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DRIVING CESSATION: THEPERSPECTIVE OF SENIORDRIVERSMonica S. Yassuda a , Jennifer J. Wilson b &Otto von Mering ca Department of Psychology , University ofFlorida , Gainesville Florida, USAb Department of Counselor Education ,University of Florida , Gainesville Florida, USAc Department of Anthropology , University ofFlorida , Gainesville Florida, USAPublished online: 03 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Monica S. Yassuda , Jennifer J. Wilson & Otto von Mering(1997) DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE OF SENIOR DRIVERS, EducationalGerontology, 23:6, 525-538, DOI: 10.1080/0360127970230603

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVEOF SENIOR DRIVERS

Monica S. YassudaDepartment of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA

Jennifer J. WilsonDepartment of Counselor Education, University of Florida,

Gainesville, Florida, USA

Otto von MeringDepartment of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA

Most adult Americans are overattached to and dependent on the private automobile.Because of the lack of appropriate alternative transportation in many areas of thecountry and the cultural value of the private car, older drivers may face a challengingtransition when they need to consider driving cessation. In the year 2020, approxi-mately 17% of the American population will be at least 65 years old, and approximately50 million older adults will be driving. Driving and driving cessation, therefore, arecritical gerontological issues, and the present study was designed to examine them, indetail. Focus group interviews were conducted with 59 drivers and nondrivers (meanage of 80 years) to elicit perceptions about driving and driving cessation. An open-coding methodology was used to perform content analysis on participants' statementsand to identify common issues of concern. Results revealed that most older drivers wereconcerned with driving management (i.e., ways of extending safe driving) and werereluctant to plan for driving cessation. They also indicated that they perceived drivingas a necessity, as there was a considerable lack of suitable transportation alternatives.Driving was clearly associated with feelings of independence and freedom for thissample. Participants also frequently mentioned the importance of safety issues andhealth factors for older drivers. An educational intervention to aid older drivers in self-evaluating driving skills and coping with the driving cessation dilemma is proposed.

THE PROBLEM

It is difficult to overstate the importance of the private automobile for theautomobile-dependent American society. Recent and contemporary urbanzoning practices and public transportation policies have catapulted theprivate car into its role as the preeminent means of individual transporta-tion. Concurrently, the automobile, rather than becoming a liberating

This project was supported by a grant from the University of Florida Division ofSponsored Research (92.117). We wish to thank Holly S. Kaplan, Kelly Gardner, and MichelleDonnelly for their invaluable assistance during this research. We also thank the senior citi-zens who kindly volunteered to participate in the study.

Address correspondence to Otto von Mering, University of Florida, Department ofAnthropology, 1350 Turlington Hall, P.O. Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611-7305, USA.

Educational Gerontology, 23:525-538, 1997 5 2 5Copyright © 1997 Taylor & Francis

0360-1277/97 $12.00 +.00

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526 M. S.YASSUDAETAL.

force in the performance of ordinary activities of daily life, has madeeveryone its dependent. In the state of Florida, for instance, 77% of alltrips to work are made by a private car with a single driver (Bureau ofEconomic and Business Research, 1995).

Increasingly, the automobile is not just seen as a shining symbol of per-sonal freedom and competence. For the teenager, possession of a driver'slicense may mean normal membership in American society. For mostadults and especially retirees, however, the suspension of driving privi-leges or the lack of access to a car implies social disability and dependencyon others to meet the demands of everyday living (von Mering, Donnelly, &Kaplan, 1994).

Being overattached to and dependent on the private vehicle has createdan American "car culture." However, this dependency is problematic for thesenior driver who is experiencing declines in sensory or motor functions.Because of the lack of feasible alternative transportation in many areas ofthe country and the cultural value of the private car, older drivers face aheroic task when they are confronted with the need to consider drivingcessation.

There are several purposes of the present study. The first is to examinesenior drivers' perceptions of driving cessation in more detail than hasbeen seen in the literature previously. The second aim is to inquire whetherolder adults, in fact, plan ahead for "retirement from the road," or if theymerely postpone this decision until it becomes inevitable, or until it isforced on them. A critical related focus of this study is to solicit percep-tions regarding particular age-linked difficulties of driving and what kindsof self-corrective means are recognized as necessary for remaining a"safer" senior driver. The final purpose is to explore the quality of lifeissues of personal independence and identity in relation to designing edu-cational approaches to prevent "premature" or forced driving cessation atthe hands of others.

BACKGROUND

Research evidence suggests that, in general, the physical capabilities nec-essary for safe driving begin to diminish by the age of 55 years and declinemarkedly after age 75 (Persson, 1993). Although older drivers rank secondin total number of crashes (drivers ages 15 to 24 years rank first), they havethe highest number of crashes per miles driven. In addition, motor vehiclecrashes are the leading cause of accidental death for those aged 65 to 74years. They are the second cause of death for those older than 75 years(falls are first), because older victims of car accidents are three times morelikely to die from serious injuries (National Research Council, 1988). Olderdrivers also represent 9% of licensed drivers in the United States, but they

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE 527

make up 13% of all traffic fatalities, 13% of all vehicle occupant fatalities,and 18% of all pedestrian fatalities (United States Department ofTransportation, 1994). In the year 2020, it is predicted that 17% of theAmerican population will be older than 65 years. The aging of Americandrivers, therefore, will pose major challenges for transportation policymakers regarding regulation of driving privileges and meeting the mobilityneeds of nondriving older adults.

Although driving cessation is a crucial gerontological issue, to date ithas received only limited academic attention. In particular, relatively littleis known about the psychological repercussions of driving cessation forthe elderly. A review of the literature yielded three studies that examinedthe psychosocial problems surrounding driving cessation for older people.Using focus group interviews, one of these studies (Persson, 1993)explored how and when ex-drivers decided to stop driving and the role offamily and physicians in this decision. There were 56 participants, with amean age of 81 years, who were recruited from retirement communitiesproviding continuum care. Most older drivers were found to believe thatthey should make the decision to stop driving. Two driving cessation pat-terns were identified: a gradual change in driving behavior to compensatefor physical losses and to decrease risks (exhibited by 80% of participants),and sudden interruption caused by a disabling event, such as a stroke or amajor accident.

Another study examined the symbolic function of holding a driver'slicense among a group of 50 older adults (Eisenhandler, 1990). Possessionof a license seemed most important to the older individual as a basic per-sonal and social identification. Most participants were drivers, and half ofthem indicated the use of self-imposed restrictions on their driving behav-ior, such as driving only during daylight, good weather, and during times oflight traffic. Senior adults in the study were reluctant to address safety con-cerns directly, associated public transportation with dependency, derived asense of control and independence from driving, and experienced isolationas a result of the inability to drive.

Still another report confirmed that older adults derive a sense of identi-fication and independence from driving (Gillins, 1990). The American cul-tural norm of reliance on automobiles for autonomy and personal survivalwas felt keenly and expressed whenever the issue of the loss of the driver'srole was considered.

A recent large survey carried out in England (Rabbitt, Carmichel, Jones,& Holland, 1996) examined current drivers' plans for retirement from dri-ving and ex-drivers' reasons for having retired. Results from the surveyindicated that "about a third of respondents who are still driving say thatthey intend to carry on driving until obliged to stop by circumstanceswhich are both beyond their control and unforeseeable [sic] at present"

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528 M. S. YASSUDA ET AL.

(Rabbitt et al., 1996, p. 47). This determination to carry on driving also wasevidenced by the finding that current drivers produced an averageintended age of retirement approximately 7 years higher than the averageage at which ex-drivers actually gave up driving. Both drivers and ex-driversin this English sample perceived driving as an aid to independence andmobility, and 50% of ex-drivers reported that public transportation wasinadequate.

In sum, previous studies suggest that, for older adults, driving is associ-ated with feelings of independence, control, and a sense of identity. In addi-tion, the literature suggests that a significant number of senior drivers arereluctant to plan for driving cessation.

THE PRESENT STUDY

A series of group interview sessions were designed and implemented toaddress the primary purposes of this study. Focus group methodology waschosen because clarification of the issues surrounding driving cessationwas a primary goal, hi exploratory research projects, the use of focusgroup methodology enables participants to "react to and build upon theresponses of other group members... [resulting in] a synergistic effect ofthe group setting [that] may result in the production of data or ideas thatmight not have been uncovered in individual interviews" (Stewart &Shamdasani, 1990, p. 16). Indeed, this approach falls entirely within thecurrent revival of interest among gerontological researchers (e.g.,Hartranft, 1992) to generate rich qualitative data that yield "the views andopinions of the major actors themselves, namely the elderly" (Knodel,1995, p. 1). Finally, the present approach focused on eliciting reflection onactual driving performance to overcome the inherent expressive limita-tions of survey or questionnaire data used in other studies of older persons'driving habits (Goggin & Keller, 1996).

Content analysis was used to examine the patterns or, rather, the explicitand implicit salience of verbal exchanges among focus group participants.This form of content analysis had its roots in quantitative newspaper analy-sis, which examined public opinion and attitudes in the public media beforeand during World War n. More recently, it has been used in numerous socialscience fields and product marketing for corporations. In psychology, it hasbeen used to examine motivational and personality characteristics in verbalrecords, as a method to gather data from open-ended questions, and tounderstand group behavior through the analysis of verbal exchanges. Socialscientists have used content analysis to analyze myths, folktales, and rid-dles. Educators also have used it extensively. Content analysis, therefore,has evolved into a scientific method that yields reliable inferences from ver-bal, symbolic, and communicative data (Krippendorf, 1980).

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE 529

Method

Fourteen focus group interviews were conducted with 59 drivers and non-drivers. Ten meetings took place at three upper-middle class retirementcommunities (40 participants) in a North Florida university town. Theother four group meetings, involving 19 participants, took place at a healthmaintenance organization. Participants ranged in age from 62 to 94 years,with a mean age of 80 years. They were mostly women (70%), and mostparticipants were current drivers (81%).

The group meetings lasted approximately 50 minutes. On average, 4 par-ticipants attended each meeting, ranging from 2 to 6 people per group. Thediscussion was guided by a moderator whose tasks were to ensure the par-ticipation of all attendees and to cue the verbal exchanges so that generalissues of driving would be the focus of the discussion. The moderatorsmade use of a predetermined list of prompts, which included general ques-tions about driving habits and transportation needs, age-related changes indriving habits, driving cessation, and safety concerns. The sessions alsowere attended by a research assistant who took field notes and audiotapedthe discussion.

An open-coding methodology, which is the naming and categorizing ofverbal exchanges through close examination of data, was utilized for iden-tification of general topics (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). First, two codersindependently listened to the first two audiotaped sessions and generatedlists of topics related to driving that were mentioned most frequently bythe focus group participants. An original list of 68 potential topics was col-lapsed by the researchers into half that number. These 34 topics were thengrouped into the following nine recurring themes: driving cessationissues, safety issues, health factors, independence issues, solutions, drivereducation, stereotypes, licensing procedures, driving cessation decisionmaker, and other. The coding methodology consisted of the coders inde-pendently counting the frequency of topic in the participants' statementsabout driving. The frequency, or reoccurrence, of a certain topic was inter-preted as a measure of the importance, attention, or emphasis on a topic(Krippendorf, 1980).

Before the actual coding started, the two coders independently codedthe first two audiotaped sessions to gain familiarity with the codingscheme. During this training phase, the coders consulted with each otherwhen they encountered ambiguous statements made by focus group par-ticipants. This collaboration facilitated the coders' ability to learn how toclassify statements made by participants into the list of topics and themes,thereby facilitating the reliability of interpretation of data. Subsequently,the coders scored two other audiotaped sessions independently of oneanother and calculated the reliability. The coders agreed most of the time

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(i.e., reliability was approximately 70%), and the actual range of coding dis-agreement was narrowly restricted to the number of times the coderscounted the occurrence of a topic within a participant's running statement.That is, when a participant made several remarks about a topic within arunning statement or "speech burst" (i.e., more than 1 minute in length)coders tended to disagree on the frequency of the occurrence of the topic.

Results

When coding was completed, the occurrence of each topic was calculatedfor all 14 sessions. Subsequently, the frequency of each theme was derivedby adding the frequency of all topics classified under that theme.Percentages of theme frequency of all statements coded during the sessionsand percentages of topic frequency of all statements coded within a certaintheme were then calculated. Table. 1 presents the frequency and percentagetotals of each theme for all focus group sessions, and Table 2 presents thefrequency and percentage totals for each topic within the themes.

As Table 1 indicates, the driving cessation issues theme represented 40% ofall the statements coded throughout the meetings. Within this theme, thetopic most frequently alluded to was driving management (see Table 2),accounting for 48% of responses within this theme. As defined in this study,driving management consists of ways to reduce risks and extend safe driving,such as avoidance of night driving, rush hour traffic, bad weather, or makingleft turns. (Commonly, responses dealing with this driving issue revealed par-ticipants' concern with self-evaluative questions such as: "Do headlightsbother my eyes?", "Do I tire when doing a long trip?," and "Do I have difficultyjudging the speed of approaching traffic?"). The second most popular topic

TABLE 1 Frequency and percentage totals for themes

Theme

Driving cessation issuesSafety issuesHealth factorsIndependence issuesSolutionsDriver educationStereotypesLicensing proceduresDriving cessation decision makerOtherTotal number of statements coded

Frequency

335999186454435272485

834

Percentage

4011111055433

10100

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE 531

TABLE 2 Frequency and percentage totals for topics within themes

Themes/Topics

Driving cessation issuesDriving managementAlternative transportationPreparation for changeResistance to changeLevel of emotion about change

Safety issuesAccidentsSituational dangersNervousness as driver/passengerFear for personal/other's safety

Health FactorsSensory changesNeurological changesMotor changesMedicationGeneral health

Independence issuesDependence on othersCar as provider of independenceCar as self-esteem enhacer

SolutionsOffered suggestionNo suggestion offered

Driver educationPositive perceptionsNeutral perceptionsNegative perceptions

StereotypesYounger driversOlder drivers

Licensing proceduresUnsatisfiedSatisfied

Driving cessation decision makingOthersSelf

OtherMiscellaneousCar maintenanceCar typeRaceCity versus country drivingGender

Total number of statements coded

Frequency

3351617755339

99383217129147191654

8635331845405

442815

13522132726

124159

85331611997

834

Percentage

482317103

38321712

52211864

413821

8911

6434

2

6337

964

6338

39191311118

100

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within the driving cessation issues theme, representing 23% of responses, wasalternative transportation, which included discussions about existing substi-tutes for the private car. The participants also mentioned preparation forchange and resistance to change, which accounted for 17% and 10%, respec-tively, of responses within the driving cessation issues theme. Fewerresponses were made representing the topic of level of emotion aboutchange, which represented 3% of the statements within this theme.

The high number of responses categorized under the driving cessationissues theme may be explained by the fact that 81% of the participants werecurrent drivers and a significant number was planning to stay behind thewheel, as suggested by the high frequency of the driving managementtopic. Most drivers in this sample seemed more concerned with the main-tenance of safe driving skills as opposed to planning for "retirement fromthe road."

Safety issues represented 11% of all statements coded (see Table 1).Within this theme, participants most frequently referred to accidents (acci-dents or near-accidents either experienced or witnessed) and situationaldangers (dangers of being out on the road, such as having a flat tire, amechanical problem, and needing assistance), accounting for 38% and 32%of responses, respectively, as seen in Table 2. Nervousness as a driver orpassenger and fear for personal or others' safety accounted for 17% and 12%,respectively, of the responses categorized under this theme. After drivingcessation issues, safety factors are a major concern of senior drivers.

Health factors, that is, health changes that could serve as an early dri-ving cessation signal, represented 11% of all coded statements (see Table 1).Within this theme (see Table 2), sensory changes were mentioned mostfrequently (52%), followed by neurological changes (e.g., memory; 21%)and motor changes (e.g., decreased head mobility; 18%). General health(4%) and medication (i.e., the effect of medication on driving; 6%) werementioned less frequently. When discussing what health changes shouldtell the driver to consider driving cessation, changes in vision and hearingwere the ones cited most frequently by participants.

The fourth most frequently mentioned theme was independence issues,which represented 10% of all statements made throughout the meetings(see Table 1). As seen in Table 2, this theme consisted of the following top-ics: "dependence on others" (41%), car as provider of independence (38%),and car as self-esteem enhancer (21%). In general, when addressing thistopic, participants expressed the view that driving cessation meant depen-dence on other people and most regarded this as undesirable. In addition,an overwhelming majority agreed the car was a source of independenceand freedom.

Solutions represented 5% of all responses (see Table 1). Most of the top-ics (89%) within this theme referred to participants' suggestions for

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE 533

improved driving conditions for seniors. A frequently mentioned suggestionwas the improvement in the visibility of road signs.

Driver education represented 5% of all statements as seen in Table 1.Within this theme, 64% of the coded statements reflected positive viewsof the available driver education courses (e.g., the American Associationof Retired People 55 Alive), 34% reflected neutral opinions, and 2% reflec-ted negative views. Therefore, most participants seemed to favor drivereducation courses as a means of extending safe driving.

Stereotypes accounted for 4% of all responses (see Table 1). Most topicswithin this theme referred to the stereotyping of young drivers (63%). Forexample, some participants described younger drivers as "speeders" andcareless. Some responses (38%) also characterized older drivers in astereotypical manner, such as slow and overly cautious.

A limited amount of time was dedicated to the licensing procedures (3%)theme. When the theme was introduced, however, almost all the state-ments (96%) reflected dissatisfaction with the current licensing system.Participants stated that the current system does not help them to decidewhether they should remain driving or "retire from the road." They alsocommented that they are not tested frequently enough, and the examina-tion is far from comprehensive; only visual acuity is tested formally.License renewal by mail was a concern for some participants.

Driving cessation decision maker accounted for 3% of all statementscoded as seen in Table 1. Despite the relatively small number of remarkscategorized under this theme, most responses (63%) expressed the viewthat driving cessation decisions should be made by others.

The topics that did not fit into any of the themes used for coding wereincluded in the theme of other, which represented 10% of all statements(see Table 1). These topics (see Table 2) were car maintenance, car type,race, city versus country driving, gender, and miscellaneous (topics thatoccurred only once or twice).

Discussion

The present study, using focus group interviews, examined senior drivers'and nondrivers' perceptions about driving and driving cessation. Contentanalysis was used to explore participants' statements and to identify com-mon issues of concern. The theme of driving cessation issues was by farthe most frequently discussed theme in the focus groups. Safety issues,health factors, and independence issues were other areas of participantconcern. Less frequently mentioned were solutions, driver education,stereotypes, licensing procedures, and driving cessation decision maker.

Interestingly, the driving cessation issues theme may be somewhat of amisnomer. Focus group participants' statements referring to this theme

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indicated that their major concern was not cessation but driving manage-ment. Most of the time that was spent on this theme focused on ways ofremaining safely behind the wheel. Participants who were drivers revealeda propensity for maintaining their driving skills as opposed to making plansfor "retirement from the road." This was illustrated by the limited occur-rence of the topic preparation for change relative to the frequently dis-cussed driving management topic. Although they were not opposed tomaking changes in their current driving behavior, most senior drivers in thefocus groups planned to continue to drive for as long as possible or untilsevere physical limitations or accidents prompted them to stop. In agree-ment with previous studies (e.g., Rabbitt et al., 1996), one participant illus-trated this attitude in an extreme way: "They will pry my cold dead handsoff the wheel before I stop driving."

Participants expressed the view that driving cessation is not an optionbecause of the lack of feasible alternative transportation. Representativestatements included: "If you don't drive, transportation is a problem,""Driving is not a pleasure, it's a necessity," and "Walking is not an option—we are too far out of town." Another participant stated: "I think in theabsence of public transportation, to make it possible to live where we live,I don't think I would give up driving until it was forced... Even if I had anaccident and knew it was my fault, I think my attitude would be 'well, I'mgoing to be more careful'."

Another commonly expressed explanation for participants' reluctanceabout driving cessation was loss of independence. In agreement withextant literature (Eisenhandler, 1990; Hartranft, 1992; Rabbitt et al., 1996),participants frequently stated that driving was equated with being indepen-dent and self-reliant. As some seniors pointed out: "It would be a hard deci-sion—it means giving up your independence," "That's the reason we don'thave more public transportation in this country: the independent feelingthat driving your own automobile gives to everybody," and "The older youget, the less you want to give up control."

Although the topic of emotional issue did not occur frequently, indicat-ing that participants did not address the emotional aspects of driving ces-sation directly, driving cessation was positively an emotional issue for bothdrivers and nondrivers. Representative quotes were: "Only losing myhusband has been worse than losing my car," "It would be like dying," "Ilost part of my personhood," and "It would be like being in prison."

Safety issues and health factors were among the themes most frequentlymentioned by the participants. Discussion of safety issues, whichexpressed the idea of risk and vulnerability, acknowledged the fact that dri-ving encompasses potential danger to self or others. Health factors werediscussed primarily within the context of the sensory changes that accom-pany aging. Most participants indicated that decrements in vision and hear-

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DRIVING CESSATION: THE PERSPECTIVE 535

ing would signal the need to consider driving cessation or to effect drivingbehavioral change. The surprisingly low frequency of the medication topicmay indicate the lack of knowledge of the effects of drugs on driving,denial that drugs have any negative effect on driving, or even the belief thattaking medicine is part of "normal" aging.

Additionally, this study found that the focus group participants wantedother people to make the driving cessation decision for themselves andolder drivers in general. Family members, friends, or physicians were themost often mentioned as potential decision makers. This contrasted withPerrson's finding (1993) that older people wanted to be in control of thedecision to stop driving. Any interpretations about these findings, however,must be made with caution because of the small number of statements thatwere made concerning this theme. Future studies should further investi-gate the decision maker issue.

The findings of this study offer considerable information about the per-ceptions of older drivers; however, they must be interpreted with care.Because of the subjective nature of focus group results, Knodel (1995, p. 2)states that researchers need to be aware that "the typically small number oftotal participants and their purposive selection renders focus group datainappropriate for quantitative analysis beyond distinguishing more com-monly voiced views from those that are seldom mentioned." The presentsample comprised primarily white, middle-class individuals who lived inrelatively suburban geographical locales, and the lack of adequate publictransportation in the area was clearly an issue of concern. Therefore, thesefindings may not hold true for older adults living in more urban areas orlocations with efficient public transportation.

DRIVING CESSATION MANAGEMENT: A RECOMMENDATIONFOR EDUCATIONAL ACTION

In concert with previous research (Ball & Owsley, 1991; Cutler & Coward,1992; Godwin, 1989), the present findings suggest that driving is a very sig-nificant quality of life issue for older adults. Focus group results indicatethat most senior drivers do not consider driving cessation and, in fact, doeverything within their power to continue driving, regardless of their healthstatus. In agreement with previous reports (Eisenhandler, 1990), this studysuggests that senior drivers acknowledge age-related driving difficulties,and they attempt to compensate for them by reducing risky driving habits(e.g., avoiding night and rush hour driving, avoiding dangerous routes orturns). For the few participants who had "retired from the road," the act ofrelinquishing their driver status had been quite a profound experience.

Currently, there is little societal support to assist individuals to copewith this seemingly negative rite of passage in the later years of life. The

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study results suggest that a specific educational intervention program maybe needed to aid senior drivers with the physical, social, and psychologicalimplications of driving cessation. An educationally based intervention alsomay help senior drivers with the evaluation of their own driving skillsbecause the current licensing system does not seem to respond to the eval-uative needs of older people as expressed by the study participants. Todate, this kind of initiative within the field of educational gerontology hasreceived very little serious attention.

Some authors have proposed that resolution of the driving cessationdilemma can be attained by working through feelings of loss, creation ofa new support system, and adoption of new skills (Eisenhandler, 1990;Gillins, 1990). However, educational interventions making use of thestudy circle approach may prove most helpful in assisting older adultswith making this transition (Kurland, 1982; Oliver, 1987,1990). Accordingto the Study Circles Resource Center publication series (1990, 1991,1994), study circles consist of "a well-tested, practical and effectivemethod for adult learning and social change." This type of group inter-vention uses content-directed group discussions, problem awarenessraising, and role play activities. Among other methods, it has includedwritten and spoken exercises (e.g., the use of a driving diary as outlinedby Hutcherson, 1988), and humor, which may enhance the older adult'sperception of himself or herself.

Other positive aspects of study circles are that they involve discussionof the issues in a comfortable setting of interpersonal interaction, promot-ing self-directed learning, enhancement of self-esteem, and communica-tion skills. The group learning format might facilitate the identification ofproblematic driving situations and determining an appropriate time toretire from the road, and help select alternative means of transportation.The peer group setting also would provide the social support needed forthe decision-making process. Senior citizens are quite receptive to experi-ential learning programs that deal with physical and emotional fitnessissues other than those that concentrate on safe driving rules and habits, ahallmark of currently available driver education programs (Goggin &Keller, 1996). Overall, the present study indicates that older drivers havepositive perceptions of driving educational interventions.

In sum, this study has examined the perceptions and reflections ofolder individuals about driving and driving cessation issues within asmall group research context. In this sample, senior drivers and non-drivers expressed considerable reluctance about driving cessation andmuch more interest in driving management and methods for maintainingmobility. The study population associated driving with feelings of inde-pendence and self-worth. The authors recommend increased researchinvestment in the area of driving cessation management because driving

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is clearly a quality of life issue for older Americans. Future research castexplicitly within the conceptual frameworks of educational gerontologyis urged.

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