major war but not wanting it. Playing with fire

Army (Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke): wage a preventive war as early as possible before military strength of Russia and France becomes overwhelming (expected to be the case in 1916)

Right-wing nationalists, conservatives and some industrialists: fear of revolution or victory of Social Democrats in next election. Either revocation of universal male suffrage, suppression of Social Democracy and dictatorial rule or end of old political and social order, universal suffrage for Prussian Landtag, responsibility of government to the Reichstag, perhaps social revolution

Intellectuals, some of the middle class: cultural pessimism, expectation of war, rejuvenation of nation, new exciting time

victorious war – best way to solve the stalemate, stabilising effect, national unity,

Interpretations

Was the German Empire doomed?Was the German Empire doomed?YESYES

Polarisation of societyPolarisation of society Semi-absolutist constitutionSemi-absolutist constitution Conservatives not willing to Conservatives not willing to

reform political systemreform political system Isolation of Social DemocracyIsolation of Social Democracy Strength of reactionary Strength of reactionary

agrarian elitesagrarian elites Political weakness of middle Political weakness of middle

classesclasses Radicalisation of nationalismRadicalisation of nationalism Role of radical non-Role of radical non-

parliamentarian pressure parliamentarian pressure groupsgroups

Irresponsible personal rule of Irresponsible personal rule of Emperor (advisors)Emperor (advisors)

Role of arch-conservative Role of arch-conservative Prussia (see suffrage) and its Prussia (see suffrage) and its bureaucrats – retarding factorbureaucrats – retarding factor

Prussian Army – growing role, Prussian Army – growing role, not controlled by parliamentnot controlled by parliament

NONO Rule of lawRule of law Universal suffrageUniversal suffrage Largely free pressLargely free press Growing role of parliament and Growing role of parliament and

increasing self-confidence of increasing self-confidence of deputiesdeputies

Begin of constructive role of Begin of constructive role of social-democratic deputies in social-democratic deputies in parliament / cooperation with parliament / cooperation with left liberalsleft liberals

Growing strength of SPD as Growing strength of SPD as democratic party, loss of democratic party, loss of revolutionary driverevolutionary drive

Recommended reading: Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth, and Mobilization in Germany (New York, 2000)

AUGUST 1914

“during the days of mobilization the society (Gesellschaft) which had existed transformed itself into

a community (Gemeinschaft).” The German sociologist Emil Lederer in 1915

"How the artist, the soldier in the artist, would have praised God for the collapse of the peaceful world, with

which he was so fed up, so utterly fed up. War! We found it cleansing, freeing, and a monstrous hope. Of this the

poets spoke, only of this.“

Thomas Mann in 1914

“I thank you from the bottom of my heart for the expression of your

loyalty and your esteem. When it comes to war, all parties cease and we are all brothers. One or

another party has attacked me in peacetime, but now I forgive them wholeheartedly. If our neighbours

do not give us peace, then we hope and wish that our good

German sword will come victorious out of this war!”

Speech of Emperor Wilhelm II from the Balcony of the Royal Palace, Berlin, August 1, 1914

“A momentous hour has struck for Germany. Envious rivals

everywhere force us to legitimate defense. The sword has been

forced into our hands… And so I commend you to God. Go forth into the churches, kneel down

before God, and implore his help for our brave army.”

Speech of Wilhelm II from the Balcony of the Royal Palace, Berlin, July 31, 1914

Germania, Friedrich August von Kaulbach 1914, 192 x 147 cm DHM, Berlin

Take up the sword of justiceSir John Bernard Partridge, 1914-1918152 x 98.6 cm

Graf von Schlieffen 28.02.1833 04.01.1913

The Western Front 1914The Western Front 1914

Machine guns in a trench, preparing an attack on Fort St. Catherine 1915

Warfare on the Western Warfare on the Western FrontFront

Forest near Ypern

Ruins of Lens

Poison Gas

British soldiers blinded by an attack of poison gas lined up awaiting treatment

1916

Verdun

Verdun 1916

FracturesFractures

Ernst Jünger

Storm of Steel

Battle as inner experience 1922

In battle, the animal ascends as the secret horror at the soul’s base, shooting high as a consuming flame, an irresistible rapture that intoxicates the masses, a godhead enthroned above the hosts...

We’ve been harnessed and chiselled, but we are also such as swing the hammer and guide the chisel, we are at once the smith and the flashing steel

Erich Maria Remarque

Otto Dix: The Attacker, 1916

The Eastern Front 1914-The Eastern Front 1914-19171917

191519161917

Souvenez-vous!Remember!Paris, 1917

Destroy this mad brute / Enlist U.S. ArmyUSA, 1917/18

Anti-German UnionLondon, founded 1915

We Barbarians1914-1918DHM, Berlin

Are We Barbarians?Berlin, 1914-1918

“French and Russian, they matter not,A blow for a blow, a shot for a shot,

We fight the battle with bronze and steel,And the time that is coming Peace will seal.

You we will hate with a lasting hate,We will never forego our hate,

Hate by water and hate by land,Hate of the head and hate of the hand,

Hate of the hammer and hate of the crown,Hate of seventy millions choking down.

We love as one, we hate as one,We have one foe and one alone--

ENGLAND!”

Hasslied by Ernst Lissauer (excerpt). Originally published in Jugend, 1914, translated by Barbara Henderson in The New York Times.

Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg Erich Ludendorff

Revolutions in Russia

Alexander Kerenski Vladimir I. Lenin

Brest-Litovsk, February 1918

German reserves advancing through St Quentin.

German Spring Offensive 1918

Mobilisation for ‘total war’ Mobilisation for ‘total war’ II

Measures Measures FailuresFailures War financed by printing money and War financed by printing money and

war loanswar loans Taxation of war profits only in 1916Taxation of war profits only in 1916 Fiscal privileges of Junkers continue Fiscal privileges of Junkers continue

unabatedunabated 16% of cost of war was met by

taxation Black marketBlack market Fall of real wages (20% in war Fall of real wages (20% in war

industry, 40% in other branches) industry, 40% in other branches)

uneven distribution of burden – unfair uneven distribution of burden – unfair Inflation: in 1918 the German mark had lost 75% of its value

Mobilisation for ‘total war’ Mobilisation for ‘total war’ II Measures II Measures

FailuresFailures War Raw Materials Office: War Raw Materials Office:

coordination of industrial productscoordination of industrial products Food rationing in 1915Food rationing in 1915 War Food Office 1916War Food Office 1916 Substitutes – clothes with paper fibresSubstitutes – clothes with paper fibres Gaps in the labour force filled by Gaps in the labour force filled by

women (emancipation – double women (emancipation – double burden)burden)

Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Government could conscript workers Government could conscript workers and decide where they should workand decide where they should work

‘‘Dictatorship’ of OHL – Hindenburg Dictatorship’ of OHL – Hindenburg and Ludendorff – loss of influence for and Ludendorff – loss of influence for civil government – strengthening of civil government – strengthening of army influencearmy influence

Scarcity of clothing, soap, foodScarcity of clothing, soap, food Agricultural production fell, meat Agricultural production fell, meat

consumption only 12% of pre-war levelconsumption only 12% of pre-war level Malnutrition and starvation – ‘turnip Malnutrition and starvation – ‘turnip

winter’ 1916/17 (consequence: up to winter’ 1916/17 (consequence: up to 750,000 dead)750,000 dead)

Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ (victorious peace) with far reaching (victorious peace) with far reaching war aims, pro peace without war aims, pro peace without contributions and annexationscontributions and annexations

Middle Classes: pauperisation, living Middle Classes: pauperisation, living conditions closer to working class – conditions closer to working class – but many now more nationalist, angst but many now more nationalist, angst (loss of status) (loss of status)

Working Class: spontaneous strikes in Working Class: spontaneous strikes in 1916 and 19171916 and 1917

War EconomyWar Economy

Women workers in ammunition factory Child`s vest

Clothes made out of substitute materials, 1916/17, Paper

First urban mobile kitchen (Gulaschkanone) in BerlinBerlin, around 1916

Anstehen nach Lebensmittelnum 1917

Queuing for food, 1917

Political events 1916-1917Political events 1916-1917 1916 War of attrition in the west1916 War of attrition in the west 1917 Blockade and submarine 1917 Blockade and submarine

warfarewarfare 1917 USA enter the war1917 USA enter the war 1917 (Feb./Oct.) Russian 1917 (Feb./Oct.) Russian

RevolutionsRevolutions

Dictatorship of OHL (Hindenburg, Dictatorship of OHL (Hindenburg, Ludendorff)Ludendorff)

Hunger winter of 1916/17Hunger winter of 1916/17 Founding of USPD (Peace Now)Founding of USPD (Peace Now) Reichstag – across party lines Reichstag – across party lines

(constitutional reform, ‘Peace (constitutional reform, ‘Peace Resolution’)Resolution’)

War wearinessWar weariness Looking for scapegoats: Looking for scapegoats:

– Jews (growing – Jews (growing anti-Semitism) anti-Semitism) – Social Democrats– Social Democrats

“…The Reichstag strives for a peace of understanding and a lasting reconciliation of peoples. Any violations of territory,

and political, economic, and financial persecutions are incompatible with such a peace.

…However, as long as the enemy governments refuse to agree to such a peace, as long as they threaten Germany and her allies with conquest and domination, so long will the German

people stand united and unshaken, and they will fight until their right and that of their allies are made secure.

…”

Verhandlungen des Deutschen Reichstages, July 19, 1917On July 19th, Reichstag Deputy Matthias Erzberger introduced a peace

resolution which was passed, 212 votes to 126

Political events 1918Political events 1918 1918 US President 1918 US President

Woodrow Wilson: 14 PointsWoodrow Wilson: 14 Points 1918 (March) Peace Treaty 1918 (March) Peace Treaty

of Brest-Litovskof Brest-Litovsk 1918 Spring Offensive1918 Spring Offensive Collapse of the Western Collapse of the Western

front from August 8, 1918front from August 8, 1918

Strikes of armaments Strikes of armaments workers (January): peace workers (January): peace and democracyand democracy

Preparation of Armistice: Preparation of Armistice: majority of parties in majority of parties in governmentgovernment

Reform in October, Reform in October, parlamentarisation of parlamentarisation of constitutionconstitution

Demand: abdication of the Demand: abdication of the EmperorEmperor

GGuussttaavv NNoosskkee ((xx)) vvoorr MMaattrroosseenn iinn KKiieell

aamm 88..NNoovveemmbbeerr





Gustav Noske (x) Gustav Noske (x) addressing addressing

sailors sailors in Kiel in Kiel

on November 8on November 8

Strikes

Philipp Scheidemann proclaiming the republic in front of the ReichstagBerlin, 9.11.1918, DHM, Berlin

Friedrich Ebert1925

Karl Liebknecht

Street fighting in BerlinSpartacists, postcard, Berlin, January 1919

Elections for the National Assembly, 19.01.1919

Party Party Votes Votes DNVPDNVP 10.30%10.30%DVPDVP 4.40%4.40%Zentrum (Christliche Zentrum (Christliche Volkspartei)Volkspartei) 19.70%19.70%

DDPDDP 18.50%18.50%SPDSPD 37.90%37.90%USPDUSPD 7.60%7.60%OtherOther 1.60%1.60%

CASUALTIES OF THE WORLD WAR

Known dead Seriously wounded

Otherwise wounded

Prisoners or missing

Russia 2,762,064 1,000,000 3,950,000 2,500,000 Germany 1,611,104 1,600,000 2,183,143 772,522 France 1,427,800 700,000 2,344,000 453,500 Austria-Hungary 911,000 850,000 2,150,000 443,000 Great Britain 807,451 617,714 1,441,394 64,907 Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 100,000 Italy 507,160 500,000 462,196 1,359,000 Turkey 436,924 107,772 300,000 103,731 Rumania 339,117 200,000 ...... 116,000 Belgium 267,000 40,000 100,000 10,000 United States 107,284 43,000 148,000 4,912 Bulgaria 101,224 300,000 852,339 10,825 Greece 15,000 10,000 30,000 45,000 Portugal 4,000 5,000 12,000 200 Japan 300 ........ 907 3 Total 9,998,771 6,295,512 14,002,039 5,983,600

Lasting Consequences of War

• Parlamentarization and Democratization • Persistence of economic structures and power of old elites• Dolchstoßlegende – myth of the “stab in the back”

The stab in the back (Poster of the DNVP), 1924

“Our repeated requests (to the government) for strict discipline and strict laws were never met. Thus our operations were bound to fail and the collapse had to come: the revolution was only the last straw. An English general rightly said, ´The German army was stabbbed in the back.´ No blame is to be attached to the sound core of the army. Its performances call like that of the officer corps for equal admiration. It is perfectly plain on whom to blame rests.“Hindenburg in a report to a government commission, November 1919

„We have lost the war. This fact is not a consequence of the revolution. Ladies and Gentlemen, it was the Imperial Government of Prince Max of Bade which made arrangements for the armistice which disarmed us. After the collapse of our allies and in view of the military and economic situation there was nothing else it could do. The revolution refused to accept the responsibility for the misery into which the German people were plunged by the mistaken policy of the old regime and the irresponsible over-confidence of the militarists (generals).“ Friedrich Ebert´s address to the Weimar Constituent Assembly, February 1919

Lasting Consequences of War

• Parlamentarization and Democratization • Persistence of economic structures and power of old elites• Dolchstoßlegende – myth of the “stab in the back”• Split of the workers movement: SPD – KPD• Strong right wing forces • Germany as a revisionist power• Revanchism and hate• Economy: Inflation and reparations, loss of industrial territory

Bad starting point for first German democracy

duitsland en de grote oorlog

Documents

germany war

war widespread

expectation of war

limited war

preventive war

major war

reform wage war

social order