Multicultural Odysseys

Navigating the New lnternatìonalPolitics of Diversity

WiIl Kymlickâ

OXFORD

3

The Forms oÍ LiberalMulticulturalism

'thcre is Do tríivers.lly i.ccpte.l dehDition oÌ'liÌ)claL ÍnulliculhúaiÌsnÍ,and atry artèmpr to phvide â sinslc dcÂnition to en.oorpass àtl oÍ s

diflepnt Iòrns is ìikrly to bo toÒ lngoc to bc 6eluÌ. Wc.onld siy, ntrxamph, rhat libciâl nrúllìaltuÍâlisÍn ir thc vi€w tlrat stntes shooìd noto.ly uphold the fàdìilirr sct of.oftnÌon .i!il, t)olitjcal, and Íriâl riShtsof .jIizedship rhat arc p(neÌed nt all .])nstil(lionnl litFral denrd.(ies,but iho ldopt v ,ttr,s 8rÌ,t!sp.(ilìc ighr5 or poìnj.s that aÌe iÌÍ..dedto (coSniuc and ac.ó!ììmodâte thc distíìctiv( idetrrilie rnd aspiÉ1ion5of etl)noelluraÌ goups. llìis <lefrnilnrì is fair cnouglÌ, âs f.r âs it goet,but dNn1 hÌe us very Ía.

A n'ore hclpJulapp()ach to únd{Ìslandnrg ihe lo8ì.oI llberal multioltuÍaìirÌn is to únddttalü what it asà Í$porse k,, oÍwhal iÌ is â readion!8ainst. Aìl sìrú88lcs f(tr multi.ultuÌìlisrb slìrnÌ úì conünon a rcìedionof carlier nÌxlcls of lhe uiitáÍv, honlogenous nation slâtc. rn oÍdeÌ tourdeistand rlÌe idea oÍ a libeÍal nrulticuÌÌrtriìl denrocÍac, lherltorc, wcnerd lì^t to undcFtarÌd d'is older míxl(l of a homogcnoús nâti()ô slâte,ând whÌ il has l,cen.cj€ctc'j.

UnÌil rc(entl, hdl slatcs .rdnd th( woÍld hâve áspÍcd lo b.'natldrriatcí. lÌr ìhis mod.ì, tlìr slat€ was i rplicitly (and sonìctìiÌes cÌpli.itly) scen at lhe Frs'ssior oí ã domnnnÌ nalionil gotrl,, whió (s€dlhe state to privilcgÉ iis nhniity, lanSunge, hislory crlÌur., llieÍâlure,rnylhs, eligion, r.d $ on, .nd whi.h dclincd thc rtúc a\ ÌlF erpcsion of ils nationhoo(l. (lhis .lonrinrnt groLrl sis uÍì,rUy the mriüily,troúp, Itul ronìetÍnes r nìinorily wís abh b cslnhlisb dotrìinan(ee.B. whiLcs ìn South

^frica úúdcÍ thc rFrLhf rc8inÌc, or .ridlo (liles

in som. lnrii ^nÌcri.an

.otrnkis.ì Anlo.c irho dirl not klong lo

Makinq Sente of Liberal Multìculturalitú

l-

.

Ìlìe Forms of Libe.al Multiculturalism

this dorÌrinart national group wns subject to eith.r assimilation.rr

Therc is nothúig'naturaÌ'ibout such nation-stàtes. Very few courtrìesaround the world are hisloricaÌly mono nxtional (Ìceland, Portugal, and

the l(orcas are the most fteqüentlycitcd cxamples). LÌ most cou tries, thisideai (or ilÌusion) of natìonal homogeneity had to be activcly constructed

by the slate throuSìÌ a range of'nation-buildi'Ìg'policles that encouÊ

aged the p.efered national identity while sÌppÍessnrg any alteDativeìdcntitìcs. t'ubÌic poÌicies {ere oscd to pronÌote and consolidnte ã conÈ

mon nâtional lângúage, national hiÍoryand nìyLhoìo8-Ì, nationaÌ heÌoes,

nationaÌ symbols, a national Ììteranrre, a nrtional educaLion sysÌen, !national mcdia, a national miLitart in sonÌc cases a nationaÌ relision,.ìÌìdso on. Groups shich resisted these nationi lizing polici€s were subiect notonly to political disempow€.meÌìt, büt aho, typically, to econonric dis-

crimination and lo various fornÌs of 'd€ínograph ic engìneering' (e.9. PÍes_suring memìres of the gÍoup to dhPe6e, and/or Pro oting setdemcrt byDr€Ìnb€n of the domúÌani 8roup ìn the homeland ofindigenous/minoriLvgroups). TlÌese rnd other poìicies were ained at construcling the ideaÌ of

The pr€cise character ol these nation büilding polìcics has viied tìo.oúntrytocountry ândregìo. to rcgion.In most w€stern coúnftìes, there

ha!been a siDgÌe dominant ethnonational 8loup, forming â clearmãiorilyoithe populatìon (e.9. the GÌeeks in G.€ece, the CastiliaDs úÌ SPain, etc.),

and nation building policies have been used to iÌnpose this dominãntgroup's language and cultrre on dre rest of the Population. Sonìe oI lhepolicies adoplcd to a.hieve this Soal incìude;

the ccnlralization of politicaÌ power elinìinating pre-existing forms olì()caÌ sovercignty/âutonomy en joyed historically by minorily g.oúps,so that all important dccisions are made in a forum wbere the domìnant group foÍns a nLajodly;

the diffusion of üre dominant groupt lânguage ând culru.c throughnational cultlral institutions, incÌxding natjonal public medìa and

thc adoption ol siate tynbols cclebÍaLing th€ dominanr groúp5history, lÌeroes, and cúlrúc, retlected foÌ exanple in Lhe choice ofnationaì hoÌidays, or the nanring of srrccrs, buildings, nroulai.s,

the consÚuction of a unjlìed legâl and judiciaÌ s)5tem, op€ratins intlìe donììiant group3languaSe and using its l€gal traditlons, and th€âboìition ofary pre exìstiDg ÌeSalsysiem5 used bynÌnìority groups;

the adoption oi settlement policies which en(ourage membels ofthedoninant national group to settle in areas wÌrere minoriry Sroupshavc historically resided, so as to swamp tlìe minodties ever in their

the adoption of ìmmigration policÌes that Équirc knowledSe of the'nãtionaÌ' Ìanguage/history as a condition of gai. ing .i tizen slÌip, andthat often give a preference to inmigrants who share tlÌe same la -guâge/ religion, or cultüe as the doúìilrart group;

th€ seizure of landj, foreÍs, and litr€Ìies which ltcd to belong rominoity groups aÕd indigenous peoples, and declariÌìg them to be'mtional'resouÌces, tobe used for lhe berelìt of the nation.

I Thú cxchion ould tale rhe Íorm or cxcìNion fiótì ìe haÌ15 oÍ poweÌ withìn dìcstric (c.a. ihúush deúiat oÍ the votc, or othLÌ lon s ol rolitical dNmpowcrn.f,t), or itcouÌd ìitcralìy invorleex.lusion fiom thc tcÍibr! ot the nate, thoqt .aoal utÈtions onimnÌúÌâtiôn, or throq{h elhni. clensúg.

This is iust a sâÌnple of the poÌicies adopted nì westcm states: onc couÌdqúickly expand the list., But thc intended outcome of these policies isclear to cenftaìize all politicìl ând legal pow€i in lòrums dominàted b),the naÌority group; io privilege lhât gÍoup's language and culrur€ ìn alÌpublic institutiotrs, which aÍe then diftused throughout the terriÌory ofthe state; and to mâke minority langúages and cuÌtures invÌsìbÌe in puìrljc

Similar policies havc been adopted in most posrconnunist coun-tlies (e.9. Romania, Croatiâ), ând in most post,colonial conlcxrs wtì€reth€re is a numeÌically dominant €thnic group (e.9. MaÌaysia, Thaiìand,SÌi L1rka, Ethlopia, Sudan). The situatÌon ìs romewhat dlffcrcnr in those

I roÍ a oroÍ. detatled .. tn.lxirÌs .t thcâimsrnd nìetlÌods óÌ n,ü{)n buiìding, see NomDn

the adoption of official hnguage Ìaws wlÌiclÌ deline the doúinàntgÍoup's largúage as the only offrcial'natìonal'Ìan8!ase, a d whichrequire th't to be th€ only lanSuaSe used in th€ bureaú.racy, couts,public seúices, the ann, higher edúcatìoD, etc.;

the conshuction of a nationalized systcm of.omP!ìsor), education

pÌomoting a úandardized (üiculum, tbüsed on tcachìng the dotnirÌant sÌoup's language/literaturc/history (which arc rcdef'ned as lhc

'Ììational' languaSe ind lìteraturc and history);

Makinq S€nr€ oÍ Liberal Multiculturalnm Thé Ío.ms of Lib€rôt Mutd<útÌuÌôti,ú

posi-.oÌonill stater wberc no riDgle grcup forms a fluneÌical rnaidity. lD

lrcb cases, the io neÍ colonial Ìanguagc is often chosen as th. ofii.irldational languàg€, and the (olonÌal legdì fuaditìon forms thc basis tbrÌhe natn)n?l lc8àl system, to the exclusion of all Íìdi8enous laí8ua8etìnd legal tÍãditions. Yet cven iD these contcÌts, nálion buikinì8 policiasopcrate to constnrct a honroSenous nâtionaÌ culttúe, reintbÍtcd by tlÌcGntÍallzation oI p'rweí, thc nìtiônaliãtiod olth€ lc8âl syst€nì ând edü-útion rystcm, the dcvclopm(nt ol dãtiona I medir atrd nâtkÌralholidrys,

It is dilÍi(ult to exâ88êÍate the pervasivc.css of thesc ndtbn buildingpolì.i€s. whc.5rãtes pcriodnllly en8a8c ìn pâni.{la rly virúlcnl or intÍu-sive Íonìs of na tiô')-buiìding, thcre ìs oÍtc. some ìnt.rrationalpubìicityârd p.olcsL. aut tbe more everydat'nÌí's of Da tnrr -hÌ' il.lirÌg--what Billi8câlh 'banrl nationàlìsnf, irl which públi( insritlrliü's a.d pubÌic spac€

Jre impÍintd wilh n pani(ul.ìr national ide tity{ttcn 8o unnoti.dor unÍem.rkcd upon (BiiliS 1995). \atbn'buiÌdiDg I,oìi.ies havr be.onrcsuclÌ ! pcrvasjve itatuÍè or modcirì Ìife that moir people trÍcely cv.n

vi.tuìlly flert Wste.R dcrìÌdÍacy has püsued lhis ideal oí natnmrlhomogcncity ai onc ponú or anothcr, as hâvc vúìúally aÌì pon-conüÌúiìist ind post coìonial states. As I dncu5s Dclow, an in.rearinSnunber of weí€Ín dcnrocÌàcì(s hav. ab0ndon&l lhis E@l nì farouÍ oÍa morc multicultural model ot dÌe slalc. But at onc póìnÌ or another/vì.trâlly NeÍy weslcni democÍacy har sfl'8ht tÒ dínne Ìrselfês a mo.o"nationál íate. The o.ly.r.cption to this patreflr i. thc wcst that I

know oÍ is SwilzeÍlâo.r. SwirzcÍland neveí àttempled to try to.onstru.tr singÌe natioril ìdnguaSc on the tcÍiitr)ry of thc rtate. lt hàs ah{aysrc.cptcd fhat dìc Frcnch and ltàiian spcaking nìlnotities would.Ìist â$

dishnct lilSuisti( 8roÍps nrto lhe ind€Én ile tutúÍc. BÌt evcry olher Wcsl-ern demo!Íâ._v includingron)e thât aR verydiveBe, ônd lhat trowpridcllìcmlelves oo thcir diversity, lìke Canâd,l bis al sô e poirÌt or otherh.d thc goüÌ of inculcatìng a corÌÌrìoD national làn8u.8e and (ulturc.

^ sidc Íân8ê oí iustilìotions hâlc lpen otfcrcd hiÍorically for thii

pu isuit oÍ Dationa I h omogencity. Ìì somc côntexts/ il wasar8ìled rhãt theÍrte nccdcd to be moÍc unìfied inod€Ì roetlcctivflydeferd itselfagai'útcxteÍral or nÌt.rÌnl eneinies, or to boild the civi. soliúrity nccd.d for â

welfãÌe slntê Or Ìhat a.ultúrally únilie(ì stâlc wìs ersier lo ldministcÍ,and would hâve a moÌe cllì.iffìt laboúr

'rnrlet. But these sorts oí ìÌblilì-

catjons weÌe.lso typkally butüc$ed by racialist and cihno.enhÌc ìd.ok!Bictwbich ã!ÍÍted lhâl the ìrn8úa8c rnd cnlturc oÍ rDinorily 8ÍNps aDd

indiSenoús pÈoples wcrê ba.kwârl a.d infeÍÌor, ifnor bâÌbarì(.. trnwoÍth!ú, ri\t,F.r or p ntpctior'. rnpíc t5 drd.\lÍeiì,, r,,rrrrú,r drro5. rinr,, rn,t!pa.e in th. way th€sc SecpolíkìI, e@nomi. and i(teotoSi.ar aÍSumenlshavc ben inÌcruovcn, bur úe rame et€nrenrs Íeftr rcpealdty in üìe'stories of pcoplchood rhat dominanr groLrps rc thcÍnselves r; iustitvtheir pÌoj14s of nationaÌ horìolícÌrjzation (Smith Z00Jl

1his ddo0tion of rhis modcl, and irs a.(orÌrpanyinS noti.iesand undcFlynrg il,siiÍcationt, has had profourd eÍfcds oD subslare g.oups. withintlìe lsÌjrory of mosr Íates there àre nany Sroups polscsrinS thcú ownlanSuâg(, thcú own hiÍory rlìeü {rwn cLrlture, their owr hci(Ès, thciÍowd svmbol' Such 8Íoups aÍe oÍreo exclud€d €nli(ty b, rlì€ p(rcs oÍnaÌionbuildhì8, oÌ irìcluded only àr the prji.e of acc(pting assinìilatnnì0nd se.ond{a$ itâtus, stigtrìâtìz.d bv thc racìatist rnd ethnoc.ntri.ideologics $scd to júttif) naln,n-buildir,g. tr ecd, nnìoÍitìesâre typiGltylhê n6t ra.8et of thcsr poticics, sine ttìcy are rhe grc.lcsÌ obíacle lothe goat (or myih) oflì uniiÌrt niìtjoD-Íalc, and hcn(e nìosr in Deed or'nationàlizâtidÌ'. 'Ihc rcsult, ovcr tirÌe, has bcèn th€ .rcario. ol nrúttiplcuÍd deply rored Ídm1 of ex(tü!ìon and {bordination roÍ miooriries,olten.onìbintìg politi..l rnargìnrli2ation, ccoDonììc djsadvantagc, an.t.ultuÌal dorììiiation.

^s a r<Ílt, vari{)us rubsrat€ g(Ìrps have conresred this ãrtenìtÍ tÕ(on.

Jlrú(Í hoÍno8ênúús nâtion,buitdinS srâ rcs, rod have:úvqatrd itÌrteâd amoÌe rìultìctrÌturaì DÍ)det of üìe state.r Whrr docs n rn!trìcutturat sral(look ìikr? lhc precìse det.its vrry iiom country ro.oúnrryi for leasoosI dis.u$ belo*. Tbc rori ot ÍcionDs demandÀt bv

^trn?n ^m.Íi.,nrnì rhe lrn,l(ìl \taF\ rt'fl.F dÌ.ìnìrrr,.d||) tro ì th" rct,!,n\,1c rnn..edby i.digcnoLrs M.o ir Ncw Zcrtod or by Chiiese imnÌiBriìnts i.Cânada. llowcvcr, tllcre are somc Ben.rii principteí thnt rre.onÌnonkr thqr diÍÍetunr srnrSSts toÍ . mutticutromt jratc. Fksr, a Í1lllri(ttural statt involvcs thc repu{tialbn of thc old.Í idcJ llìdr dìe sbre n apossc$nÌr of a ringl{, nationãt grcup. hrsrcad, the state Ínusr br rc.rs beÌonEing eqúally to aU (itiarns. Second, ís â .onsequencc, a ÌuttjcrìltuÍal stnlc repdíiatej any Dâtion-b(itdin8 poln.i€s thar âssnDitâteor exclude nìenrb€B of minority or no.-dotrìinanr {ì(nrps lrìstcad, irJcccpts thJl lndivÌduals \houtd b! nbie to a(.c\s srare ürÍirutio!s, an(tlo !.i ãs tlíl and equl . izens i Ftilicrì tiÍ(,, s hour hnving to hdc

rlhrÍrus!10h4úrrtw.rysher..ndrÌerliôjrìrnni,toÍrnuLrtultr,írlirm,,Md!jnÌ,ìrro(pr n'ay dd(rd Ìoj(r ìl'c !ÌrÌ r.r Íesóa da.u!5cd b!t.k. ürríÌqÍtè his r sn nLudlG|(',h'n,'1ntÕni4rìk

Making sore oÍ Liberâl Múlti.ult(ralish

or deììy thcir cthnooltÌtral idcDtìry'lhe statc accelts a. obLiSallon to

a..ord re.ognilion and âc.omÌnodarìon tó thc histoÌ, lx.8!age, and

culnÉoÍnor domi.ãrt8roúps, asitdoeslor lbe donÌnrà. t SrouP lhirda mrltic tural state a.knowlcdges the historic irìiustice thal was doDe

ro minority/non domÍÌânt 8roup5 Lry thèsc PolÌ.ier of 11{nÌìlrriôn xnrì

exchbior, aÌÌd nrinil€sts à wìllinSress ìo oflir some Ítt ol rcmedy or

rccriicatnÌì turllìcm.TlÌcse thÍr.c int.rco.neded idcas icpudiatin8 thc ide! of thc stalc a5

LrclonSing to thè dominanì groupr rcPticing asstnila(ionist ând crtlusioniry natnÌtsbuilding I'oli.iês with Poli.ies.f rccoSniuon and a.com

Ìnodatjo.; and âckÌostedSnÌ8 hisloÌic úrjü\h.. ard olleÌìng âúcnds tor

it arecomnor tovi(oalÌyaÌÌ real Nolld stÌuSljlcs lòr 1ÌuÌti.ulturathnÌ'

Vari€tie5 of Lib€ral Multiculturalì5m

Tlìese points ofconmonality àrÈ voy abslract, àdd as soon as we look at

tlìc dclails of spc.ilì. countÌiet, enonno(s diIIeÌences cmerge. rhe Prc.úeway ìn which mì rori(y grorrPt wnh tobc rccogniTed and accommodâtcd,

oÌ to haiÌ theú hirtoric injÌftices anrc.dcd, vaÌìes greaLll from coun-

try to .ouotry õ well as belveen diffcrcnt minoÌiti.s willÌin a single

It woutd be inÌpos5ibÌe to Prov(ie a.otrÈehensiv€ olervicw of the

difÍerent fürú lh.t multicultlúalìsnÌ cãn takc, búl for the purposes ofìllGtratbn, lrt nìc tocus oÌì thrcc gcneÌal tÌends withio westedÌ dcnìoc

(d) Ltt\ctous Pco\tts I\e ntst irend con.crns lhe treatn.nt oI indiS€nous

peopìes, ich as Ìhe Ìndirns.nd lnuit nr (ìnada, the ^boriSidal

Peofìesof

^ustralia, tbe Maori ol Nes Zeaìand, thc Sani of S.ândÌDavia, tlÌc

lnüit of CrccrÌland, and l.diin trjbes in thè UrÌited States. ld the Pas!all ofthese.ounlrics hadthe saúc 8oaì and €rpccralion drat ittdiScnous

pcoples woul.i.vcnt(laiìy disappcar as dhtÍnt coú.ìunities, as i rcsull

ofdying out, oÌ üìtonÌiflìalje, oÌ assimilatior. ^

nunrb.r olPoìicies wcrc

adopted ro specd up llìis PrGe$, such as íriPPing nldiSenous Peopl.s oíthrì r la nds, restÌicting üìe pract(ìe of thcir traditronal tultúres, lanSuages,

ândÌelÌgiors, a .lúndcmjninSth€nnslitutÌontof sclÍSoveìnnìent1

llowevcr,lhú. hasbccna drânirtic ÍcveÍ\al in lhese poli.les, startinS inÌhecaÌly 1970s. TodaÍ âll oI thr .ountÌies I jüstÌìentioncd àc.ct)t, ar le.stnr fnn.jplc, the ide. th.l indigcnous t)roplÈs{illexisÌ inlo lhc nì.Ìonnitelufuìre as distiÌÌ.t socictics within the lar8€r (nmtrÍ and üì.t ttìey muíhave lhe land cl.inr, cullurnl riglrts, arxl seif ljoveflrmcrt .ights, nee.lerìto suslaiÌÌ lhcmschcsas disti..t socièties

Considcr tl[ coDstitÌúio.al aíìrmation otAbolignr.l rigbl\ in ihr 1']82Canadiã ConstitrúnÍì, aì.)n8 wúh the €Íatrlishncnt .1 a irnd ctiinr.onnìssnrn and tlìe sig.nìg ol new treaties; lhc r.vival of Íealy rightsthroú8h the Treaty of Waitangì Ìn Nee Zealand; th. Ì..o8nition ol landrigbts foÍ^bori8inãl

^urtÌaìians in theMdüo dccision; thecÌeation olSanri

Parlìanìents in Scandìnavia, the evol(tion ot'HonÉ Àuìe'for tbe l.uit ofGÌeenlard; and the laws ind couÌt cascs upholding self dctúnnìãtionriShts fo1 ÁnÌerican l.dian lribcs. IrÌ xll of thes€ counftÌcs th.Íc is a

gradual bút tlil ptoces oldecoÌonizatiod tàknr8 lrjaG, !s indìgcnous lFoples r€ganÌ rights ÌcgardnÌg lhcir lanò, lcldÌ norÌs, and sell SorcnÌnenr

I willcall lhis i slÌilt lowaÌdsi orc lnultìdììtur i I' ipproich, ilthouShlhis tÚú is .ot typically Ìr€d by trliSenous pcoplcs ücnÌs.lves, whopÌcÌìr thc ternnrology of leÌf deteÌnìinatÌon, lleaty rights, and aborignìàlity o. indiileneìt, foÌ rea5ons explored in Chapter 7. My co le.gucKeith Eantins and I have developed . 'Multiculturalism ftnicy lÌÌdcx,which atlenÌpts lo nÌeisure the cxlcnt of tlìc sÌiift (Banting ind (ynìlicta2006). w€ nst canÌ€ up with a list ol spccih( Ìanicies whi.h crn bctaken.s emblcÌnalicor rcprcs.ntati!. of the ncs nìulÌiculturâl approach.h rhc casc ol indigcnous p.ôpìes, thi\ Ìirt incìudes lhc lollownÌg nine

(l) ÍecoSnition of ìãnd .i8hts/tìtle;(2) Íe(ognition of seÌf gov€ üÌment riShts;(3) uphokling historn: tÍeatier and/or signing ncìv tr.ati.s;(4) recogniÌionor.uÌhüaì,ights (l.nguagc, hudttÌg/hslìin8);í5) recognition of cuíorìary lat!,(6) glarartces of rcprcscnration/..nsühatbn in the central govun-

{7) cônstihrtionaÌ oÌ legislative aíìrmatìon ot thc disth.t statut olnrdigenoüs p€opìes,

(8) \uuoÌt/Ìatilì.atun foÌ ìnte.natjonal inslrunrcdts or Írli8enous

(9) afflnilivc acljon for (hc nÌcnÌtrcd ol nÌdiger.us communities.

Ìhe Formr oÍ tiberal Mrlti.ulturalìsm

Maling5cn\eof Liber.l Multi.úlÌuhlkm

Wc üÌer att€trIptcd to i(ìeniily wlÌich of thcse Poh:ìes weÌe ì! foÍce

nì which weste demo.Íacies ii the PêÌiôd 1980 b 2000, ind od

lhat baiii placcd countÌies in ore of thrcc câte8ori.s: tlÌose tììât had

dcchìveìy shiftcd lowaftis a dulliculnraÌ aPpr@chi bv idopting sir or

more of tlre rnì. Poìicies; tlÌose that hdd úade â tlorc modest but

still siSDih.ant shilt, by adoPring betwen tlìre:nd liv. ÔÍ Ìhe nnr.poli.ics; ind tÌúsc th.r had bâicly slìifted in t1Ìú dire.tion if .Ì aìì

with two o. leweÌ oi these Poli.ics. Of the rnìc westedr dcdoÍicie!with nìdigcnous peoPlcs, we concÌudcd ürat ft)ur could be cat.Sorized as

stÌongly multnuhrral (Canada, DcrD.rk, Nêw Ze.land, Unitcd SlaÌet)'

thrcc wcre mod€stly nÌuÌti.ültural (AostraÌia, IüÌland, NoMày), a.d onlytwo had barely ntiltcd UaPrn, Swcdetr).5 -lhh is admittedÌv â r.the.crudc wây of trying to üeilre the cxtent Ìo which westeÌn deÍÌocra(ie\ have adopted â tlorc muìÌiculturai apploach lc8irdin6 indiScnolsp€oples, búl it does livc sorne indi.ation of a widcspieâd ìf ünclcn

(b) Substdtelni otiq ,/tDt,lisnr 'l he s€.oÍd trend.onccflÌs the tÍeat

lncnt of rubstâte tationali gro(ps, such às the Quéhcois ii Canad4

thc Scots an(l WclslÌ ür BÍitaiÌì, lhc C"talans ànd Basqües üÌ SPai,r, the

Fl.mistÌ Ìr Beì8iunÌ, the Ceilnà.jpcâking mnìorily in South Tyrol inItâlt and PueÍto Ri.o iÌÌ the UnitedStates.6 ln all of tlÌese.ases, wc lind a

reSnrÌâlly .orcentrãtcd SrouP that..í.cives of its.ìl ás, nati{}n withinalaÌgeÌst.te, and nìoLrilizcs behi nd nation.list Poliìi.âÌ paniestoachicverecogrition of its nationlÌood, either in the loÌm ofad indePendenì rtare

o. rh(Ìr8h teritoiaì âutodomy witì ìiÌì thc lal8eÌ rtãtc ln l he Fst, ülÌ Dl

' i ur'rri \ hd\r dr . rr'Pr, d lo \Llìf'r'\\ erpre$nrIoisubstrt€ nationiljtm T() havc a regjonaì Sroup with a se.se oi djstin.lnâtionhood war sccn as a threàt to tìÌe stat€, púlting into qucíion the

stàrc's Ìegitimate right to ^rìe

aìl ot its erdtory a.d poPulatiÔn Vãrìous

cÍiorts were nìadc lo elode any s€nsc of<lútin.t nâlionhood, Dftcn usjnS

the sânÌe toob thàt were uÉd ãgâilrst hdi8e.oÍs PeoPles nt cÍample, reÍrictìlg minôriry language Íights, abolishúg taditionaì fdnú oÍ

isred dì6c scÔfrs, ând dìe onpliÜiì3and(}trjickJ2m6:ch]p2'

ideBl hcr', rldrou8ìiÌ6 theY dnPhy a n.tiÚnâl'(oÍ hÍ

b( ,r (u ú. vúturÌly eÉÍr dhd toniì nÌn,on'v tn thc rtj)and.ílcblìrr$Jge

nÍoj Har i:deÍrliTntion ìd nn!tr Íìsuâltn noi lk. paí ol thci

regnhaÌ sell governDent, and cn.ouraAin,l members oi thc dorrinanÌ8Íoup to 5eltìe in llìe nÌüìoÌity gronp's homeland in an ellod ro otrrrrumber tht múxrÍity even in iti tradìtionàl tcrribry.

HÒseveÍ, there his been a dra!Ìati. r.veÍsal in the way westod countnes deaì with subÍate na lionaÌisnN. To.lat all ol rhe countries I havc iusrdìcrtòned hav€ accepled lhc prin.i ê thar suhÍnr€ nâtional idcrtftierwiìì en{lure iolo lhe irìdchnitc futrrre, and that theirscrÌsc ol.ittunhoodand nationalisl aspirations Ìnbt be aeommodated ii sonÌc wry or orher]hh ac.onlnodatior hJs typirãìly taten lhe lorÌn oi what we can cilt'multiDilion and úültilüÌguàl federaìirm': Ìhat ìs, (.ating a fed€Íaì oÌqusì ledehÌ Írbrnìt nì whiclÌ th. dìü(}nty8Ìoup loíns a local dãiority,and can lhcrcby cÌcr.isc ÌìeaoiÍì8tu1 Íormr ol scl!8ovcr.Dc.t.7 Moreover lhc group\ làogüa8e is typicaììy recognizcd âs an óf6.iaì srãÌe langúi8., ãt lcast within th€ir fedenì subúnil, and pcrÌratrs thoughouÌ lhc

At the beginning ofthe twerlietiì ccnhtry, o.lySwitrcrìaDd and Canadahad àdôt)tcd this (rmbination of leÍiloriaÌ autodoÌìy and oíìciaÌ lan

8üãlje staiu\ ÍoÍ subsrak nrrionaL Sroups. Stu(c th€n, however, virrràllÌall Western democracies rhat contain sircabìe substate nationilist dove-ments h.ve moved iD ttÌis di.c.tion. TÌìe ìist in(ludes tlÌe adoptio. ofautonomy lor thc Swedirh'speãkinr Àland lsìands in Iinlând afterWorldW.r l, a(tononÌy fôr Sôutlì Ty(n and l,ue.to Rjco allcr WorÌd VlaÌ tÌ,lìddaÌ âutdrcmy foÌ aitaìonia and tlÌe Basqúc Côurtry nì spaìn ìnthc 1970s, f()Í Fìânders in th€ 1980s, and most re.a.tly devoìurion iorS.otlrtrd and Waìes in the r990s.

Irìdeèd, ìfwerestÍi(t our focus to sizciblc and tcritoÍiàllv rucentri ledrati{Ìuì minodties, this trend is now csc.tiâlty universiì in the Wc(.

^ll Sroups over 250,000 t1Ìat h.v. d.rurstrated a desire Ior teriitoriàÌ

' lo spaiq Ìtclsim, aamdâ, anJ rwn,lnrn4 krnonr autonomy íor

donú'údl,yúcnrbnâlniÚldìc enrift .onnry, but mat.d qGsi.Lneral rorns o1 Ernbniì iurnd wrlcs a imiìaÌ qudiÍcdsar aúLno ìt ÍêÍiÍie exiÍr lir ibc sccrnab h soú'h Ì)ior. aid íor rÌ

tu qui r{ìe.rr forft of auiononr. x Á inÌÌflírt roÍaronr Íorì other lcrleÍal synsns wy *Í 8o!en'rert, ruú as thc.on

ubunÍs was dNSned rl

loms or lcdsaìtm, e Ìtynlickr 20iI, chap t

Íhc Formr oÍ Libêral Mtrlti.uin'râlno

Máling 5€nre oÍ Liberal MulLitulturrlkm Ìhê Fôrm(nf I iherâl MÍlr i.úln,rrlkm

autdÌomy now hnve it in thc weÍ, as wcllas m.ny smalleÍ gro! Ps (Í'has thc German .ìinorÌtv in Bclsium)

This, then, is the se.Ìntd úr.loÍ treod: a shift from suPPrcssins lubÍitenãtionalism\ to ..connüodalinS thenr throuSh rcgionaì eutonomv â'dof6.ial lan8urg. Ìi8hts.

^nìodgst the Wesleflr democracÌes with iiTeâblc

nàÌiodaì mi noritics, onìylrancc is an exc.Ptìon totiÌis trend in Ìs retusal

Ìo llmt autonodìy to ì1s nÌanr nrbsrate nàtiorali\t SrouP in cosica livèr

here, however, jeSislation wb rccentÌy adoPLed to accord autdìomy t()

Corri.ì, ãlthough this $as stru.k down by a contrcvcrsìal ruìing of the

Conrtitulionaì Courl.'ÍìèÍe aÌc some othcr Potential .xcePtntrs No*heÍì lÌeÌand n diflìont

lo.ategôize, since cãtholics aÌe clcaÌly a nationaì minorily, but ãrc not

tcrritoÌially.oncentràtcd, and Ír thc modeÌ ol !ìultination ièdeÌalisnÌ ìs

dor avaììable- Iven heÌc, howeveÌi wt see cìear dìovemèrt in the dir'ction of 8Ì€at€r reco8. i ti on of minoÌity !.tionaÌism NÔ.th.ír lrelandhas

tuccntly adoPted a P€n.€ agteenent tlÌat exPlicitjy ac.oÌds CaÌhoÌics a

nunrbeÌ ofguaranteès in terms of rePresentatìoni i.da.knowledges thcir

i.icn(iicatìôd wìth co natìonils in h€Ìand

AnotheL coÍrplicated .âsc is the Neth€Ìlands, wheÍe thc sizeabÌe

Frisia minoÍity Ì4.!s teÍitoriil iutonomy o1 5ì8!incant lanSüà8c rights'

ãlthough thjs is lârgely b€ca6c (vÍtually alore amongst such sizeabìe

natidaÌ nìinoÍitissnÌ the West) thcgroulhâs not in fact mobiÌizedalonS

nâtionaììit iines to acqúire such Ìights lt ìs not clearthãtthc NetheÌlânds

wouìdrei{t such.Ìains ifcìeãny suPported by nÌ6t lÍhians 3

Amon8st Westem .otntÌies, PerÌúPs the .nly country that rcmants

shongly an.l idcologicaììy opPos€d tÒ th. oiÍ.iãl rccognitìod ol substate

ih.ml{ìúrlcRÌn lroÌniof vie, rocdìiÌN ÍorkÍ'to;là onodt e havclcnnìerúopoú,ó rtu{r.d Íor ttui,pLê ,n ;onrindilv hisb ìo!r5 oí íLpPon kf l-ljticrnJ or loìr!'rì, -nL\ r !r -nfrr i r'''''h ,'d

" .1'; ;A

n.iiDâlin oni.ús;cs, tho iÍ.

-."'''r'''h*;d,hiú-'-"r "!Fín.' À rpi

-.;i,* r r' .,. "*', ,.," ',, ""i 'ddon\Lhê f. únh J r,;.rrh

u; h- b..n,r.5{.'rb.* o r-.--.0* a,-" t

' eÍioiiÀl âutono ìÍ an ì orfidir rrngÚasc íttur

rrtionrl gtuups is Grcccc, whrrc thc once size.blc Maccdo.ia. rìnìo.ityhas row boen swârnpcd nì its hadìrional homeland.

Hcr. aSanì, I Lìll lhis i shilt towards a'nrullicull(Ì.l ippÌoach tosübstat. national gÌoúps, allhoúg| this lernÌiìÌolo$ is ÌaÌcly rs.d byúcse groups thcrsclvcs, who preleÌ the linguage of n.tio.hood, sclf-deterdìination, fcderaÌisnì, an,l poweÌ slìaring. To mcasúr. thc cÍtcnt ofth ir shift, ìlanti n8 and I idcrìtiicd thc iouownrg six polici.s as .hltematn:ofa nìuÌtic lturalatlÌÒr.ht sulrltìte nJtioDal gÌÒüpsl

( I ) fedcÍi I or quãii federal territorial autonomt;

(2) oliìriil lang(age status, eithe. in the reSion or nitioDilly;(:ì) ruaÍanteer of reprcscntation ìn tlìc ce!lral goverxn.!t or od.on-

stitutionaì .ÒuÌts;

(4) públicftrndÌnSorminoÌitylanguageunive15jties/sclìools/medìa;

(5) constituúDdl or prrliarìc.târy if 6Ínation of !ìultinâtio.alirnf ;

(lj) a..ording international p€6oDaÌity (e.9. allo$nì8 the súbsLate

region to sit oD irterrationaì bqlies, oÌ sign treatiei, oÍ have thenôwd olympic leâm).

Oftheetever W.sttrí dcdÌocracies lh.t conlairÌ sizcablc natioral niinorities (ove. 100,000 pcoplc), we concl(ded thit eiSht hail ÌÌovcd nì thisdiÍecÌion, hve ol thc'n strongl-v, ând thrcc ol thcm morc Ìno<lcstlt rh.sl rongìy mo lticultuÍaì ('untries ài€ Belgiúú, Cinxdà, [ntà d, Spanr, dndSwitzrÌlind; the modestly rnulti.ultürJl .ountrics aÍc ltàj, the UnitedKitÌgdonÌ, and the Unìted Stater, whiìe the three hold{)uts aÍe fÍan.e,Grcccc, andJapan. Eere ignìn, we 5€e a cìeaÍ tÌend, but with inrpoÌtanlvaÌiations iÍ its dcplh oÌ scope.

k) Iúnignnt yo ls A thnd trend concerns the treatment ol imnÌiSrantgoups. Hhtoricallt the nÌost importani'.ountries ol immigÌation' (ì.e.

ÁusiÌalia, Canada, New 7eaÌand, and the ltnited States) had a. a$im-ilatiorist àpproâ.h ro inÌnri8ratio.. lmmigrant5 weÌe encouraSed and€xF.ted toa\sinÌiìat€ tothc pre disúÌ8socieg" wilh the hopc lhal ovcrtime th€y wouìd beconìÈ ürdntnì8üGhâblc 1ìo!ì nãtivc LÌoú) citizc.s nrtheir speech, dresi, reoeatiod, voting Pittcrns, idd wãy oflife 8tn(âlÌy-Arygroups lhatwere seen a5 incapable ofthis sórt of.ülhrral assitrìiìatnDwcfu prohibjtcd from emÌgrating in the 66t place, oÌ from be.ominScitizcns. Thh wis Ìeflected in ìaws thât ex.ìuded

^fÌn!n\ and

^sianshoh e.tcrnÌg thcsc coúnlries of imnÌjgÌation for much ()l the twentiethcentu.y, oÌ fiom dâtúalizìng.

Ma*ing sênsê ôf Liberal Multi(ltuÌàlish Ìhe rormt oÍ Libôral Multi.ulturàli(m

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súrce lhc late 1960s, howcvcr, we have seen a dramàhc (.hangr in thisapproach. Thêrê we.e two rclated.hanges: lìrst, tlrc ãdoprion ot racerìeutìal adúissions .tteria, so thâ1 immiSranÌs lo thcsc counrrie5 areinoeÃingiy fiôn n.n lì,uropeân (ãnd often non Chrisriàn) sÍEiet'es; andsecond, thc adopti{}n of a norc !ìulticuìtu ral' conccptiôn of intesEtion,one which cxpc.ts that many imnÌigrantt will visiblyand lroudlv exprcssth€Ìr rlhni. identity, and {hi.h a..epts an obligitidì on Ìlìc parl ofpublìc ürstiftún r (ÌÌke thc poliG, s.hooh, nrcdia, mu\eums, crc.ì toaccoúÒodâte these ethni. idèntúies.

Thcsc twoldd chaag.s havr rxÌrìtred, lo rârynr8 deg.ees, Ìn aI of thèthdÌlional coüntÌiei oÍ immìgratidì.

^ìì oi tlìcÌÌ hav. shiÍred Iiom dis

ÜÌmÌnitory to .a€ ne(lral admisrions and Datúratizatbn poli.ics. ,{ dalì oi th€m have shiltcd fÌom an ,ssìrìilâtionist ro a more nìuhicultuÌaÌconcPtìon oI inte8ralion. TÌÌeÌe are imlDÍãntdìfferences irì howoil{:irlor forhal this shÌIt ro rruÌticulturalisü has been. tn Carada,

^usrrllia,ind New Zealand, this rhift was nri.ked by the decÌaratior of aD oíì.ial rìültieltual policy by the ccnrraÌ goveÌnmenr. Ìut cvèn in theU.ìtcd States, wc see stnilar .lìa.gcs on the g.ound. Ttc Unired Statesdoer not havc xn ofiìdaì pollL-y of trìulticulrurilìsD ar the federaÌ levcl,lrut if we l@k àt lower levels ôf govenmetrl, such às srates or.ltics,we olìe! lìnd a bÌoad mngc of m!ìriculttÍãlisD poÌicies li wc lôôt àt5tate lcvcl pÒlicies Ìegardìng the educalion .uúiculüm, for cxarÌpìe, orcityìcvel poìicies regardirìg pìicìng or h6pitàls, we,lÌ olrcú tind tharÌhey arc indistirguishabÌc f()m the way provin.et aDd cÌlics i. Canailaor Austàliâ deaÌ wÌlh úsües df immigrant ethn.{!ìhrral divcrsity.

^j ìn

Canad., they have lheir ow. diver sily prograÌnner a nd/oÌ equity oíì.eú.As Nathan Cl.zcr puts it,'we aÍeall mülticulruralists now,(Cta?et ]'s97),ilthouSh this pcrlìaps u.dertatcs thc .Ì)nsidelalrle variation a.Íoss cìricsand stat€s irÌ th. US üì theìr conÌriitmen Ì ro mllricúlturalitm policics.e

SÌmilarlt in Britai!, whitc there is Do nâtion-wide mlllìrultuÌãt-

'rn [)olicy, úâny of the saoÌc basi. ideas ard prh.iples are pu6rrÌ1through lh.ir'Ìãce.elations'poli.y.rrrAll of tÌÌcsc.ountÌies hav. a..rpted

, s.i ale Joprìrre 2012, sbo notÈ.llmi w hor lrr beins MrÌeo .D rlt forehcrd or rhe n tÈ Uoppkc 2002: 2r0). l]prrs

hc n 'hrâr

tunÍr$nll''n']ìo'''l'''

thc poplraÌ i'ì4nRrion. For n m

the 5anc lwofdd .hangeadopti.,j race neulral àdmissions àrd naruÌãÌizilio. Ifutn:ies, and iÌnposnrS on putrllc ürstirütions a durv ioâccomnDdate nDÒigrant ethDocrlturìl diverÌry altt)ough thc de8Í,aeand lodnil r..ognìtion of lhc làttcr dranSe lary f.om country Ìo

'Ìììis ftcdd ãppliêr tlimariÌy to courtner ol inrnigdtion tharis,<nrnt.ies whì.IÌ legaÌly idnÌìi nnÒig.ánrs a5 pernÌancrt Ícsidenrs ând iutur.(ltìz.ns. ,{tron85t nr.h countries, the miin cÌ.ephon ro 0ìis trend isrì1in.c, slÌidì retains an assnniÌrtionist conccptnrì of lÌcdch republicancilizcnnìip.Ìi rt it i dirlÚc.t story hosrvc! ii thos€ co(dtri{s thai donot lcgally adn it i mìnigra nts, su.h as nrosr coon lri6 of n olrhon tu.opc.'lhesc .otrntÍier nìay well .ontàin ìarge numbcB of /íoreignc6,, iD Ì.tbrd ol iÌÌegaÌ econoúi. nriSÌants, asyìúr sc€kes, or ,gutst wo!keÌs,,but there g.oups {ú. nor admi(Ìed as pirt of a delibcrâtc immigratnÌìpolìcy.

^5 it lÌapp..s, even rome oI lhcsc .ountries halc ãdopted aspa,ts

of a 'muliìcllhtrâl' atrprcach 1c.9. Swcdcn and lÌÌe Ncttìe.ìãnds). But inScneraÌ, rìre lrend fúrn a\\imiìation to nulti.!ÌÌu"lis.ì n one that hastaken Ìtlace nÌosr strorgly wiihin coütrtÌi€s oi imnÌi8ratnrÌ

wha t arc the speci fic policics ttrat ÌeR e( rìrÌs shift nÌ appÌoach? Bãntingand I id.rtiÂèd the lollowirÌg cighr poìicies as üre most co!Ì.on oÍemblcÌritìc fornr oI irnmigrart nuìnculrL!ralisÒ:

(1) .orstìtuúmaì, lrgisiative, oÍ pa.lianÌerraiy ãf6trÌãtion of nuìti.ulturaÌism, atthe.cnhaì add/oÌ Íegjonâl and duri(ipil levcls;

(2) the adottiorì ol úultnulhraÌism in schôol orncula;r,(3) the ircìusion olctlnic Íepresentatio./sensitivity iÌÌ th. nanditeof

public rÌc.lia or nÌedia ÌicensnÌg;(al €ieDptioos fÍôm dre$ codcs, Surdây cìosúrg lcgistàtbn erc. (cither

Lry statrúeor hy coud cisct;(5) illowing dual citizcúhipj(6) ìhe ftrnding otethnicgroup oÌSanizaiÌons to supFìrt cutruril a.tiv

'['\'lU'LÌ]''i''tr|ke^ {Ír flÌr !út or prpâÍnì! than b rcrd ro iheir

'ÌÌ'Ìc t!\on il ihev werc in l].r bôsì n' 6duny), on thc Àsún\Ìio

ulÌ!ãln'n !oli.i$ . poìi.is úìlì.onD.daL!(htri.dj!cÁ't-vasâ

71

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Mdking Sênre oÍ Liberal Multiculluralih Ìhê Íôrm( ôf I ih?râl Mu lri.ulturãlkm

thÈ lradìlional Nes wodd co(nt.ies of inìmiSration, it h.s bcen ìarSely

reìectcd chewhe.e, and thÚc aie seveÌal hiShrrohle cas.s oI a '.etreat'

fro!ì úüÌricuìturaÌisni, to which ì will r€nú. nÌ tle n€xtcÌrapterIn onc scnse, it \Ìxìuld not be surpÌisin8 that th. idca oI muiticulhÌÍaì

únì 1ôr mi8linÌ conx.rnilics has not take root oolside the traditionaÌoüntrics oI immigÍation. Altú aÌI, the nlea Òf adoptìng a nntltialhralcon.ettnÌr ol cilizenship prcsupposcs Ìhat the nèw.odÌ.Ìs alc iD lact'citiz€ns, rathcr lhan !implv 'Sursts', 'visìtoÌs', or 'f.rcign{J. \tt tlÌis is

plccisely sÌiat llas contelted in many .ounlrìes of rr)nhrental [,uroPc,

lntil re.€rtìy As I ooted eanier, posl wi1 nìi8Ìants út lürÒpe w.rc nolllp(àìÌy admitlcd as Petrrancnt rcsidents and tun'n' .ili/.ns rlnder ãn

cxplicit nÌnriSration policy. ì{athrr, thcy entered und(. r vari.ty ol orherguiscs. Some nigÌants ent€red a .ÌÌuntry illeSaìly (e 8. Nonh

^tsi.rns n)

Italy), olhetras riylunì s.eker5 (e.9. (ôsovâis nì switzerland), andyetoth'cs ãs íudcnts oÌ rSucí worle6' who Íeno{cd (or overlayed) their ì nitialvisa (e.8. rurkJ inCennany). Whcn thel enteÍed thc cotrnlry lhesePeoPle

werc not .on.ìeived or as l(lture citiT€Ds, or cltn .s lonS term re\nlents,

and üìdccd lhey woüìdnot lÌave lìeen allowèd to.nt.1in lhe lì6tPlace ifth€y had bccd se€n as lFrrrxdcnt rcsfteDtt aDd tutúr. citizcos. However,

wharevcrtlìc inilial expe.tdtio.s ard oilìcial rules, thcyhalc seltled more

or le$ peÍmanc.tll. ln pÍincÌne, and lo some extent nì p.àcticc, some ofrhese mìSrants rÌay iìce the tlÌreàt ofdcportation ifthey ar. detectd by

thc authorities, or if rhey are convnìted of a cÌioÌe. But th€y nonèthelcss

foxn sizeâLrÌe (rnÍnuÌiLies iD certai. .oúnlries, enga8e in todte fonì oteÌnployment, Ie8ãl or ilLeSâI, and narry and lòrtì familier' Borrownì8 a

t€rÌ lÌom Alcient Grccce, Waìze..aìh thcsc grouPs 'nretics' that ìs, í&

Iar. longìcdÌ Íesiderts who are no.ethcltss cxcluded from tììe PÒlis

]ìe is\ue of adopting multiculLurallsm can ba.ely arisc until sucÌr

8roúps move out ôf oÌe categoÍy of te ìPorary foÌeiSners a d Útoft nÌtothe categoÍy ÒlPcrnìaneDt ÍetideDts and citizens,! $hì.h is ind.e.ì whatdany ol there lrorps have souSht. lut tlìis lÌas not been an eàsy tr.nsìhod to rìake. Some.ôontrics have no €stablish.d Prdess or infrastru.tÌtrcfoÌ ÍÍegrating immiSÌants, and so Ìe5irt accePting lhat they are now /e

td.t, 'cou.lries of ünrnigration'. Morover, nà.y ol üÌese neti6 have

'r ^r Ì d.kn in n. 12, J ro'r ôr p

r.ountryofoligin,Ful

1 r'.dr! ',1 ..'r'.^. { r.3'r'o'

(7) th.lundnÌ8 ofbiìinguaì cducation or motheFtonguc ins(ructnnìi(8) af6rrìatile aclion foÌ disadv.ntagcd immiSÍant 8rÕuPs.13

w€ tlìo âtenrpted t(r detcdüÌc which countries hid íÌìlled in drtdúectnD oi these poli.ies, cithcr Íro.8ly (by adoPtúrg six oÍ nore ofthe eiSht policies), o. modestly (by adoPtìn8 thÌ€e to ilvc ol lh€ eiSht

poli.jet. By oúr c.lcuhtuììt, all four ol lhe traditntÌàl .ountrics olìrÌmi$Ìa )n hâv. Ìnade this shiit, <r € skorÌ8ly (^üsrralir, canada)

and otìrers nn)destly (N.w Zealand, UnÌted Stalcs). lìow€v€r, if wc looli

bcyond there trádition.l im nì i8ratnn .ou.iri.s, th€ remaining sevcnteen

western de ìoüacics in our stlrly off.r a dilÌcrent PictÌrre. Ol thcse, none

hâs slr ifted st!ôn8ly tow.rds nìuÌtioìtuÌalistÌ, and only four hatc nìade a

rìodcsr shift (Ilelgirün, Thc Nelherìan<ìs, swcdcn, Uni(ed Kingdoüt, whiÌc

thc vaÍ majority havc csscntìally resisted th. trend (AüstrÌa, DertÌârk,Innãnd,lranc€, Cetr ánÍ Grc.ce, Ileland, ltaÌÍ laPrn, NoNay,lbr.ugal,

So thr shjtt to trNlticultlralisrn i. tlìit .ontcxt is obüouslt rtorucootestcd úÌan in the .ase ôf indig.nous Peo|les or mbstale natjonalist

8roups. Whc.eas tlre majoÌity Òf W.stún courtÍie\ l,avê Ìì,.1. eìrhcÍ idecìsive or mo.lcst shift towaÌds a mültiddtúral aPt(ìa.h lor thc'old'úìinoritie5, the evidcncc is moÌe mixed fÒÌ nDúì8rant 8ÌoulÁ. Whilc úìcre

is â cleiÌ tÌend towards a more nnnlnultüral aPPÌo.ch in tle casc ol

6ìdnl|udnìsaninthpali.y-adniíjns ra4e númhcõ or nÌìispcoplc \is{ J Plo-immjsnúon PoasumprioÍrliionlya mú.úy th bily would volúntrdlv

nÍiì8Êliôn trÌnv rmulurxlb.rÌii. is..mpÌd. soncor noÍc ope rúÌds: they ar happr úü fltr idÈ. oÍ gr cr cdÌú üìd ra(râl divc6ittr rhc porÌìr{lon, büt lmplYoPPodircrig ihÌ.nsh Ìnú.úrr!Ìalrso anìor3Í ltudÀÍirns

poí Iitr ÍÌuìthlttriri!Ì lolris is deFt.deri on nrÍdtÌinilÍÌglhelu!'lÉÌ.ín.wjnr.ìig

uòi nrìüì iuÌâlnm noli.tr adoplêd in rh. rtToslun{icril,c hedins oÍ Èè (latioot were pd of J pJ.ra,re úì which drc sore

inc imnigína fÍo' llì! (]â.ihhcmüc doÌ to i8ÌÍi8ÍJtiÕn ms sccn as undcnnrnu ,e ì.nú.ús súprrõ

n or Ìuõ (rd. 200s), 'hn

t nd witb tÌF (lonnÚly)

crnìnr, sen ir.4h Llr. ÌdmcÍ Ic*ìcÌ ro rdn'ii p{Pl. âs rmisrans oÌ Ìèn'3ees, ând

be tütmmt oí nrmìgÍani sÌouprcishr Pol(jer Ìiiln âbovc

75

Matìng sens€ of üb€ral Multi.ulturalism Thê Êôrmr ôÍ Libêral Multì.ulturalism

eitheÌ brcken the ìâw b enteÌ the coun try (ilìegal imtnì8rao ts), or irc sccnas reneging on their promise to retú n io their .ôu ntry ol oriSin (studcnls,gu.srworkeÌs, asylutu-seeÌ(e6), and !o are not viewed as wolthl of citjzendÌip. MoreoveÌ, countÌi€5 with no Íadjtion of accepting newcomeLsüe often nbrê xenophobi., and UÌone to üe{ all rorcignetr as pote.tialsecuÌìtythreats,orarpotentialìydisloyal,orsinìpb'isuDalto.bly'alien'.ln these countri€s, ofwhich Aushi! and Switzcrland arc rhc bcsrknownexanÌples, the oltcìal poli.y has nol bccd to try to üìtcgrãtc ú€tics intoÌhe natìonal commu.ity, buL lo 8ct tÌÌrnì to lcâvc uÌÈ.ountrt eitherthrough expulsion or votuntary re((ún. I! dÌo.I, tbc bopc wàs lhal iInì€tics wele denied cìtizenship, so lha( th.y only hâd â pre.aÌioüs legrlÍ.tus witÌìír tlÌe country and ifthcy wcre told r.pcàtedly that theiÍ real

homc was in rhcir coúntry of origú, à d thât th.y we.e not wanted as

ncnìlrcrs of thc socicty, thc. thèy woukl eventuallv go home.B(l it is irÌcrcasirÌ8ly rccoS.izcd thât this âppÍoa( h ii not viâblc. Metics

who havc livcd irÌ a courlry lor several veaÌs aÌ€ unlik€ly to go home,even ü llÌey lÌave only a pÌccarious logàl stâtus. This ii pàÍrìcülâÍly trueil lhc nìclics harc Ìnaticd ãDd had childÍen in theü a.topted .ountr_a Atthis ponìt, it is thêir.ew .ountÌt not their coüntry of orì8Ìn, rÌÌicl ha5

be.oúe th€iÍ'hÒme'. Indeed, ìt may be the only home tÌìil tlìe nrcticíchildren and BÌandchiìdÍen know Once tlìey have setUcd, lorndcd a

famìì, and staned EirinS theiÌ childrcn, nothing shon of cxpúlsion isI'teh rô gpl mpr r \ ro rel.'r '' ro 11.." . uL4lrr ol or i8i .

So a polÌry based on the hopc ol voluntaÌy rctun is n.reaÌistic. Morc-ovei itendaDge.s the largcr s(ictl. lor the l ik.ly rèsujt{)fsü.h a ÍDIúl ìjlo.Ícalc a pcínancntly dherfrã.chìsrd, alienated, and Íacjaììy or ethnicãlly dcÊncd udd.rclass. M€tics íìây develop an oppositionilsubculturein whi.h tbe very ideã Òi tu.suin! success ìn miinstrcanÌ iníllúuons isvìèwed $ith rurticìon.'lhe predjctable.oDscq(enccs can iÌÌvoÌrc sorì.mixhú of poliii.âl álienation, cÌiminaÌÌt, and religio(r lu.danìentilismâÌnongsr the dretia, paÍiculàÍlv the second generatjoD, rvhicl ni túnleàds kr in.rê.têd racial tensúns, ev€n violen.e, rLÌouglÌool lhc socicty.

loavoidthis, there ìs an ìÌrcreaslng lr.nd üÌ Wes lcin .loiÌìo.racnrs, ev.nin .on immigraot couDlries, to enabl. mrtj.s to (8ülàrize theiÍ 5tâius

rd to naluraÌizc. Asylunr scckcB rhose rêfu8eè clãinìr are a.cepted rÍeSranled pernincnl icsjdc.cc â.d â..4s to citizenrhif, and noÌ reqüiÌed1o elúdÌ io llÌeir countrt'of ori8in .vcn shen the dangeÌ of irdseirÌionhas pisscd. Grcst worLÌs wbo hâve renewd (or.ve$tryed) ÌhriÌ vjsa a'eoit.n ablc togah pcúnrnertt ÍesnÌen.:e leÍiod ic amnesties areolhrcd lorillegaÌ tÌrÌigrants. iÍì eff€ct, n)nB-settled nìeÌics are nrcÌeasnìgly Ìrcalci is

if thcyhad initiauyarÌivcd as le8àì Ìm miSradts, and areallowed to folìowthc nnnìigr.rt path to úlcgra(io!.ln somecàses, this i.tegralion pro.ess

has be€n revised nì â úore 'muÌtioìtu.il' dirc.tion Sweden ú a Prooìi-ncnt case, declaÌing 2006 lo br 'the l€ar of Múltìcüiiuralism-ìthouShthis remaìns umrmtÌon oulside the traditional co(nlries oÍ immiSÌation

Ìhree Key Features oí Liberal Multiculturalism

tn r€laúon to irdiSenous peopl.s, Ítbstate natidtâl SrouPs, and iinnÌlg.ant\, th.n, rhü€ hãs bcen r shift away from histÒi. poli.ics oI issìÌÌlÌation oÌ.ì.Iúion towardt a nxrÍè tìúlticultural aPProa.h thit rc.ogrizcsand accomsìodatcs dìvelsity

^s we sill se€ in I'aÌt IlI, ea.h of thcsc

ìrcnds ha5, b vàryirì8 degreer, shaP€d enìcrSitg jnternrtionàl nonni_most stron8ly nr the case ol indi8enous pcoples, moÍe Ìnodestly rcgãrd'rrì8

súbíate national 8ro!ps, anil quite minimally rbr imm!8Ìant !Ímps.varioui aspe.rs oL lhis shÌft {iìl bè cxPlored thii)ughorú ìhe volltrc,bul Ior our únnìediate púrposes, thÌee PoüÌts are woftlì hitjhÌi8htúì8, inordcr to tb.esrall rÌisu.dcÌslaDdin8ÉfiÍst, aboul th€ diffeÍent câte8.riesofdrnìoÌitìes; seond, àbo!t lhc contentofthc riShts lhãtnÍeac(oÍled t()

tÌìes. üiÌÌorities; ând thúd, aboút the Íelationship bclween multicuìt ralism àr.l nation buiìdÍr8.

lÍst, ar thn biiei aNey suggests, libcÌa I mulin:ultuiâlisd iÌÌ th.wesl is

highìy 8ÍÌrpdiftìrertiated, or to úse the termìnolÍ)gy I irtrodúccd cârÌier,

it ìs hiSh Iy 'targetcd'. LìbeÌaì mühi.nlturalism Sua.ant€ès..rtãn! gcdcric

minorityri8hts tô all cthnoculruÍaì gÌoüPs, bul ìtalso elabôÍàtes a ru.ìbcroftargeled <ìategorics oi rÌirÌoÌity rights. Thc prccne cateSories diff€r fronlcon.lrl lo.ountry but thty tyPiciììyfalì üüDrhcs.mebasjc Patten The

moÍ.onÌmon d!stinctidÌ is bctneed 'old' trìi dorilics, whowerc se11ìedor

th.ú tÚritoÌy pÌior to it bc.onring Part of à largÚ indeFndent courÍtã d'ncw'minoÍities, who were adnittcd to a.ountry a! imniSÍa ts

aft€Í it a.hieved le8aì indcPc.dence. But within the ate8ory oÍ'ol.ì'DinoÌiti.s, à luÌther diçnì.tion is lypicaììy dÌãwn bctwecn 'irìdi8eno!6'groups and othd histoic mÍúriti.s, otlen caìÌed ,nâ1iÔnâl minÒÍiti.s' or

Wc see lhi\ basi. tÌÌieclold Patterì nì se!'eral we\tenì demo.ra.ics.

Iünand, Io! exanÌplc, âc.ords difteÌ€nÌ righls to the sami, as ãn nxliSc

nôus peopÌe, thàn to the swedes, wLo arc a tFditirÌral ÜÓ$_bord$

nrtiona 1 !ìinoÍitt and both oI these 'oU dnìorÌlieí have a di ffeÍrnt sct oÍrnnórity rights fÌom thos. ol'nr$ nnìontìes' cstablishe{Ì thÍough r€(cIú

Mnling Sên3ê oÍ tibêrál Multiolturalitm The Formr of tibôrâl Multi.ultÌrâlirm

migration. SiÌniìaÍly, I)enmark distinguishes rhe nghrs ol rhc nìdigènÒu\lrnrit id GÈenland from tÌÌe dghts of the (cÌo$ border) cÚmân narionaìminority, ãnd distnì8ui5hes both ol these fron the righrs of ncy ìnúni-8rants.L5 Cànada distingujshes the ÍiglrÌs of the indigenous Alrorignìatpeopl.s (lddians, ìnuit, and Métis) Iiôln those ol rhe historic lr€nch.oÌonial s.ttlers of New lraD.e (Quebêcl whose preserÌ.e predãted theBritish .oloniTaÌioo of Noíh Aúerica, and dhtinguìshcs both ofthei," oldnìnbÍities from the nÍrltictÌtural rights accordcd (octl!ìi.8roup5 Íornìc{lL,y ünmig.ation lo thc.oudt.y. ln the Unit.d Stitcs, i.digenous lndiintrib€s have a di{fererl lcgal stalüs fronì the histori. Sfanisb coLonialscttlcÌìeÍtof PuerÌo lììcoconqu€red bythe Americars in 1898, and borhof thes€ aÌe dútinguisÌìcd ftom the lesal status accorded ro immiSrant

Ot cou6c, not all counÍies hive all thr.e types of erhnoc!ìrurâl dncr,titl. AuÍraiia ând NcwZealand, foÌ cratuple, have both indigcnous p(lples ând imrnigrint ethnic gÌoups, but no süblhte n.lionalist groupt.Belgium, Switzcrland, Spain, and B.itaid, by .ontrasl aU havc issucs ôfslbstatc latiô.âlism and immigration, but no nrdigeüous pcoples. In alÌofÌbesc cã$s, howeveÌ, the fÌamc{ork oflìbeai nÌuìticú1túrâlisft .emainsgÌorp-ditrerentiated. llrÍ.in, for dàmpìe, dist'nglishcs the igbrt of itslìistori. sübstate 'n a t'orÌí (rhcS.ots, Welsh, and lrish) froÌh its imnÌigFnr

Indeed, l1n not aware of any WeslQn dcÍìo.Íà.y that rcÌies soicly o.8erêic minorìty riShts tô 8óvem its ethneultúrâl diveÍsty, witÌÌoút ànyclèhent of targeted rÌirority .i8hts. Morcôver, this rargeted ehmcnt ntot mar€Ìnal or pcripheràl- On the contrâry, the entire inlnsttuctüÍe ôiliberaÌ mültìddtÌtràlisü is often built around it. ln most corntries, thedjfferell 1o.ns ôf ethno.ulturrl divesity ar€ g{rvenìed by different pi<esol legislation, which lre admnÌistèÌed bv difíerent govcr.Ìnent departnÌcdti, usinS differenl concÈpts aDd principlcs. Indigênous popLcs, súb-Íate nàtiorali$groups, and inrnig.anrs all form lhcirown polìcy,rracks,,à.d one of the most sfuiking aspecrs oI liberat ÌnülticüÌtuìalism in thcW€st is how separatc these tar8eted rracts are liom each orhct âdúini\-tÍahveìy.nd lcgâlly.16 Coüntries can an.l do inove at very diÍireÍt Teds

UJ's'a'Ì]''dlgr''.''n.n''nJ

,.!.n ro uldl'.n dÌ'r) \rr.mh Id;,r,.aJrr.

7A

aÌong tlìe diiierent (Fckl. Á cou.try .ân b. a trail-blazer ìn ooe modc ofm(ltic(ìtúalism wlÌilc a Ììold ôot i. ãnothe. Ior example, coDÌparcd toits Nordic neighbours, Sw€den has be. unrsuàlly suppotive ofmulticulhrilism iòÌ imnÌigrants, b(t udúuaLly resistà.t tÒ laÌd claims.nd scll

SoveLnmenÌ riglÌls lor tlìe ìndiSc.ous SarÌi. Switze.lãnd hasbeen a Ìnodcltor thc ac.omÌnodation of substàte .ltionàl minorìtier tlrrough olïciallangu.gc rights àrd rcgiôràl aukrnomy, but has been perhaps the mostcÍclusioury.ou try in EuÍ.pe in its nratment ol imnìignnts. CoútÍies.â. bc advrn.inE aÌrÌì8 one tra.k, rvhÌìe reheating.lodg ânoth.r.

It ii quite surpisìdtj how littl€ inteÍaction oÌ spilÌoleÌ therc is tìrtwoenthcsc difterent policy tracks.

^nd when the vaÌious Írugglcs ior Òul

ti.ülturalism do ürteract, they ar€ as likely to con0ict as to copcrãÌe.lmmiSÍanÌs, .ationaì minoritìes, .nd irdigenous p@plcs Duy all seek

to chalìenge lheú hÌstorìc subordinatiod to ihc doÌnüúnt gnüp, butthey don't ne.cssarily Írpport cach otìÌ.r's sìrugglcs. InmiSÌaDts mavnot ìiìsurÌctirÌly súpport dcmands by indigenous pêi)ples aud ÍrbsraÌcnalÌonal Sroups for Sreater seÌf 8ov(n.ìcnt, and these l)istoric minorjuesid tún nÌay not iÀtìnctivcly support domànds by iÒúighnt groups tòrrìulticullural citizc.ship (Medda-WÍnli\cher 2004). LibeÍal multicrlrui-alhdras ithas cvolvcdnÌ the Wêst is the out.lme of muìtìple slr(ggl.sbydiffeÌeot typls of €thnoeltuÍal groups, mobiìizing aÌong ditïocnt legàì

and administÍative hãckt, ând not a silgÌe unilied struggle irì the nàhe

We ci.not hope to undedtand lhc thcoiy and prâcti.ê of libeÌaìmuÌtjculturalisnÌ without coming ro Srips with ìls tarSct.d or Sroup-difleÌcntiiled characteÌ. Any altempt to artiolatc libcnl multidltuÍalismas iI it wcÌcp(lcll a nìaltcr ofgcncri. rìi.ority dghts isdÒoÌred to failure.Th. Ìogi. ol Ìibcral úuÌti.ultrtràlistrÌ cannot be càpturêd i. the form 'alldnìoitiÈt hàvc a riEht to X' oÍ'all pe6onr belongin8 to minoritìes havea ri8ht to x' l)ifferent tyÌres of minoritìes Ìrave lought lor, and 8âined,different \?es of hinority rightu, and thh group differentiatcd largetnìgìs key both ro undeÍstnndìng Ìhe challenges üÌvolved in adoptirÌg liberàlnÌultìculluralism and to evaluaúÌg its Írcccsscs and ftnititiô6 to date.Unfoítrnatcly, as wc wiu sce iú Pârr tI], nú.mâtiônrl ôÌganìzations, toÌr.asoDs ol botb prnÌcipÌc and .Ìp.dien.y, hãvc lúd dif6.ulty ackììowlcdgirg tlÌe ta€.ted Dahrre of liberãl ftnltioltu.alish.

and rlìe nìãnr nÌì&pn ured nì rnìuli.druúlnD,. te.nìit, iìrês

irandp.Ì*iQr :ep itj.i ÌÉú(rÌ

Makinq 5en5e of tibcrâl Multiolturalkm Th€ foms of Libera I M u lticultura lism

'lhe secodd key poinl I wanl lo emphasize concerns tlre.o.tcnt olthe nrinoÌiiy riShts fomd withnÌ wcslún libelaì multi.uìtüratisnÌ. Marycooìdcntàtod dhc(ss mulÌicultualisnì as if it wer. púDarily loclscdon issr6 of syrÌbolic reco8oilion, and hence disonDected frotÌ issucs

reSdrdinS Ore distibulion ol marerial resourcet or politicâÌ powcÌ. Il is(orÌnor, for eÌa!ìple,lo say llÌal multi.ulturaìi\m rcfler1s'tl)e Politic olrccogDi&ri/ as opposed to lhc'poliiìcs ol rcdistribution',Ì7 oÌ to say thãtit puÍsuer'the pol itn:s of idc.tity as opposcd to the'polìtics of n'teÍestJ.

lhese dì5tindtuns bctwce. lccognitìon .nd tdistribution', oÌbetween'úl€ntìties'ãnd'irturcsts', ârc usclul lo! some aDaltrtjc puÍÌxrs€s.

But iÌ sìiould he clcar thât libc l tulticúlturaiìsDÌ is it has evoìved Íìlbe west is not .ertÍict€d t() quenions of sl'nìbolic r(ognÌtion o! i.len-Iity politÌcs. l.ibeÍaì muÌtn:ultürâlisnì aìso âddrcsscs isÍ'es ol Poweí andrcsoúr.es. Ihis it paÌti.uìarly dear in ÌeÌation to datiorìal miÌÌorities andindigenou5 peopìes, whcre states hàve l)ècr rcstrlcttÍcd 1o create newpoÌili.al !nits thaÌ enable ÍnnrÍity selflovernncnt. In relation to lhese

uroups, w€ÍeÍn dcntr{Ìr.ib have üÌoved awa_v lìonr older modeÌi oÍunilary, ccntraìized natnÌÌ strt€s, a.d rcpudiâtcd olddidologics oÍ'onestatc, onc nalion, oie langÌra8e' 'liìdalr vútuaUy àll Wcstco statcs liìalúntrirì üÌdiScnous peopìes and nrbstat€ nâtional 8(Ìrlx havc bccont1núltiÌÌalion'stalcs, r.cognìzing th€exntenceof self-Sovemnì8!peopìeí

'n'l r'dr or. srrl,ir'l.bou rd,"'. or lhp'l,,lc Ilì'\ rF.i,r" lr{' r''bÌle\ted tr a ra.8c ofÌnnìorilyand indigcnous rights Ìhat rnclude Ìegnrralautonônìt, rnd ofhcial lanSúagc status for nilional minoritjes, and cuskrmrry law, ìand daìors, àDd s€ll govcrnmcnt lõÌ irÌdiScno(s peopl€s.

ln the Qsc of únnììg.ants, the.hàr8cs dìày bc lcss obvious, since we

do nol see lìre same tylÈ ()f devohúi{Ìr oÌ fcd.ràlization ol Íatc powcrLo nÌiiìorily controìled I'olitn?lu.its

'ìrt if sc Íetunì to tlre list of úìúi

grarì mrltic!lloralism policies in the wesÌ (see p. 7:l ahrve), sev.ral âr.intc.dcd to erÌh.n(e access rostaÌe poser, publn:\eM.es, Ìnd e(Ìromi.opportunirles. lhese in(lürl€ aÍfimative a.Ìion toli.ìer, nì(hânlsnr foÌpolitical parlicipirion an.l.onsrlration, and the dèvekrJÌn€rt of heàlthcarc and so.lal scrì.c deliveÌy nrodeh lhat are adapted to the needs of

Tak€r tolethcr, thcsr hcnds (pÍcscnt a draÌìa 11. lia !s1b!ìa lion ir (he

relatnÌìshit hetllccr rtàtes rdd rtltni. 8rô!ps. Thcsc ch.ngcs irc Dolpürely ioken ort) drti.. On the cÒntrãÌy, they otìcn nìvoÌsc a siSdilìQnlredirÍiLrutÌrn ol e.ononìic rcsou(cs r'rd politìcal pow( soúìclhiig

.lose to i g€nuine nkring of poweÌ-r\ weÌì as givin6 non domÌianlSroups enhrn.ed a(ess to stare institutions.

'Ìhis ìiÌìkúrg ôf id.rtitics ànd intèÍrsts sithnr rrultnrìturalìsm policics\hoüld not suruise us, súì.e it múÌors the way identities and irtercísaÌ€ Ìinked in the mtiurbnildnÌg polici€s to which ruÌricülhnalÌsD is aÌespnse State naúÌlbuìkiin8 is not iust about Íe.o8nizing a parlicularmaioriÌf ÌdenÌity althou8h iÌ ìs indeed .n exnmpl.ld, .x.tlLrd of tlrc'polilÌcs oÌ identiry' but aìso ãbout boìlding publìc insli((tions arôurdLhat idcntily, so lhat it beconres a soúrce oleconomic oppo rnity, polìrì.ai powcf, aDd so.ial prestiSe Ì,ibeÌal mulliculÌuralisnÌ has thc sâ rcispiralion lo ÌiDk identìries and inrerests. ll not only iccoSnizcs IrâFticular mnÌority idenlities, tìül sccti lo tra!íornì llìc ccononi. opÍxtr-tuÌritics, poliri.aÌ powús, ind social sia(us alailablc to bcàra6 of that

Thc prccisc wats nr whì.h 'recognition' and 'rcdhtributior', oÌ 'i.lentity' ddd 'intlrests', rre coÒbnÌed vâries Iiodì on. nÌúticültuÌalìs'n poìnyto a.otlìcr, and iÍom one Sroup 10 anothcl. tl i('s a oris(.le to tpatnultnulhnlisdr as púr.ly. Ìnatt.r ol synÌboljc rccognithn, it {oukle!uallybe r mistãkc to trcât it as lfuÍeìy à dnguis.d nÌtÌ ofrlâ$ poÌitìcs.whiìe it is.omnún ftÌ oÌinoritirs to ruffcr snnultarcobll, Íom polilical, e(onomìc, and .ultuÍal cx.h6nnì, tho Ìinks between these dÌlÍÚcn(lorms ol excìlsion aÌe (omfiex, and mulli.uìturãli5m policies traci< lhir

sonÌc gÌoups, lìkc indìgenous pcoplcs, arc dispropollionalcll' .oncen'trât€d üÌ vúlicrablc ccononÌi. posiììons, polìlically rìargirìaÌizcd, andsr )iect to d.rìcadnÌ8 oi silcn.irg cúltural rctrcscntalio.s- i d their.lannr addÌcss tlìcsc dhltiplc iorrs of slbordnÌrtion. 3ut there âÌe othe.

8rcups thrÌ .orüinÈ .arlturàl ard tx ìti.al cì.Iüsntì $itl' e.onomicprivjlege Á srrikin8 exanìpÌe il (iììinese minoÍiìier in South-ln5t Asìan

counÍi€s lrch as ÌìÍliÌìesia, MaÌay5ia, ì'hÌìippines, oÍ ThaiÌrnd ln ea.ìÌof Ìhese (oüntrìes, thè Chines. dìnbÍily nÌrú i smâll lreÍentaSe ofthe potuìation, yet oft-"n owns a lalie [,art pè.lirp! èven the donìinantpiÌL oI lhe €ononìy. ln ìndonesia, Ior eÌample, the Chnìese minorirylôrìs around 3 p€r cent oI the popúlilion, bur is esrjmared ro contÌoll0 t)cr.c.t {ìi lhe priva(. ccoronì_v Yc(, despitc lhel ccononìic pririkgès, th.y ìríyc lãccd súioLr coltúrat crclúsions. Unril r.ccntlt', Chnìcr-larsraSe dü..tio. was rcstriclcdr and it was lorbiddcd to pulrlishnì Chìncso, oÍ to put Chincse .harnctcrs .Ìì íÌop si8.s lrì Tlrailind, t|ca:hú!eÍ, weÍe t)AsuÍ..|tô adopl Tlìai ntr.aÌncs. VoÌc gcnúãlly, Chinese

{Í{ps in rlp Ìegnnì àre oítcn stilÌ d.lin..Ì xs 'Íircigncrs' wlìo do rot really

r

Mrling 5ênre oÍ Libcràl Mulholturalkm

bclong, cvcü ifthey havebeen livingnr the..unÍy forgcnsalio.s; thcyarc iovisjble in the pübli. sphcr!, i.d exclude.ì hom sÌate sembots Jnd

lhe .asc of ccoDonìi.alìI prìvilegcd but crltürally rrÌ8m.tizcd tradÈsüay seem lilc a pc.Ìrliariry oÍ the 'cÌony capitalism' found in a(thoritaFian regnD.s (Chna 2003, Riggs 1994). Ìut ihee are ÌÌant cascs withil thecÍablúlì€d Wesiern denÌo.racìcs ofgn)upr thar âre c!truralty stigmariTedwithout ÍrfÍeì'n8 e.ononìic cr.lusnh.  non ethfÌ. cxarrÌtte i5 rhar ol8âys àrd lesbians in nìon WcstèÍì demo.nci.s, who.njoy simiìar peÊcapita l.vels of income or cdtr.atbn as hetero5ex!.h, bur are tarseÌsoI honÍìÍtkn)ia Sonìe wellcstal,lislled imrnigÌinr or rclignnb 8i.mts,likc AÌab

^meÌiens, cdioy higheFthan avel.8e lclcls (Í ldu(aiion .nd

nì.oÍne, but are clltúrally n)!.ginalized or stignìa(ized. They are rypicalt)'ütvisible in publìc spacc, èxcept wheo pÌcscDlcd id the nredia oÌ HoÌlywood as lerrorists or rrli8i{ru\ fundanìentalisis.

Or cons'dú. srlìsrate narionalist dinodty Ìikc th€ CaLal.ds. Thcy€njoy the sarnc ía.dàÌd of livìn8 is thc nraìoÍity in fact, somcwhâlhigh€r ycl thcy have suffercd from coltural cxclusún, as lìrcii lã.!üâ!eand cultuic havc lreen Íigmatiz€d as i erio.by the maÌorily. Thry Ìesentthe way their langüa8e and lraditions have been !ÌargirÌalized by rhecenkâl 8ovÈÍì ment, aDd havc nìolrilìzcd lir ÍeSionalatronony (rr even

So ndr all oúlli.ulluralist claims ìnvotve . dc rnd tôr ecooomicrcdistribution. But even üÌ thcs..aser, multicúÌlüralisn ir not püre1y

'synÌboìic' it still .enlralÌy i.voìves issues ol politicrl ÍBwer and repr.s€ntation (such as lhc catâÌan demand ior aúro^ony). 'lb be Írrc, is fewilì see next.haptcr, the.e aÍe poÌitical actols wlìo woukì like lo icdü.emulticulurilism to ÍÌeÍe symboìjsnÌ. l. dráry .rses, polilical ctites and

SovernnÌcnt olÂcìals may havc hopcd ãnrl expeded that token ÌefiÍmswoold bc suf6.ient. Thev nÌay l[ve hoped that it would bc enoughto put a few wo.ds ol i úÌi.oÌity ìlnguage on lhc stãtc (rÍÌenq,, forcradÌte, oÌ to put an indigcüous hisroÌic.l flgurc ô. a postage srrnÌp,and this would satisly aspirâti()nr for 'tccognitnnf. Hoserer, what.vcrthe ongì nil irÌt.ntion ôlgokrnmenl oliciah, rondomiìrant groups hãvc

repr.Í.lâr. ! or niionJt hLtory ìeit{Moar)orârthc

82

used nìollicrltural runrnh a5 a sprüÌgboàÍd f.Ì.eSoliatiúg siljnilìcantty€nhanccd i..css to pubÌic r€souÌcci, pow€rs and ô11ì.es.

'lhe succe$ ol thcsc itrtrljgles tor a dìoÍe subtr.nlivc iotrD ot mrllidrinrralisnÌ wilÌ bc rvììuatcd in Chapter 5. lrur Í(n !oB, tt[ k€y poioris that mullì&llúalim ìs rmt irher.ntly alrout recognilio. ather rhanredislribuliodoridè.titierrarlrerthaninreÍesrs thrsorrsofpoÌicieslisredìrÌ tlìh.haptrr cut a.ross Ìhcsc distincrions, addicsnì8 úles of lcgàlrlghls, politicâì de(újon rÌaLi.g, e.onom ic rcsoúrÒs, and pubticscúi.€s.Indccd, thir is wbt, mulli.ultÌ&lism in its various forms his bcc. jocontÌovrÌsial, hoth nì the lvcst à.d in the rest ol the woÌtd. wc.a.,thôpè to ünde6tand thcsc.o.troveÍsi€s il wc assunìe in idvan.c rhâtdulti.ulturaÌÌsm is iúst about symbok.

^ thiÌd polerìtial rÌisr.dÈÁtanding co.ccÍìs rhe ìink bctw.cd tiberal

multiculluralisn ând nàti()n building.I sai.leaÍlieÌ rhar múlriculruraÌism,in aìl ot ils diliocnt lÕÍns, invoh'cs a rcpudìation of oldeÍ nxleìs ofhonìo8encôus nitìorhood. On. miSbt.ssume, th€retbÍe, thrt.ìutti.últuÌalirm and DatìonalisÒ âre

'ron edcÌnics ard inherenllycontÌadi(lory

ideologìcs, and that suppoÌt for onc cntaìls repudi.UorÌ ol rhe other Onlhis vics, thrÌ€ is a 7eÌo surÌ relatiorsÌr+ bers(eÕ nnrltidttüil poljcicsand latnÌLbuikijng policics, Írch thaÌ nÌuÌric(lruraÌìsm can onty tak.root nr a 'F)\t natìon.l' íatc ârd 5ocierv. tn rcáliry, however, thc sortôf nìulti.ultuÌalisnÌ that hâs emeÌged within the WeÍ has rÌa.sfor.ìednahon-buÌldinE, nol rcplâ.cd ìi.

^lÌ Westcrr counÍìes coorirÌuc to adotr

a range of poljcics to íì.ukate overar.hnìg national idenr ics lrd krya'nes, irckrdjig thc rÌandãtory te.chnrg of the narjoD,s langurSei hisroryand nrstitutnrs úì rch@ls, largúàge tesrs ror cilizcnship, rhe n!ìdingol natnrÌJl media an<l .ÌuscutrF, and the dilltúìon of national sl'nìbols, flaljs, anthenÌs, and holidays, to narnc júÍ â few lhis is as tmeof {{ünrÌies that qúalify as '\tron8ìy' nnrlti.ulrüral in my ìisrs above as

of countÌìes that have dÌìdc little if any íììll ni â nNttn.utr!úl dúc.:tnÌÌ. ÌÌowever, wlìerc nmltìcüÌtuÍaìism policics hàve beer idoprcd, ttFyoperaie to suppìcnc.t ãn(l tÌa.sfom thcsc nrrio. building poli.ies jothit lhc lrtÌer arc l€ss ìiì\eìy to mi{iDâlize or sri8mirizc nììnoitietsfolexaorplc, by er\uring that nilion buildìng policìes do notèÌctude metjcsand ra.iaÌ.aste SÍoups, or co(cively as\inrjÌale imnìigÌarús, oÍundernìidclhe s€Ìf-8overnm€nr oI natio.àl minorÌlics and hdiSerou\ peoplcs. Inúôsc W€5tem colnnÌes thal havê strongÌy movcd in the dü€clion oftNlti(!ìturalism, thc rcsrÌ ti.8 àptÍoich is bcst des.ribe.las one irÌ lhich(rbust forms oI naliod búildin8 aÌe combtìcd anÍl onsrì?ined by robüstfoflns ot rìirÌorilt riÂhts.

Ihc Formt oÍ Lih€raì Mrlti(ulturalkm

3l

Making S€nse ôí tiberal Mutri(utruratkm The Forms of tibcrâlMulri. lhr:li(m

i.

t

My assessmcntol riÌe stÌengtìì of nìúlricutrulalisn in variÒus count.nrsthcrcfore docs not r6c( the eÌtontro which rhese stares lìrvc reDU.ìi,rerlr'dlior' I,Lrlcl'8.I,u '.rrtìrr .pt,r!r lo$t.rh.,drru,,burt r8t,,.,L,,.1tì!oío.med in a more plu.atisric dúecrìon. In this rcspecl,,Ìl (,r.cptn)nof lh. difiercncc betwccn tÌÌo.g,, imodest,, and ,weak'mrÌti.llluratijndiúers fÍo.Ì the way rhcse teÌms are soÌrêtimes uscd. David MiÌt.r rrÌt \JI tJr, "l\ú ü \"nB ri\l'e\ ü.rw er . trtinEF..,r,d r,,t. t,,m. ot r.,u.,.uÌtuÍaìisn, whi(h hc labeh ,radn:a t' add ,nodúatc,. Brron his vieh,, Jadical' nu llicultura lisrn nrvolecsa cooxo'tmenr to ac.onxìodai ing nìi.orilics rithoút súnutÌ.ncoüstv pronìolnÌB an overarcbing ì{lcnrilì.arìor wiÌh(ind byally to) dìe targcÌ potitical cornnunily âr{t,larc (Miìtcr 1995,chaf. s, 2000r ì05 6, 2006). He dhtnÌSuishcs thj5 llonì r 1ìo.I.ÍarenìulticulluraÌism lhâr {:onÌbnìcs'nuÌtiell!rnliyn wiür .arion_buitdÌn!po,, rp\ rhnr \ee! ro rni Lhdrr dr oL.,dr hiriS t{{ tit..t ..rnti,, Jr it o\.rl r ln rlr lÌ 'rnr,,,n,-rt, to .\.rrtt,,. mo,j.;.rr. -,,. tr uit ,r r,.n koulJtelì cnizcos that tlìee fue rnany different an.l iegiúrare way, of ,bcüÌgBntirh', ard thit tJcinS Brìtish is nor inconsistcnt with rhe pubti.eapressün .nd a..onnìodatiod Õl orlÌ.Ì identitics, i.cÌ!dnì,r ,trcú! Mu;tn!,

"L.inA \.o'ri.h. k||.r.i. rJdrd m rtrtrJtiLr..ti.rr wo,,tÍi dh\o.1, uldiscotrrage nÌnbnries froÌn adoptinS su.h â pan,etlrric s{Irr ordnÌak

ThisdistÌnctn)n bctwcen radi.!ì and Ììo.ter. rc huìricrlturatÌsnì nrav b.r,ÍtL ror'ôrnF Jndl\tr p,Ip..e\ orr dtr.rir,,J \ êrin, tj to ir\r, rn,rltiÒlturalisd in rhc Wcstern dcmoüà.ie, qualify a,lnodcrareii. Miìtcr,sscJúè, operatin8 to tran\torn rarher than repudiate.ation b(ildinS NoWasteÌn .lernocraqÌ ha\ aban{toncd narion buitding t)oticics, wherhernr dre lìcld oi oth.'aÌ langúa8es, Ò.e cúÍicuìã in s.hooh, .ìrizcnstÌÌrr.!Ìrircnrenb, slate symbols, putÌlic media, and so o . lJ!ì rhese natiôr-bu,Ìd r.t toi,, i.\ hdr.. tu \ãr\irÀ p\r.rit. r- íl| i1, r I

qualihêd and tÌa.Íorni.d by nÌulticulruralirm potì.jes.20what we scc in rhe lcat world of lib€raì denÌdÌa.ics,, tììerclòr€, is

a compìex diale(ric ol state natbn búiÌ.ling lsrat. .lemandr oD ÌÌinodtict and nìnÌrity right\ (nìdriry dcmands on rhc stãrel The .hoicc

".,-.*. , t'"...,., 1a,r. n . ri*,.,, r; r.._.. r,r. ;

1. .., ..ir,úr;r. ..df.,r r. TLn d 1,,. mdqnú!,

r.id.b, rtsbrernd Íbíìre te!Ìlj \

is not beh{eeo n.tioohood ì.d ÍÌuìticultlmllsrÌ, but berween ditlirènrpactaSes of polìcics that conìbÍìe the endurnì8 aspúatnnú ind iúìc-tional needs foÍ nation buildüìg with the egually cndunrg denands rôâ.1{ìmmodare diveEÍÍ7r

Irì short, liberil nÌuÌlicúllúrãlism ì5 a moF corÌpÌicdred phenomc.onthan maDv people lealizc. It is not a sirSle principlè or t)olicy, bur anumbreìli ol iÌìghly group<ÌifferentÌated approà.hès

^nd eich of thep

atploichcs is itsclf rÌultidnnensionaÌ, incorporrtinS e.ononÌìc, politn:at.Dd cúllúral tlcDìcnts iÍì different wats- !.ch aìÍ, has ìls own .Òmptcxlinks 10 poli.ics dnd practies of ni(iod búildnìg. IheÌe js i natu.at tendencl to winÌ lo sidplìly ttrii (Ìnplexilv, idd to reducc mlliicúÌtrtrâìismto a singlc prh.idc or dinensnnr, as iiit was all Éaìly aboul, snl,, ,tn)tecr

ìrÌ8cnda.gered.uìtuÌaì rÍaditioní, or'vâlidaring íiSmarizcd idcniújes,,or lepudiahn! nationalism'. Brt w. need b avoid llrcsc rimpìi,lingpr.supt)oritions, and to eximnìc nÌ a ÍnoÌe open nÌnìdcd wr) why thcscvaÌioüt poÌicies eorerged, rhJt thcy weÍe in(cnded to a.lÌieve, aDd howthcy are ofratinS ìn prac(ice.

Id this.haAter, I have tied to outli.c sone of the main lordÌs of ìiberaldrulti.uìturãlism in the wesl. I hivr not Ì'et rhown rhir rhcy are,liberal,in aDy meaDinStuì sense, b.yo.d the la(.t thar lhcy c'ncrged wirlÌür llÌcframework oi wcslcdÌ libcral dcrníxÌa.ie5 lb nDw this requi rcs examnìing the nature oI thc nìobilizãtbn Ìhal gavc rìsc to thclc ÍeÍonns, ind tlr!acl(al cllccts (nìtcndcd ard unintended) oi adoptúìg tlìem. Thil is nrygoil nÌ thc dcxt tw. (hàt)te6

Dcicndcrs of tbese ref(rms have argftd that thev are rÌe.dcd t() over.ìnc dcet.5erted foÍnìt ol exclusio. ard stiSnìarization, tìclpiig Wcsrerndemo.Ía(ies to Lrecomc lrccr, tán€Ì, moE incl$ìvc, ndd indeed arorc

snarFr nÌ3 flÌe ìqitimâri.s..

Ì,J.1 dina íoÍ nnÌtuuuuÍrl íisht trrú|. ,I'r|e.n d Í.ply ,prndcsls, .Í SriJr untarcowetrÌy, ucft it nôt for rlrc ffeçde or nnÌonq Íi{hLi, nrnr â

rdr,ülijon( ]\ícÍrlì, wccÀndô'\

or! gÍlrlL rhú rtu!Írcn,LedI iìrâdvrn4d. uorcss lrfinèÌncried dìd.onnúúld buiiid buiìdúq ú ìrkeìr b rr oori.si!.ând uüjui

Maki.g Sense ôÍ tiberal Mutti.uttu.ati,m

demo..atic socì.ties.Il ison thc bãsisol thn peÌception rhatvaÍìo!s irÍrÌna(ional orgadizariooshJvepubtìcized thetheoricsand,bcstpracri..s,olliberaÌ mülLi.uitrúaiÌsoÌ as a modct forothrrcounrrjcs.

^s I hoÍE to slìow,

whilc tnere arc 8ood Srounds lo defend Ìlìis oplirÌisti(. pcrccptioa âbourthe cffcds ollibeÍal nmtti.ulturalisnì, Ìhcrc aÍe also Srounds fd he5ihtionabout it\ exPortahiìil_a.

4

The Origins of Liberal Multiculturalism:Sources and Precondìtions

li

i

Libe.al nìulliculluraljsnÌ did not €nÌer8e out of Ìhin aiL It has been buillupoveÌ time, drawirÌg on a rnÍìbcÍ of roüÍce5 and f.cilihth8 .ondjÌiorÌsthaÌ enabled ìl lo Ìlsc out of what John Kìqdon famously eìled rhe'Ìrimevaì polìcy soup' (KDgdon 1997).

^ny seÍous efforl lo pronxÍe Ìib

eralmulÌicullúralìsÌn nccds to attend to these 5olrces arì.i Dre..ndirionsAnd yet wclrow sulÌisìngly litÌleabout tlÌcm.

One prpbleú n that mu.h of th€ literatÌrrc o. úis i$ue suflì6 lroúlncthodolollical naftrnaljsm' (Winnìcr .nd Glick S.hiller 2002). WhèneÍplânrin8 the eme!8eoce oI molticútturâlism poìicies, comm.ntator5t€nd to focus on. p.rücular Òurtry and then invoke lìcts thàt àÍe spedlì. tothatcountrÍ slch as pârticuìaÍlìeÌsonalitìes or high proile êventi,th€ stlategies o{pãrticúlâr orgã.izations or polirical paÍties, the narure ofthe eÌedoral systcÌr, and $ on. lÌese facrors aÌc úndôubtedty imporranrin explainhg the details of lny parlìc(lar casc, Lìüt once we r(ognizctlìc pcrvdliv€ natuÌe ofthe treDd lowar.ls úultituìtuÍalism, itscens cÌeàrthatthe !ìain €xplanation nÌúÍ Ic ni f{Ì.e\ and ünanÌiÕ thatar. foü.dâcros5 many Wester! denÌoüacics, ràtheÍthan fa.to6 specilìc to paÍnarlaÍ drntne\. l heÌe nì ust be lndoÌyi.g stru.tu.al eutet rhar cxptanÌ wht,{ì oìany weste.n demoüacics have noved ìn simil.r directiors, dcspiterheirdifferenl electoral ând pârty syrtems. l,ui schcmaticallt we need Ìoexplain both why su.h à brcad range ol nìinority Sroutls have beconcnìorc asscdiv€ iÍì advan(in8 li8hts claims,:nd shv such d brcad nngc of.oÍ.triès have beeme morrwilnÌg toa.cept tbese claims.

I do not beìieve that we h.vc a.lear nndersianding of what thereúrderÌyinSauses aF. l towever, l will try h thìsdìapterto identiÍyscveralfaúoÌs that have made the ticdd towrrds the 8Ìeater a..orÌnÌodatnrn ofethn@ìtuÌ.I dÌvcrsi ly possiblc, and perhaps even incvitablc, iÍ the West.

86

Mãtitrg Senre oÍ LiberâÍ Multiculru.atism Th€ Oriqìnr ôf Libcíâl Multì<ulturalìsm

I will start$ith thc trDsÌ irportant ideologicaì Íictor-namet].i thc risÈot. hu an rights culture, and rh€ resu t1Ìng .lèìelliriDa tnnì oft.aditionalethnic ând raciil hicraÌchics As I ü,ìll lry to show, huxtan righrs idcalshave.ot onìy hcbcd b inspúc and ìrstúy {laims tbr nülti.u úrnliso,but nlso have stlongll, Ìnfluen.ed how lhcs. Íla'ns ârc fráned, char,DelÌiog and lììrernÌg th€m ro a.órd wilh the underlynÌg values ot int.Fra(iürãl hunìin rìghts norlr.

'Ihc.c is an obrbus iro.y l)cre. Ás Be saw in (:haptur 2, $Ìen hunÌanrìghts .orns wcro inirÌâll) .odi6ed bf the UN .tl( W(trkl war U, theywcrc scen prc.isrljr ar an alteÍnative ro the inrel wü systenÌ ol njinoÍjryrights, renderìig the lil(eÌ urne.essary.

^Dd foj sNcral de.idcs aftcr

world WaÍ IÍ, lhc âssurnflion ttrar h!nrin rì8hts Fpla.. minoÍity rigbt\prcrâiled lÌut lhc hunìan rights rcvoÌutio. unìeashcd a serofidcãsatnureth.ic and raciil eguaÌily, rnd a sel of potiÌicat novemenrs contestingcthni. aad raciãl hieür.hirs, rharÌcd raturally locônremporary stru,tsteslo 'rIl ! rlrJrr'Fn,..d uril\ ru. rt\ t1 rh,\ ,,{ I,rnpo rj) \;rJggÌes, ünlilc ürter wa! ideas oí múÌÌitI prot..tion, mijÌority ri8hts arehghtÌy nrtèÌwover with human n8hÌs idc.ls. lhe ..s,rltúìg model oftrÌuìticulluralism ìÌis proven to bc ìn attrcrive vehicte for converrì.8hi\toric rektnrns of hierarchy or enmiiy irÌto retations of {ìenÌoüãti.

B(l havinS in ittra.tiv€ or.ompetlnÌg drrÍat ideal is raÌely enough roSencrite (onsensus on signit.ant poliricàl refoüns. I Ìrilt thercfore aìsoÌmk ãt sonÌe ot the ìnoc prudentiaÌ or jtraregic Ìcasons why domìnantgrouPs and slàtcs have becn wiÌÌin8 ro supporl, or at leaÍ a.quies.e ioithc adoúion of nrülticuìl u.al .eforms. Th$e iDclu.lc.hangcs nì the AeoDwLrrJl \.turitr \h'dr,o vt ttp W.,tFrr,le,rro, a, ^ 1,1,1 .',,,,*",,,the nature of the gÌobal..Ònomy.

'lhe.e isno way oI d.tcrnining thcprecìsc rclatìve rvejghtsofrhe,ìor.pÌincipÌcd Íeãsors lÕr adoprirìg ntricúìturdÌisnÌ, as .ornpared to themoÌc strateSic reaso.r. lrll I bclieve rlÌat bÒth h.vc ürdeed Dlilc{Ì I vtãìrol, ir hp r\c o, rn.rlrr . r,,"r-n' rn'tr,, We",,,u,,.,,,,,,,,p",,".,,1.bolh ãrc cruci.l to assessÌng tbe prospc.ts for irs diftusion arou.d the

The Human Rights Revolution as tnspiration

the ntsl iíctd to consnìer is thc human riglÌts revoìú(ìor. Ttre adoprionof lilìeral Ììulticulturahm has bc€n LrotlÌ ürpiÍed and.on\rraìncd bv

hunran riglits idcais. Indccd, ìhc trcnd towards litlrràl rnuìti.ultuÍalisnì.a. only bc úndcútood as a .cw stã8c nr thc gradual woÌLÍìE outof thc loSic of húdan riShts, and id particulàÌ the lo8ì. of the ideaof thc ÍÌÌrcr.nt equility of hurDn t{úrgs, both as indìúduals and as

With thc adoption ol tiìc Univosâl DcclãràtioÍ of Human ìlìgÌìts(UDHR) tr 1948, thc nÍ.íìatio.àÌ ordcr decisiveÌ1, Íèpudiatedoìder ideasof a ra.ial oÍ cthric lÌicrar.ht accordnÌ8 to whi{:h some peoples wercsute )Í kr otheÍs, ard therpby had the li8ht to Íule ov€. rhem. It5impÍtant k) remember ho$ contested tni5 nìea of human eq(rÌity was.

h 1919, whenJapan pruposed that a (lause on râcial €guaÌity be in.ludcdir th. .ôvena.t of the kàguc oi Nâtions, this Ìlas Fundly reÌe.tedby the (Jnited Stater, Cadada, and otheÍ weriern powe6 (M.cMillan2O0l: Jìó 2l).

^ssumptiont about a hie.ar.hy of peoples scÌc nì fact

wideìI accepted throu6hout Ìhe wert up unt'Ìworld Wâ! tl, whcd Hitle/síinatical and muderous policìes disoedited them. The wholc systen ofcoloiialìsr was premised on lhe assúdÌption ol a lÌicrar.hy of pqÌte\,â.d tlÌis âsuúplio. was llrc cxpli.il bisis of both doncshc poli.ies andirtÚnational law lhroughoul üÌc ninclcenlh .crtúry and the lìÁt halfofth. twentictiÌ ccntery (includinS the râciâlly ex.l$iodàry immigÌationlàws fourd nì aìl thcNcw WorÌd scttlcr statês, mêntionedin thepÌeviouschaptcr). lrì slro( prior to World War I1, 'raciim aÌoünd Ìhe $orÌd waslaÍgely 5odally a..epted, pdlitically buttretsed e(onomicaÌìy supporlcd,üúellechrally irDtined, and ìelJally toìe€t€d'(lnurcn 1996: 1.14).

Since 19,18, howeveÌ, we have heen Ìivin6 in a worìd where lhe ìden ofhunÌaüequaÌity isunquestioned, at ìeastoÍìcialìt and thìs has genúitcda series ol poÌitical moÌenÌents desigDed to conlesl üìe lingoingpN.d.eor cdd(rnìg.flccts ol oldÚ c(lÌlic and racial hierarchics. (lt has alsoinspircd !Ìovcúcnls to contcí othÚrypcs ofhicrarchics, such as EcndeÍ,disabilitt add scÌüàl ori.rtation-)

In .eìãtìon to eth.ic and É{:ial hien.chies, we can identify a sequcnccol süch .Ìovements.'lhe fi6t was d{oÌoniation, fÍom roughly 1948 tol9óó. Some WesteÌn coüntri€s that si8ned the Uì)lÌR did not believe üìatendoring the pdnciple of the equaliry of p@ples would reqrirc rhcrìto give up theiÌ colonies (e.9. Irance, SpairÌ, Portúgal). Àut this positnÌÌwàs unstrÍàirìâblc, â.d thc lirìk bctwccn .quâlity ãnd d€.otÌrization was

nade expli.it ú tlic UNs 1960 Gc.eral Ass.trìÌty Rer)lution 151.1 on

A se.ond stage was ra.iaÌ dcsc8.cSatnn, fÍom tuu8hìy ì955 to 1965,úriìiated by thÈ

^fri.Jn-À cri.à. .ivil riShts stru8gìes, and partiaìì_v

l

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89

Maling Scnscof Liberal Multielturalirm Ih€ oriqint or Liberal Multiculturalism

proreúnrìs. Bút the foÍm th€se PÌoleclions take is not solely anti

disc.iminatnD ând !ndiffeÍentiâtèd cilizenshiP, but rath.rvarious gro(Pdifferentiatcd ÌniDoÍity rilÌhts. lrÌ the Canadiatr conlext, tòr examPì€,

these indud. bilinSuaìisnì and provìnciaÌ autonomy (for lhe Qúébécois),landdaÍnsànd trearl. riShts (fÒ.AboriSiral PeoPler, àrd laiious sort5olmultieÌturàÌ a<ommodations (br nnmiSmnVethni. grotpt.'?

Thc strrSijìe f{Ì thcse diffeÍentìatcd mìnotÌ$ Íjghts tìust bt tndQstood, ì beìieve, a! a lúaladaptaú)n of citìl riShts ìiberaÌìsnÌ, n.d hcncc

rs a ncw sraSe Íì th. unlolding of dìe hunìan ri8ht5 rev.húior. lrdtàs dccoloniT2tún nrpircd lhe struSSlo lôr riciil deteSÌeSatntì, so rr.i.l.leseglegation nìsPired lhe stnÌssÌe lôr minori\' riEhts and rNlticúltúÌalism. lli5 thiÍd stà8c is inspiÍ€d hy thc civil tiShts litreÌaììrn of thc

se.odd nage (as well as tht decoloDizatìon rtnrggles of the lì6t srage),

shares its commitment to con(cíing ethni. ànd r.cial hierar.hies, and

seeks tÒ apply this.ooìditúc.t more effe.tiveìy to lhe icnraì Ìan,je

of excìuiiô s, stigmatiTatioôs, a.d iìÌ€quaìities that cxist in Western

demo.rdcics. Iew Nuntrios tlÌal si8.ed the UDHR cxPected rlrai endorsing the prnÌciple oI the equality oI peoPìe! would requirc ac.epling

norms of multi.últur.lisn and nìnìority ti8htt 8ut thàt Position too has

Lrc.ome unsnrtàinable, ind the linlbetween equality à.d nulticúlttúalisrn has been madc cxplicìl üì the UNs 1992 Declaration dn thc RiShìs

ôf Pcdons BeÌonÊhg to NationaÌ or Dlh.ic, ReliSiou5 and Linguisti.

In all tlìree staget ôf this struSSle aganst cthnic .rd Ìacial hieràÍJÌ},whàt rìatlers is Dot the changc in Ìnternatioül iaw lcr r., which has hâd

liftì€ nntact on ìnost peoplct cvcryday lives. Thc real chanse ha\ bcen

in peopl.5 consciousness. Mc!ìbc6 of hi5toricâlly Írbordinated gÌouPs

todiy demand cqoaÌÌty, and dèmand il as a,iÍtr. Thcy bclicve they aÌe

cntitled to equâlity, and entitìed to it ,or, not in soúc indennie or

This sort of thtsconsciousness hãs beconre Íich a Pe^'asivc Latúre ofmodonity lhat we havc troulìle ìmagi n ing that il did notaìwalr'sexist lutif we exànÌnre the hìstori.ãl rcÒrds, we lìnd thàt minorjties in the past

rypi(aììy lustilìcd theú clanns, nôt byaPpeaì Ìo huúan riShts oÌ equaìity,

butbyappcàúìg to the gen.rositt ol rulers ìn ac.ordnrg 'pÌivileSeí, oltennÌ return f{r pâÍ loyalty an(1seNi.cs (S.lìwittay 2003). Todat byconlrnst,groups have a powcÌfll se.s€ ofrntillcncntto equaÌity àsâ basic hutÌ.n

': I dev!ìop ìn Ínciprchton oiin,ndhúmrnigh6nonNjÌìl@

inspircd by de.Òl()nizatn)n stNggìes I when the Unilcd Slalcs signrd theUDHR h 1944, it did not belìeve that this wo(ld reqrnc alJàndooiÍrgits segregrtio.ist ]ãws. Btrt this po\itbn too becane !r5uíai|ablc, andlhc li!Ì( bètsc.n cluâlity and Íacial dìsoiminalion was Ìnadc clplicitin lhc UN\ 1965 Corventioiì on the LrÌirÌinãÌion ol All Fonns ol Racial

Thc ^frican ^meÌnìân

(ivil righls slr!8glc súbscqu.rtly inspiÍed hist(ÌicaÌìy 5ubordìDated ethn(ullúral groups ãrornd the w..ld to enEa8ein their own foms ol í(ggic agrilNt thc liôgèÌüÌ8 I)rerence of ethnicdnd ra.iaì hierarchiei. we ciD sc. this in thc wãy ür.li8enous peopìes

âdotted the rhetoric ol 'Red Pow.r', or i. ttie wãy narionaì minoÌjties (such as lhc Qúibicois oÍ catholìcr in NdÌthem l.eland) calledthemselvcs 'wiÌitc niggc6' ffdllierês l97r), oÌ in the way CaribbraniDmigrants to thc UK adoptèd the .hetoric and l€g!l straregìcs ot Anìcrican blacb (Modood 1996, 2003).

^ìì of these Ìlovements wcrc pÍo

foundly núherced by Anìern:an ideas of cÌvÌÌ righls liberalism, àndits comDÌilncDl to dclìdd cquJlity foÍ diradvantaged ind stigmatized

Howcvèr, àt civiÌ Íighrr ljbeÌaìism spÌcad, il also ha.l to adàpt tô theâ.túâÌ chaìlengei fa.ing difÍerenl ivpcs ol minorities àround the woÌld.For

^meÍcan th€orists, ìdeas such as'.ivil rights' and'egiülity' have

been interyreted through thc lcns of ârti-dis.rúninatìôn in genenÌ, indÌaciaÌ descgrcgatio. id particúlâr For most American theorists, the soÌtsoÍ rjgbts lhâl civiÌ righrs libúàlish ftust defend are therelorc riglÌLs ro(ndìIllcntiitcd.itizr.sliD sithin a'civic natìon'thit tr"ns.cnds ctlüÌic,racial, a.d rcligtuus differenGs.

Irì nôstcountÌies, however, the silLrilion ofDÌirÌoritirs rÌeèdin8 prorection dìifeÍ5 from that ofAÍic.n AmÚicans, and so too do the sorts ofciviland political rlghts they r.qúirc. Á1ìi.àn-^men.a.s were involu.larilyseS.egated, solely on the basis ol thÈii rãce, excÌudeÍl fronr commoninstìtutions and opportuDilics to whi.h they often wanted acc$. Manymino.jties, however are in thc oppsitê l)orition: thet have becn inroluDtarily a$iDilatcd, sdpped of thêiÍ own llngoa8e, clltlúc, an.l self-

Soverning üìstitutidÌs. They kJo have faced opprcssion at the bands ofthcir .o-citizers, and have had their .ìvil rights dcdcrl to thenr, oftenhith thê enthusia$i( backìng ol larSc rìajoritics, Òn the 8Ìourds oltheir ìnferioÍity or baclïardncs. Thcy ttu rêed .ounteÌ rajorjtaÌian

ntÍnnnciviìiglr6!ruaqrer, ar vo. EÍhm l997r.Andcfon 2rÍr.Ì

j

9l

Making Seô5c of Liberal Multi.ulluralism Ìhe Oriqií! ôf Liberal Muhi(!lturâlirm

ri8hl, not âs á favour or charit, and are angriìy impatient s,irh.nyljrSernìg !ìàrifestation5 ol old.r hic.ar.hies l

Of course, tlÌctu i, no.onsensls o. whar '!eguãlity'nÌcads (àôd, .uìveÍseltnoasrfcmentonwhiIsortsof actbnsorpracliccsareevid€..€of'hierâÌcby'). Peopl. who agree od the general prin.iple of the eqüaÌit,vof peoples Òay dìsa8Ìee aboll wh.thèr oÌ when thh rcquúès oíì.ialbiljngoalisni, foÍ example, or.odociatnrnal poser sharnr8, .Ì Ìeìigiousâcconxìodàtior\ ílut Ìher. en be no doubr thil Western denìo.ìa.ieshìsloÌically piviìeged a partìculàr nationalgroup ovcr orhcr groups whow.r€ srbicct to assimiìatioD {rr.Ìclusion.'this hisloric tricraÍ:hy wasreflectcd nì a widc range oI policics and inttiturjons, lron ttÌe 5.hoolsà.d sÌilc syrìbols to poÌicies rcga.dnrS ìan8!age, ìnrmigr.rìÕr, niediâ, cjrÌzenship, tlrc divisi{}n ofpowc$, a.d elecÌü.lsystenr. So l{Ìrg as ìeadersol non dotrìi.ant groups can idertilÌ (or conjúe upl Írarifertations o{Ìh€se hhtoÍi. hicraÌchie5, lhcy Íill be abìe to draw upo. the poweÍulrjghts .onsciousress ol theìr mtúbcrs.

The Human Riqhts R€volution as Constraint

lhe hunÌio righs rcvolution is iiÌportant in anorhcÍ way. lt.onrrÌains15 wclÌis trpires the pursuìt oi diultn:uìruÌalisnÌ, and rhis ontÍainjnStunctron belps to cxplairì Nhy slales a.d d{rnnrant groups havc bc.onìemoÌe willing to àccept minority.lanns.

States arc u.likcly t() accept strong forms oÍ minor y rilhrs if rtìeytear Lhq wilÌ Ìcad to isÌands of local tyÌanny sirhiìÌ a LìÍrader demo.rauc íarc. The likeìihood th.r üulticultuì"ìiÍ reforms wiÌl Sain populiÌelpporl dcpcnds heavil, thoclôrc, on contìderlcc rhâr these reror Dìs s,illDot ÌropiÍ.lire hunìan rìEhÌs and liberâl de Doüa ti. vàlues.

^.d ìÌere, rh.

hunìan rigÌrts revolution hns scrvrd d dual ÍLrnc(ion. Ifit bas hehed toinspirc nitDntie\ io push lor Írulticülruraìúm, ìt is cqually rÌue rbit üìch!ma. ri8hts Íevolutjon corÌstr.iostheway irÌ slÌì.tr rrifttriries .rrÌcú1a tcand puAue thejr minority Íiehts. ìn Íacr, thc hunD. riShts revolúrjon is a1{o rdSod s$ oÌd. I t has cÌca tcd plirica I spacc tor cr|n.ndtura I Sroups toco.tcÍ inheÌited hicra(liics. Rut it ilso requncs 8rcüp\ ro adlince rhcirchnns rn aretrslEcìlìc langüail€ nimelt thc lãnSuage oi h! Òan righrs,

a[r' i'x.r!trsn6s nfhrr nìp

92

civil rights libcralism, and dc!ìocratic .rtìstitu(ioialism, with thèir gúal

ante€s of Scodcr equaìitt rcli8ious lree.Ìonì, raciâ1 non diÍrnnnIâtiongaÌ ri8hts, dúc pÍo.rss, a.d so on. l hc ì..d.r s of nr ÍrÌitics .an a ppe.l rothe ideàis otliberal multicúlnrraìism to.halleoge their historic cxclusion

and subordirìation, tìul llìose very ideals iho inìPose tlrc duty on thcnr Ìo

be iu\t, tdcrant, and nrclL^ive.

Of..uÌsc, tlìe mere fa.l Lh.l minorily grolps aíÌi.ìrlat€ thcir .lainsnì the Ìanguagc oí h{nìan ri8hts a.d ljbeÌal conÍllutionaìisnÌ is.ot, Lry

itself, !Íli.idl to geneútc coolìden.e tl'al t|cse val!e! wÌÌì lr€ uphcld.

The use of this lan,ruag. miy be merclf s(rile8i., adoPted Purcly iorpublicco.suúptÌo!. Thc tradìtÌonaÌ leade. oii nìinorit) iltuuP nrat wìsh

to conteÍ tlì.ir subordi atc slal!5 virai/'J lhe domina.t 8Íouf whìlc

still bopnì8 to nraÌntain tltrir orvn domúÌanct over women, (ligioosr''i or. 'P.

T 8',.nr' "$r '.' r' 8 u"n J' J o^.So the qü.siion tr whcthcÌ ìhese va[ìcs will be te5Pe.red nÌ pr.cÌicc.

And in tìre èltablisied Wcstcn denrocÌa.i.s, tlÌ.rc iLe so.d 8ÍJu.ds lorconlì{len.c on lhis scoÍc. fhis .onlidtncc ari5es f.onr t]lo ínìrces: the

cxistence of rob(st ìegal drcchitisnn tu Protecl hunìrn Ìights, ard lhe

cÍislen.e of a co.sensu! ôn iibcialdenxr.rati. valLres that .uts across

cthnic lin€s. IrÌú sì!ÌPìy, tÌtcrc is no legal sprcc for min(Íities to stt isidehnman .ights norÌns in tÌÌe d.tì. ol mulúulturallsnr, and, irì dre cà5t olÌÍô\r minoÌitics. lhei! i5 no Ìvish to do ro

lrom i le8âÌ poinl ol vi€N, Idicics ol multitulturalilD oPeràte withnìthc lìryÚ framewórlot libeÌal.ónrLittttionalisnÌ ând as Ílch anv pNÚs{levolvcd Loiutonorìoús ÌÌin.rity ilrstil(tìoni arc t}pic.lly Íibje.t to dIc

samr coúnìon standãrds ol ksPe(l f{t h!man Íi8ht\ rnd .ivil liheÌÌies rs

any othrr pubLì. instihrtioD. ln vi ullly cvcry .ase of Ìnullinition ledcF

ôlism in tlìc Wesi, fttr cridìPle, !óstatc governnr€nts aÍc subiccr to the

satue constitutional .onrtrrnÍs as Ìhe ccnÌril Sovenment, a.d so ìúveno legal.àpacilyto Ìestri.t i.dÌvnnral i(cdotrs In th. nìnì.ôl m.intanllng ú tualauthenticitt leliSiou\ oriltoiox,!, oÍ È(irl PuÌiqr hì Ínanv

cases, tlicy ale alF subjccL to ÌegirÌnl and ìnÌeÍÌatioÌial htnìan n8tÍrnÌonitorìd8, ard nìo.egc^oalllare int.lrat.d ìfÌo a dcnst wcb oirjShts_

protectìnlj ìcchinisms (nÌchdif g.onÍitulioniL courts, hutÌan Ììshts

rlôsrd íru iiìts b adopt f0 L

diNnDt/rLr d. DDtobie.l t dr i!b úlúü,imrrhtrmm nsrh Ì

Makìn9 5€nie ol tiberal Multicültuíalilm The Orìgins of tibe.al Multiolturâlism

'Ìhi5liberaì eÌpectan.y rests, ìi pãrt, or rhe as\umpriorÌ lh.r thc publicstructüres and principles ol a libcral dctrro.racy ere( a kind of'Sravirãtiônâl pull'on dìe beliefr and priclìces oi cth.ic and relìgÌous groups(Gãlstôn l99l: 292). A5 RosenbluÌn notcs, this Íìctathor ofgravitationalprlÌ+n all p€Nasiv€ but lnvjsible lorcHbscurcs .arheÌ than rclcals theâdual nechanisms at workr and indccd fuady dis.ussions of rhc librrálexpectan.r have a sonìewhil trÌlstunôus xir to tììem. llorlcvcr, theÌe is()n\ideìable evldencethal süch a pro..s has ìndeed op€rilc.i histdicalÌ1.When Catholics and Jews úÌst slartèd âÍÌving in rhe U.ìtcd Stat€s in rnenineÌe€nth ceoh$', fo! exanÌple, it war widcly b.lieved thal tlìcir.ons€Fvativ. ãrd paiÍiaÌchal beìiels and aútÌÌoriti.iar practice5 precìúded thcnrfÍom truÌy eDbmcing liberal denìoúãcy. Ard _\ret ÌnoÍ religìous grcupsin Ânerica have beconÌe Ìibcrali2.d, gradnalìy in.orporitüÌg nôÍnr ofindjvidual treedonÌ, tolcranc, and s€Ìual equaìity ìnto tlìeú oirn seìlunderstandnÌgs. SünilarlÍ thcrc wcr€ doubts abontwh.thcr carlicr wav€sof ìnÌrìjgra.ts to uìe United States and Ca.ad. üom sortlìeÍn oÌ eaÍern Lurope, wherc liberal dcÌnocraq bad neveÍ taken root, .ouÌd truìyinlernalize Lìberal ácnÌocratic vàluès. Yet todav tbese $oups âre oftenseen as sorìc ol thr Ìnost loyãl dèfendeÍs ofco.Íilulional púì.iplet Andsome Írbslaìc nationãlist Sroups drat had earìiel Uirted {ith authoÍira.ìitidologics, m.h as QÌreb( beise€n Ìh€ l o woild wars, have un<le€oncdranÌntic liberàlizattu..

Thcsè€arlierexp€nen.€s ofthe lÌberal cxpcciancy in a.tion have lìelpcdScncrate .on 6deD c€ that multicujturalism can bc salily .ontained w hìrìthc boúndarics ôf libêral-d€mocratic constituliodalisd ãnd human.ighisroúrs. I. à seiety p€rmeatedby a Írong beliel ìn this liÌ]úaì expectancy,.itiz.ns fe€Ì con6dentthathow€verlssúes ol nìllticultuÍaì i5m are s.rlÌed,then own basic ciü] and politicil righh will b€ rcspe.ted. No nìaitcrhow tbe claims of eÌhnocúltúral 8tuups are resohrd ao üattcr whatÌangu.ge righrs, self govexìúent riAht\, lanrl risìts, or multidlturaìi!mpolicies aÌe adopted people car r€Í àssured that th ey won't bc strippcylof their cllize.ship, orsrbicct to ethnic {:leansinS, or lailed without a faiÍtria1, or dcnicd thdr rights to free s|'ee.h, associilìon, and wornlip. Irursinìply, thc .onsedsus oD ÌìbeÍal democralic valucs clsurcs tÌìar {lebaresovú ac.oÌmodating divcÌsit,v are not a ÌÌaller ol üfc and death. A5 a

rcsúlt, dorÌÌnìant Sroups will not 1l8lìl to tlÌc death to rêsist mino.itv

' rn6 ( rn iìpôdr r rtu. {?n ifrp€l r'bcnkdì@ati. vrhs .Ìü hrÌ.in r{jhò. ìndecd, n .rn bc cs|anry nÌpofràni ú

.onmìssìons, oÌìbudsmeD, et .). Pcople sho ìive in rhc ãuto.onbusentities olscotland, Catalonia, or Qa.b{ have access lo sorì. of the mo5tadvan.ed rystenÌs ofhunan rights pÌot(tior ú the world.

^_ot only is ir lcgàIy nnDossìble tòÌ ninôritics nì the Weí tô csrablish

úlands of illiberaÌrule, but in manycascs thc cvidence su8grÍs that üìcyhav€ no wish lo do so. IÌì the.ase ol national mino ries, Ior ca.dÌn!,as we will scc nÌ thc neÍt chapter, .ll of the evnlenc€ súggcsts that theirmembels.rc it ìcast as \tronSly coútrìitted t(r libeFl dcnìo.Íati. vatuesa5 nembcd of donnÌant groúps, ii not ÌnoÍe so l hìs renÌovès one ol the.entraì {cars thâtdÒnìinant 8rolps Ìrxvc rbout minorìll sctfgovctrìÌìentIrr ÍEnvpirtsolrhc world, theÍe is the fcartharonr! national DìnroÍitietoÍ ÌndiSenoús ptoples aquúe seÌl govcrnin8 lower, (hry wìtl use ii ropereclle, dispossêss, e{peÌ, or lìill anyone who does not bebn8 to rh€minorilygroup In theesrabÌnh.d h'estern dem(6cics, hÒwever, this is a

non hÍre. Th.rè is.o fear that scllgÒverninggroups will use theiÍ powersto eslablish úlands of ryrannt or dre@Ìary Morc sp..ifi.aììt thúe isno feal that nìcdrbers ol the dominãrt gnup who lìappcr ro Ìivc in rheterilory ol the self governinS mnìoriry wilì be 5ubjc.t to persecütio. orexpulsion. Thc hüman riglÌts of nnglish residents of scôtìand arc frnÌtyprolcct.d, rot only by Scoltish Ònstiturional Ìaw, but àlÍr bv Europcatìaw .nd this wouìd be lfuc crfl ú ScotÌand seccd€d fÍom lrilanr. ThehaÌnan ightr of arglish Canàdiân residerb ol Quèbec, or ot !ìsrilianrcsidents ofCataìonia, arc tully protected, no rìatt€r whaÌ polilical stãtüsQucbe. or CataÌonia ends up haúng.

Of &ür5e, theÌe are illitPÌaÌ rtrands withú miroriry narioràliÍrÌov.nenrs<onsideÌ thcrãcistand anrì inÌni8Ìant winSs or Bãsque andllcrnish narionalism-as therc are qiìÌÌin histori.2ìty dorìnrânt gÍÌrtsA.d the ìevel of súpporr foÍ tib€raldcnìo.raticvaìues wÍhin sonre imm'E.ant aDd indìgcdous ljrcups ìs evc. rxr€ conr€sred. Tlr(e i! aìwaF theÍisk thii institütions and progradrnes estalrlish.d i. tlìe nanre oI llbcràtmülticulturalisÍì wiÌÌ be captured by su.h ilÌibeÉl elcúcdtr. Ì Í'll rei(úrto this risl in the next chapter, wher I dúcuss how wè shouìd evalúatcìiberal ntulti.ultu.aìism ìn practice. Ì|ut the adoption of liberalnìútti.uthÍalisri r€sts on wh.l Nadcy RÒsenbìlm calls thè ,ìibeÉl cxpcctdn.y'(Rose.blum 1998i 55 6l) thâtis, rhe hope .!d .xpe.tarioo lhat libcrat-democ.ati. vaìues will gros over time ind ralìc frrm r@t across crhnn:,lacial, ànd reìigious lìncs, withnì Ìroth nijority and minorìltgrorps, andthat in thc neantime there aÍrôbust mech.nisúsin plãce rornsúr.thatünúliculturaÌ pìicÌes ard institutions canooi be caprlred and misused

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Making 5€n5e of Lib.ra, Multiculturaliim

'Íhis dual rolc of human rights both as insPintbn ând co.slÌiirtnis been pivotál i. en.blnrg the adoption and a(€Ptarcc ol lìtìeÌal

muhi.ülturalis!Ì. It legihmizes thc claims of histdically disidvantag€dminoÍitics, yct reass!res membe$ of thc dominant Sroup úì.1 oo matter

hoN dcbâtcs oveÍ minoritl riShts xrc rcsolv€d, basic hurnad ÌìghÌswiìì b!

lD thi\ way, libúal úultìcuìtuhlnd nr the west can b. u.derslood as

a pro.e55 of 'citizc.izatìoo,, in íÌ:ntôgical FrSon HistoricaÌly, cth.oculruÌil ãnd Íeìigiors dìversìlt has b€en châracleLiT€d by à rdgt of illiberaìand undêrno.r.tic relationÉú.ludüì8 relatÌons of.onquúor and con-queredj coloni2Ú .Dd coìoniTedì scttl.r and indi8€rôus, raciilized and

urmarkedì no.rìalized ind deviantr orurodox a.d hereti.; .ivilized and

b.ckward; ally â.d cnemf nìâsteÍ d.d slave lìe tâsk for all liberal

democncies has bctr lo lúrn thn.atabgúc of unciviì relations nÍo rela

ÌioDships of libcral democrati.: cihzcnsÌììP, in term! ÒI boih tìÌc vctticaì

.elãÌionship betwccn tlìe membeÍs of ninoÌities and th. Íitc, and tìre

honzrÌìtàl rclâlionships amo.Sst thc úrembeÌr of difÍÚcDl grouPs.

l. the paÍ, it úscd to be arttrrÌed tlìat üìe only oÍ best way (o cn8age

'D this p(res of.iuzeniarion wai tô ünpose a 5inlle undiffer.nliiled

nìodel oÍ dtizcrship on aìl indivnlual5. Bú1 liberal muìtnrltu.nlìsm slirltlro.ì the assutrìÉion lhat tlris comPllx hhtory ineütably a.d JpPrc

priatery Sen€ratcs groúp differ€.tiared ethnopoiilÌ.aÌ .laims Th. kcy to

cilizcniTaÌion is nÒt to süppress theie diffcrcntial claìms, but hth.r tohlto and Iranre thenÌ through the ìan8urg. ol hutìan riSht\, .ivil libútics, and demo.Íati. a.coúntalríiqó and this is Prccnery whaÌ libetul

nultic!lloÌaÌisnr, und€Ìstood as a lhird sta8e ì th. hrnìan ri8hl5 Jtn88lea8ànÌst cthnic aDd Ìa.iaÌ hicrarchy, scctsto dd.

hì rìy vicw, the ac.eptancc of ìibcÌ.I muÌticultu.alúrn in lhe we\t,ând its atlÌadìveness ar à dìódcl to tre diftused 8lob.1lt is ce.tÌaììyh€.i to this p.o.e$ ol citize.izâtion. The idea dìât multi.últtúalism can

Írlc as an efÍedve vehi.lc lor crcating ar.ì co.solidaling relations of

ôl ihc scÍb5 nÌ KoJsr) ) Ìn Úì. contcxt, t m.r Ì{ ryfcÍrnaì Í.r trrvotc huomnsht' â grunds Íd Ìci!.úns uÌüron It dI sÔrcrnmcnt bur fcr,nhd n

ebh.dnìil]s or dcnìo.Ìúr. dtt{rr

En, nì â lo{nbn or.on5titurio.rì n'Èqualry (.s..xdurior úon' !

The Originr of ttbcr.l Multi.ulturâlism

liberaÌ dcnÌocratic cilizcnship in multiethnic Íatcs is .ontest€d Indeed,moÍ comrnenlilors witnrg nì the 195ü and I960s wonld have reÌeclcdthir ideã, fearing that ir woüld snnply rep(xluce .€larions of edmiry oìhierar chy llot we now havc closc to forty y€a6 ol experic.cc in the wesrwith vaÌious modeìs of libcril úuiticrltuÍalism, and, as I dis.uss in rhenext.ha|ter, ÌheÌe is grownÌg cvidc..e that these modch can indeed

Vulric!lluralÌsm is not the only example ol this púccss of cirizeDtatìon. OD lhc.onlrary thc risèand spÌead oÍ ì ibe ü I nnÌlti.xìruralism iD rhewest has lo be situated wìrhb thÈ mu.h bÌoade! prdcsscs ôf ìibeÌaìization aDd demoüaÌiatior that ô.orrcd acÌoss virhiilly thc ..túe ranSe ols@ial poli._v starliìÌg nì thc 1960s foÍ €xample, ÌibÚniizing .efroductiverights (abodion laws, .ortrâcepú)n), liberalizing <li!orc. Ìaws, abolishing tlìe dcath penalty, prôhibitin$ gender and rcligious discrimin.tion,decrinnÌilizing honìosctuality, amonSÍ nìany otirer sucli rcformr. Allol thesc wcrc inlcndcd 1o tuplace eaÍlie. lncìvìl rciatio.s oi dominanccãnd int.te.anc! with newer Ìclations of denrc.ratic .iÌizensÌÌip. And rheselegal .nd poÌicy refonns, tì tuÍì, refleded wider processcs of litreÌrlìzation nÌ civil socicty and pubh: opinion, with ihe drarüti. di\pla.€nentol conscNalivc, pal.iârchàI, ard defeÍentiãÌ attitudcs *ith moÌe lih€ril,cgaLilarian, and autonomous valu€5 : lÌe .jse ol dn ticultuÌaìism is oncdinÌcnsio. of this b.oad{anSing stfug8le 1o libcràlize Ír.iery and loinìplcmc t th. ideãls of tÌìe huìran rjghts (volutión and of cilil Ìights

Multi.ulturalism and tib€ralization

lìe ac(ount l'v€ gìv€D so lar shouldrt be sürtrhÌng. Iivc csscntialìyjust said that liberal denÌ(Ìacjcs irÌ lhc West have adopred a tibrnl,demo(atu .oDceplion oimúllicultrralh . Sur€lythatiswhatolc wouÌdexpect, barLi!8 cÌear evidcDcc to th€ .ontrary And yet it h rcDìaÌLablehow le{ conÌnrcntators ar. silnrg to contemplate the possibilìty thâtnulticultlÍilisD n a übcraldèÍúcratic phenomenon, .nd how mu.hinteil(lúil cn.Ìgy has bccri exp€nded in lìndìng or tì!Ì!tnÌ8 any nunÌbeÌ ol allc ìitiÌc âccou ts Õf the int€Ììedual loúnditions rnd moral

I túbrn ídud6 i5 iÌìe mrrof Ro

! Máking sense of tibêÍãl MultÌ.ulÌuralirm Ìhê Originr ôÍ Libcral Mukiculturãliim

^s i notcd earÌier, soúc comnrentatod have a{jucd tiÌal ÌÌìe verv idca

of multifuÌlurali5m is at odds with thc lo8ic of libedl dcnrocÍacv, add

thar thc shifttowãrds recognizing group differcntiatcd riShts r€prcscdls a

Ìea.tion a8ain\t huxìaÕ li8hts and libÚilization On lbis úeq thc iilsttwo siaScs iD ttÌe poslwar struggl. âgairst ethnic and ncial hiera(hy.lecolo.iz.l ion and raci.l deseSÌegàtior weÌe insPirci by rnìiShtennìcnt

ìibe.aìisú, but thc third ía8e rePÌer€nts a deviatioo lrom, and .ea.tion

a8ainst, cn'il LiShts ìibcalismContrncdtalob disagrcc about thc lrccGc naÌüre ol this deviairon.

ììnlccd, lhc i.adeni. lilÚiluÍ€ i! tulÌ ol tarious farcilìrl theories âboú(

wh.rc.nd hos rÌulticulturalnnÌ dcpa cd lrom the libera Ì tFditnD Sonìe

5ay thàt ÌìulticuÌturalism is Lrased or r cúlturaÌ Íeìativisl reaction agairÌst

!iÌreralisnr, rooted in rú.tecDth .entu.y Germin rcmârticism. Àc.ordnì8

ro r_jnkìelkrari, Íorexa pì., th€ iÌst iwo sta 8es wer€ '.on. tilcd únderdr.iDÌpli.it patronaSe of DidÚot, CondoÍcet ór VollaÍe', whrrcas the thúdslage ìs dÌiv.n by the chauvnìistic aod reìativislìc tbinking df Herder and

Spenglêr {IinLìelkÌaut 1988: 54, ó'1) Othcú arSue rhâr ÌÌullì.uìtuÍalisdiis ba5ed on a Post modernist aod de.onrtruclionitt rej..ìion of ìibeÍal'

ism, Ìoohd ú Nielzschead s.ePricism. ^..oding

to Richad Caputo, f(Ìcxanrde, troponenh of úultidltunlúm tedd io acce and brild uPon

ih.Nìetzs.heanreiedionof râtionalìsmwithitsnotio!of univcsaltuthand justjce' (caPúto 2001: 161).

WtÌiìc there intcrpÍctationi a.e faÌniliar ones in thc academn: litcrature'

I snnply don't belicve tlÌere ú ãny ftedibìe €údence tbr them, ãt lc.Íwithin the Wesiern dem(hcits. I have read litcrally hundÍeds ol posi

tnrô papers and Policy dduments prod(ced by th. rarious la icipanhin thc policy netwôrb on mulh.ulturalism 8ov€ÍÌnÌcnts, Profesrion.la{lvocàcy 8rolpsi philanllÌroPi. orSanizalìons-s well is llre Ìesultnì8

laws and corrt ca5es, and I have yet to iìnd a !üì8le dis.o$jon that

extrcses any sl'ml]âtìry fôr .ilhÚ stengler or Nic(zsche, eith€r implicìtìv

wúhìn thc pubìicdebatt, wean lìnd y€tanolheÌ, more snÌple, €x|ìã_

ütiou lor hoh multicuhuràlism his diveÍ8.d lronÌ libeÍaÌiv MúltìontuÌalhm, it is said, is aÌrout'tultÍrc" atrd dlture (at least i. thè cÔntext

oÍ eilÌnÌc groupt n iundame.tally .bout anceíral 'lraditions', so lhat

'a..o nodating cultu.al div.diìy' is essenhally â tratter of J,reseivnrglr.dilionalwaysof lìle' lhisbasicidcicanbeelaboraledinvarúrswaysODc lìnÌiliar fôín arSues that shile some dê8rce ol culnral chadgc Ìs

nr.lilable, rheÌ€ arc cerÌain P.!.ticcs úât are vital to lhe 'authenticit-v'or'i.tegÌity' ôf i .!ltuÌe, and which trÌrst thtrcfoÌe be PÌotect d lronÌ

ch.ngc. Thcsc 'authcnti.' prâcli.cs ârc sâid tô bc .sscntiál iÒ th€ ideDtil_a

of lhc grorp, and hc.cc to thc idcntity ôf ils nrdniduJl nrenìbert lhislink bclhcen clltúre and identily is thorght 10 bc palticulârly stronS ifllìc cullrtraÌ pra.licc is lradilionil' that is, dccply rootcd in a people\hÌslory and nol i!í th€ ÌeÍrll ol rccenl adaptaliois or outride influences. On this lirq cuitúal iiSlìh and policics ol c!llúral nÌ.lusion areprcscntcd as prnnarily or cxclúsivclt nìrcndcd to protc.t such'authenÌic'drltural pra.tirÌs fÍonì prcssurcs to chanSc.

On thn vicw, trn ticultÌtral .laiír ìrc nrt.rprcÌrd th( 8haletofìde.s(lating to culÌural authcnticity a.d group idc.tity. 'Culture' is qpicaììyirìtcrprcbd ni tcxDs oi(or rcduced to) à set oldiscretc prã.ti.ês, pÍeleribìy'badiìiôrãl' ànd 'ãtrthcntic' prâr1ì.es. TÌr€se tra.ti.es aÍe then said to beessential kr th€ g.oup! idcÌrtiiy, and hence to the i{l€ntity ol nìdn'idualmembeÌs, andso must be a..ommodated and tÍÍe.t€d bI mlllìcúlÌLúal

Thìr j5 â veÌ\ion of what ^ma

ya S€D .aììs the /.ommunitiÌìan' or/.onsrrvìtiv.' appror.h to rnultiLulturãlisd (UNHDR 2004), or u.hat we

mi6ht sÍnply .all a'traditi(Ììalist'appn)ach.$ It should immedú(cly bc

clear, ì hope, thãt thú a.:count is not onìI differert from, but datÌyìn conr.adictÌon to, the ìibeÌal accounÌ I have developed. Ihc ljb.ralview oi nìlltÌculÌlraìism is jneítablv jntention.lly, and dãpolôgeti-..lly (ranslornÌnrìonil of peopìet c!Ìlural tÌadÌtions. lt dcnands bÒth

do,'i, ',', d,,o l,i.ro,i. 'll) \ul,o,di ,. r.íl 8,o,p roi,BrB.i, nrkp,rticcs, lo cnto ncw ÍclrúonslÌìps, and to crìbrace .cw Òn.epts anddis.ourscs, ilÌ oí wlÌiclÌ proiourdÌy tradsfoin pcopÌc's identities and

This is perhâps môst olJvious nì the rase Òf thè hi\tornãììy dominartmaidiq Dati(m in €a.h .ountry whi.h is requiÍed to Ìe.ou!.e finlasicsof nciaÌ lrpeioÌity, to Ìelinquish claims to excÌusive osneiship ol ur.state, and to abandon arremptr to falhion pubìic inttitutions solcly nÌ its

r'óJ r0n3 n 'dnì3psri8Èe

lÌìdèedarir ìii rn, Ìe7(\r.d ì930ssinph rooli r.Í3ÍrnÍRr d'dftnrnro. radiìjonar rurÌ'onrìer ârd tú. n sò dmandcd by

úr therÌ [u'Dn nShL' and dvil Íishn b quÈ!ìon â.d Í!]d rÉd iônâÌ auiÌìoÍiq nn'drcsrnd tuÍ!Íl Èãdi.es Múlú.úlrúf

r rrhrd'ilbn. scc, c.s., vm D$Johr{o. 1989; MdbnÀU r99Ì; (

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Making 5ente of Lib€ral Multi€ulturalirm Ìhe Oriqins of Libe.al Multi.ulturalirn

own national {typiGlly white/Chnsti:r) ìmage. ln fact, much of ìÌulticuluraìism's'lo g úarch th.ough thc insrituhonJ .ônsúts pleciseìv nr

ìdentifyin: and attaclìn,r thosc dccpty Ìooted hâdilions, customi, ãnd

syrìbok that havc historically Qxclúded o. ttiSúãtizcd minorities. Mu.hhis been written atìout th€ trânsformation\ ir tÌaiorny identitiês a.dpractìces this has rcqlired, an.l ihc bacldash it.àn cÍeale.'

Bú( lrbeÍal mülticollÌ!úlism is êqnally trahtoÍrativc ol lhe identitics

and practjcer of tinìorìly SrouPs. Many ol tlesÍ: groups have lheir oÌrôÌrisÌorìes of ethnic and racial prciudicc, ol anti setrìtisÍì, ol caste and

gcnder ex.ìusion, oL relì8ìous triunPhâlisnì, and of polilìcal authoÍitaFìani5ìì, rll of whìch aÌe deleÂitirÌizcd by rhe nodns ol liberaì deÌnocrati.

multicuìturalistÌ and mÍloity ri8hts.r0 Moreover, ctcn wh€re the trrditional pradnìes ofá nÌirÌorìty grouP àrc lrce of th.se iìlibcral oÌ lDdenx!.ratic elements, sorìc of lhese PÌactic.s may have em€rgcd as a Ìes[trnse

tô the experience of discrìmiDatbn, stiStÌatization, or ca.lÌ6ion at the

hands oI otlìe6, and nay lose theì. ãttraclìveresi ar diat nìotivatinli.Ìperience fades in Pcople's m€trrodes. Some minority groups devebP€d

distinclive norms ôiscÌf help, endogany, and inteÌnal .ônilicl rcsoìüti(Ììbe.ausc theywere eÌ.ludcd 1ìon oÌ dis.riÍÌinated wrhin thê inrtitúlÌonsof thc largÚ society. 'fhosc Dorns may ìo* their Ìationale as.tlxìic aod

rã.ial hicrarchies break down, and as 8IdP ncnÌben leel more co!ìIorrable interactnÌE with deúbcrs ofotheÌ groups and ParticiPahrg üì nate

institutnr*.Iàr lrom guarântecing the Prcte.tion olthe tÌadinonâl wãys

oÍ ljfe of eithcr tiÌe majo.ìty or minoritiet, Ìiberal mllucuìturalism poscs

muìhple .hallcnges to theú.So the tradilionalist (rr..ption oI muìti.ultúralism staDds in shary

contÌãst to thc libe.al con.eption, wìth dúfèrent Soals .nd ratnrnalcs

IÌìdeed, fÍom à liberal lEÌsPdtive, thc traditbnãList approacÌr to multi_

culturalisD is dc.ply itÌPlausiblc ãn.t unattF.tivc, for s.vcrat Ìeasons:rÌ

(r) ÌÌìc tradilionalìst corccption a$umes that lhe culru.al Practi.csior which íatc reco8nition is being sought àre 'timcLesí or 'authentic'

' Ior â d.cúsrion or'Ìl,ite brckla

ÌiJohnMcyeIh.ò.otdnowonlempoÌl.y.ldckoÍrifuoÚnas^úpedoi'] rlisiour

ta bntì8 cieili?ãuon ro 0ne\.eì3h6 hive t,n€d' ú. nahonjt re (Me/er 2mÌ: 6), büt we

o.d Ìd RriSioÈs súprm.isn rrd ìo hhiÕÍt n rions, ând ÍeÍúmla.sÌ'ase of clstnns prcsrÉ iüsii.e, rìd hú m ltghb

ún con(elti'rr ol

h re.liry, howevei, studìcs repeatedly show that to cilled lraditionalpractices are lìnly recent, oÍì.rthemseìves the pÍo.luct olearlier culturãlinteÌchanges, and sonì€únes eecn 'irvcrtcd'by .lires kr ìe8itimize Ltrcirposition D So idea5 of'c!ìllril authcnticity' or '.xltural purityriÌe oltcÍanthÌopologically !aìve. TIÌey arc aho politicãlly dangebu' lhey nnpìythat there is somerh irg abnorrÌal and rcg(ttabÌe ãbóut cultuÌal evoltúionaodcross cult!rilnìiÌlencc, wh.r n) fàrt su.h.hanges and in,llenccs areoormal, nreli{able, and esscntial tô thê pÍó.ess of hümân developrrcnr.tl ìs.lllúiil hfbridity, not tultural purity, which is the nornal íate Òlhuman iÍlii6, aod lìrl.sìcs ol culturaì purity can onìy De maiDtii.cdby aúlìciaÌly curr'ng off groüps irom iit.ractior wìtÌ) thc laÍger woild,and by instilÌin8 xenophotrìc lcar oi oth.s (Waldron 1995; Cowan ct al2001).t

(2) Th. tÌãditioralist .onception ãssumes thaÌ th(e is a ncutÍaì orobje.tive way of deteÍninin,l which pr.ciices arc aathc.tic'] to a g(m!.ln Íeaìiry this is a matteÌ ()f poìitÌcal conrestation ,tlhih ttu gtuup iL'.lfIt is oft.r conservâtire €Ìites witbin the group who claìrn thc âlthorit_yto jrdS€ whàt is autbcntic and tradilionaÌ, and thcy do so preci\eìy tosuppÌe\t demands foÍ chan8e iro!Ì retordìc6 witÌÌnÌ tÌre 8roup. IÌacticesdìathistoicalìymay have been variable, evolvnì8, contcsted and ottìonalare declared by conseNative elites to LJc 'sa.rcd', a nat-r€r of Ì€ligiousor culturaL obliSarion, and e$eDtiaì to gúup dÌ€nbership. lo in(erpictmulti.ulhÍaìism is pÌotecting lraditio.aÌ or aúth.ntì. pÌa.tices hâs lheeffe.t ol rewadiÌ18 such consenativr clit.s: it givri poweÍ to those whocan claim lo lìe the Su.rdians ot a.cicnt trãditiÒns, while imtlyinS thalthosc pcopl. who wish to chãll.nge thes€ traditnrns aÌe Dot truc or'propcr' nìcnìbüs ol rhc Sroup {Pàrekh 2000). In this sense, the cons.rr-ativc nÌìcrpÌctation of dÍltid tuÌalism is more acorrately desüibcd, dotas ã..ordüìg pcop!. dÌtural.ipilr, bur as impositrS cultural,/Ìxier tlìatis, the drty to maintaiÌr one's dltuÌe, whedìer onc wants to do so orÍot.- ând hen.e às à. àbndgêmênt noterpansion of indi!'ìdual fr.edom.

(3)'lhe traditionalhl claitn lhatlhÚcis a riSht tô presèNe one's culturaltuadìtiols has b.cn nÍerprctd by soúc-trrost fárDusìt by the AnÌerican

Í rÉddrÍ il rug. rìoÌ the l1Ã trds

nprÍed to rhc 'he' idlntiq hd ul'rid rÌ.iÌnÌi. or tolisiour rróupr. In rìÌil' wid.Ì p.1. ctbnr. crvic ftnúúer & ju$ ònonnâÌ nr{JÌ ntrr.r.lnrr

tl

ì

t

101

Makìnq Sênse oÍ Liberâl Multicultuialkm The Oriqin5 of tiberal M ultiolturali5m

AnthíDôlogy Assd.ialion (^ÀA) to [ecltde the tcry idea of lniveÌsal

húman righls ÁccoÍding to thc AAÁ\ statcment t lhe tjÌìitcd NatidÌs

in 1917, people's idertiti€! ând PeÌsonalitì€s arc realizcd rbrou8h tlìcú

culrurcs, ind so cvcÌyonÍr h.s lhe riSht to live LJy theiÍ own lmditions

ehiclÌ Ìneans that the very idea oÍ ìud8iÌÌ8 local cuìtltr's by univcdal

stanrhrds of hurÌrn riShts is unsound (ÁAÁ 1947) More Ìeccntly, anthrc

poLo,jists hive backed aüay from this èÌtreme r.lativist vìc{, aod havc

ittempted to reco .iie suPPod lot a Ìi8ht to cuÌtural PreseÍvation with

slttoÌt for univc$.l human riShts Ì1 Arthropologists todav aÌe morc

lileìy to accepr th. PossìbiÌity tÌìa ( some drÌ I úral tradi Lions àÌè oPpressivc

aD.l that úniveÍ\àl hrnÌan righrs can heìP (o Prev€nt ihis oppre$ìon' So

we now n.d anthtupologht\ tãlling about 'bilan.nì8' human riglìts and

the rÌshttÒ cuÌhral prcseration Butthis still is a der8.rou5 position ifitnnplìes thrt human righ ls Protection shouìd bc sacÍiii.cd or comProtr ised

(albeit Ìro1 loo much ) in or.ter to accolnnìodate pmctice! that vjolate

(4) 1he tradilionalist claim that rcsPecting a cultìnâl tÍidition is cssen

tiâÌ to Ìespecting i P€rso.'s identity can be nìvoked as a 1r(mP' ro atoìd

denìdratic .leba le. lb sày that a Particula culturilpmcticc is part ofnìy

'identity' h sôÌnclimes a way ol úÌviting others to ..nsidc and debâre

it5 vrlue and signiLìance. Bul in oth( contexis, llÌis claún is invokcd

as a wày ol lo.eclosnìg that dcbite, by iúphin8 that anl guestioninS oI

thatpractice wiu tìt inteÌPrctcd.s a siSn ofdis€sPcct lor mê as a Pe6onwhere idcntity.lãids are PÍescttcd in this way as non n€Sotiablc trumps,

lhe result h to ero{jc lhe Potcdtial for dcÌnocrãtic dialoSüe I' m!ìti.cthni.stat.s where thÚe are dn'crsc and sonìctìmes comP€ting culluraì

tiaditions, wc need tô lìnd a wa-ìr lo taÌk civilly about oúÌ Pra'ti'csi to

discuss thet bene6ts ând costs, and ro thúk about fâii and hodorrabìe

.ompromiscs t{heÍe thcse pradiccs cooflìct.Ìs

ln 5hort, nrteÌfrcting multitulturalìsm âs a riSht 10 pres€rye aúlhenti'

cullüraltradjtjonsraiscss€veÍalpotentialdangers:ìtüayì'rhibìtconstructirerelatiots betwe€n dituÌes (by PÌiviìe8nrg cú ltuÍal Purity oveÌ

'ull ural

hybridìtyJ, it nÌay erodc lhe fÌ€edolr ol indiliduaì5 within ItouPs (by

privilegin8 rulhotitaÌiar oÌ con5.d:(ive elit€s oveÌ internal relo'ncs),

laúofihipbeiwêenânthÍ!}Èl.g.t

n co!ceÍ., s& wiìdnÌì 2o0o rÌÍjh.mrcm d$iÍ.on*rdtw) númd c'fttrd,ü i;ìpcre rii*ìdMlMâik']ll 2003; Bânìabjb 2mà Sen 2

it can bc i'loked to deny the eaiitence ol univeÍsal hurnan riShts; and itm'ylhr'Jrn'rhF\l'r' nr'r. ,ehr. 'nJJ.1 "r.rr

Given lhe proÍound diff!r.n.!s bètw.r. tiÌ. libcnl aÌ ron*nativ€ÌDrerpretarionr of oìulticulturalisrr, it's .rucial tô drtuminc Ì!hi.h ofthese in tãct undeÌpns the reccnt shifts towa.ds r.ultidltu.âliÍn \ìithinthc wcst. One can frnd echoes of both vi€ss i. dre tubÌÌc debate, butwhich oI Ìhem ptovid€s the fÍamewoÍk for .ontemporaÍy mlÌltnrìtltrâÌ

Critics ol nìllticuìturalism ryti(ally a\s!Ìne that it is tbc con5enahveintÚprcliliorÌ that und€Tins the trend t()waÌds multiculturalism.Ì6 Ì

beli.vc, however thatthis âssumptìon is impÌausibÌe, andÍÌdeed denÌrnfably fàÌsc. Ior oDe thnì8, these cÍitics hãve not pmvided a.v plausibleaccount of how conseritiv€ nrlticllruralìsÌÌ could have become thcofÊcial pxblic poliry oÍ westem deoroc.acie5, part!.ulrrly in a Íolty leat€ra ofwidc-rãngnÌglìbeÌalizôiion and tìlman .i8hts reÍorDs r7 tlow coúldà'wnnüìS coalilion' be built in sufport oÍ con5enativc mtrÌti(trltural'smi. WÈstern d.rnNr.cjes? How couìd

't gâin the supl'ôÍt ol iìÌe miior

I)olitiLãl pârtics, oÌ ola majoriry of Demb€6 of the naÌional lcghlat(rc?Itt dif6.ult to drakc poli(icai scnsc of th( scen.rio, and indecd dìoslcriticswho discusr lÌtc adoption ol nìúlticultúa lisnr treat ii.s a rìystcry,as if 8Ìenljns snu.k nÍo nationâl parlianÌcnls and draitcd rìúltjculturâlpoli.ìes wììile no one wãs watchniS.r3

ll we Ì@k at dìe a.1 àl tÌo.css by whjcb rìulticúltúrahr! poli.icsslrc adopt€d, a diff€rent pi.tuÌ€ emcry.s. I. rÈàlit, virtuauy €very-one inlolved ìrÌ adopting multicultuÌaì Éforms in the West fÌom the

r ihe orlr r,!$ibr. irtÌlddnn,

Iri.n (rcú dÌdd rre

Énided w hÍì rh.sc immisÌr. ' pncdce (BLloond h199.1; Gqal1995)cJnìdl uJr ìdo!Ìnì3 iL' Múlt'culrhe ÌoÍld to r..ept thâr ' 3rl rlro

l.oúnl4ofoligin,olnif|cMiiouiry of onsn' (L\iì. r9r9. {0)? 1r M']ld bc sclí.onüadtrory Ío

i q'or pbuiÌrl. Nrticaì cxplam

l0l

MaIing 5ensê oÍ LibcÍál Mulb(lturalkm

a

Ìhe Oriqins of Uberal Multi.ulturâlkm

I)oljticaÌ activists and civiÌ sociely orga.izatiors rhat irìirially nìobitizedÍor these refodrs, to the seSoent oi rlìc public that supportcd therr, t.)the legislaloB sÌìo adopted Ìhem, to the L,ureaucÌah who d.aftèd andünplenrented thcm, to thê judSer who jnterprctcd thlm were nÌsptcdby the ideals ol hunàn ights and civil rights liboraÌ'sm tlÌcsc a.totsviewed oulticullural rcforms a5 paft of i largc. proces ofsocial add polirn:al ìiber.ljalion, and embedde<l lhese rcloúns Icgàlìy and jnsrìrutioúlty$ithnÌ a liboal rights fiam€woLk

lb be Í!rc, Ìhc fa.t dìatthe conlcrìporary wayc ofmulric(rlrtúd rcturÌntoÌigiì.red nÌ th! humàn righrs rcvolution dÒesnt yer lcl us aoythinSâbout its actualelìcG, nìcluding any uninreDdcd cffc.ts. Once mltücultúraÌ lìoliqÌ srtuctrrcs ar. úr tlace, illìberiÌ conscrvative or aullroriraria.c]Ìtet witlìin variors communitÌes halc oftcn attcmpted to ganì.o.trolover them, or at l.ast to influence their nrplènenrarion and dire.rion.'lhú is a rniveúàl phenomenon: oncc rew pow€Ìs or resoú(cs âr€ madeavaiìablc/ cornpètitn)n wilÌ inevitably àris. for conr.ot ovcr rhem. aoÌex.mplc, on.e nìulticulhÍalisrì tunds aÍe made av.iláblc, and mtrìricuìtuÌaÌism advisory counciÌ\ establishcd, .odservátive eìires wjrhìD ìnnìgrant Sroups sc.k a.ress to them. O..c inst't tions of sclf govÈÍìmenrare eíablish.d for indigenoos p.oples or subsrate narionàlilt 8Íoüps,coNeúativcs seek to use lhesc..w powers ro plorect rheir tradirionaÌautìÌority. This soÍiofpolilicaÌcontestation is inevilabtc.Indeed, itwoutdviolatt ev€ry ìinown law ol politi.aì scieDce il it didr,t happe^. tt hcvcn pos5ible thal m!ticultuÌaì poÌi.i€s have sonctün$, uninren 1ìona tlt,seNcd to sttu.8then rhe hadd of conseÍvarive elftes aSanìst rhe forces otlibÚal rcfo.m sithin v&ìorú .oÌ.munities.

So one inrportant q(cstioô sè need ro ask is ro whât êxrenr corscrvative/ãuthoÍiÌãÌian eÌilcs hâvê been succ€sslul nÌ.apturing these policics,and whatsafeSlalds arc nr pìace toersure tìÌat ibe Òri8inal emâncipàtorySoals and ideals àre not subvercd. I will rctun to this queíio inthênexrcbapteÌ, ÍiÌen discusing howwe should evaluâte rhe a.rual operarion ofúulticulturilisnÌ policier, and theú luturc prospe.ts.

ÌJut my focrs nì thir chapter is on th. Dn8ìns of m(ttituttuÌaÌismpolicies thc noxnative priDciples ànd Íntìtical coalÍions that uDde.púned theiradóption. And lÌ.rc Ì wouldinsisrthal iìÌca.to.r invotved inadopli|g úulticultuÌaÌism i! thc Westem dem(racics viewed rhemselv.sõ expr€ssing and extendnìg thr human ri8hls levolution, not leacrnÌg

'rÌììs is obvbutìy a sweeping geneÌaìization, and it woüld ullimarclyne€d to bc tcsted on a case by câs€ basn fd alÌ oI the differenr types ot

nÌltti.ultu.alisnÌ poÌicirs adopred for diffeÍent groups Ìn ditcrcot counfuìes. But as a iLrst Ícp, ler me locus on the Caradìan.ase, where lhc.onnc.tion between libcraliãrìon and multì.ulnrr.li5m h pirtj.ula,ty

Consid.r tìehases olpoìnicaì supporr foÌ mutricütturalism üÌ Canada.lf nìullicúltuÌalisìn Ffleclcd a .eacrion xgâinst tiberaÌizatìon, wc souìdexpect tô sèe rwo co.ÌpctnrS pliiical.rmps: a libÚal .anrp Ìn iavour otlibeiiliznÌ8 ÍeÍorm on nsues ol Ecndcr €qüaìily, abor.i.ìr, dì!o(.e, an,lSayrights, so as to enÌancipate indlvidüats; and theD a.ons€rv.tiv€ cinÌpin iavour of ìmÌÌìgrnnt mulriculturiÌism,

^borignÌal ights, add eueLre.

autonodìt so as to trotect thcsc coÌnÌnunitics fÍonì librraliTing (tormslìì reality, tÌìe situation ii Cârada is júst tÌrè opl)osrc.

OD thc one hand, w. have pirriãrctìal o1Ìrrral .onservarivcs whobelicve tlÌat socjety is chanSìn8 too fâst, aDd who Ì)eh,ve Ujàt ìnoÌeweight shouìd be given to tradilìonâl ãtrthoÍities ard tÍacllc.s. l.his ú(hc group Michael Adàhs has clìaracteri?f,d as thr,farher knowr best,.rowd (^dams 1997, 2000), $'hich hc cstìmares al around 35 ocr.enr or

'rr ' .,,'dd,d1 rof','..,ion. r'pdr rrúr\. rtr r . 'o '8

. o..- ." I ." ,,,,sreÍonns about womcnS cquaìiÌy and gay Íi8hrs. Bút they equally opposcnnÌrigrant multiculturalirn, Aborignial Íi8hrs, and accoìnìnodatin8 eue-bcc. Indeed, the enìcrgenÍ:e oÍ thcsc diversiry poli.iej is preciscly one oithc rhanSes tlÌat tlÌcy Ând ìnost distressin8. Thctu has not b.en (and isnôt now) inysigìibcãnt ìevel ofpübtic nlpport foÌ any ot rhese Iornìs of!nüÌticultuÌaÌnú àmon8sÌ.u1turàl conserva tivcs.

otcou$e, lÌavinglostdì€birrlcrobkrkrlìcscpôticies, pairiaÍ:halcon-servative5 havc .ot simpÌy disappcaÌed TheI arc re,lur!ìng nì ordcr tosee how tlÌel.ad row explol theopporún ies creared try úìè\€ policiÈs.foÍ exanÌple, ÒnseÌvative trot.sta.rs Ì! CaDrda, who ìnitiaÌìy iotrghrtooth and nJil to bÌock m(lti.ültuLilis!ì iÌr thc plbli. s.hooh siicc iÌwould súp aihÌi5tiaoily of irs pÌivilegcd posirjon, arc .ow rcgroupingto see whctho they .a! nrvoke n(lttculhÌralism lo rc8ain soìnc tostprivilcgcs (Davie5 1999). lut this prrfdto stÍategÌc appeal to nÌúftiolturalien úust be distingrúhed from suppoÍt for rhc poln:r,s adopftrn,whiclr patriarchal consÚvãtives Ílongty opposed.

On the oüer lìan4 wê have lhc Ìiberal wnÌg oÍ th€ Canadian populace, which lÌas b.conìe nrcrcasirÌgly €gaìtadan, adti aurhorlrârian, indnrdividualistic. Ìr.di.tabì, they strô n6ìy su pporl ScndeÌ eqlatity and gny

Mrling 5€nreoÍLiberal Multi(ulturalirm,

.i

i

Th€ Originr of Libcrdl Mu h 'cuhur

alirm

ri8ì1ts, but they erìüaììy endoÌse nuìticultuÌaìism policies, and view bothtets oÍ reÍorms a5 expressions oÍa sÌngle ìogÌc oÍ civil rights Ìiberalisnl

So both .anìps have operâtéd on the as\umptnÌì that mnlticultüal-ism i\ an inteljral pa and pâÌcel of a larScÍ pÌoG\s of liberalizatbnalthoulh ol couÁ€ thcy diff€r on hoü to evahate this Ìar8er prc.estsand (han8e! in tlppoÌt for multi.ultlrali\m poìi.ies oveÍ tine Ía.kchanges in support Íd libeÌaì egaljta an values moÍe ge.erany ()aslo

The lint betweeD Ìiberaliãrion and m(lticulturnlism policies cin be

con6rmed bI examjning thewaythese poljcies have been ìegallydraftedan<l Ìudicially enÍorced. One of th€ most stiknrg thjnSs about tìesepolicies is howtightltind expÌicitiy they are coDnected to broader normsoI homan rights ind lìbeÌaÌ constìlúúonalhnÌ, both conceptuilly an<l

consìder lhe preamble ro Canidi's M(lllcllturilism AcÌ ol 1988. ltbcSins by eying tlìat ó..d6c thc governrnenl olCinada is comnìiited tocjviì liberties, particuìarlytìrefreedonr oi ìndÌvìduah'to maNethe ]üethatlhe irÌdividúil is able.nd wishes to havc', and bec.lse it is committed tocquality, panicularly racial cqoal y and Sendcr qaality, and bccause olits nÌt.rdãtionãl htrÌnan ÍigìÍs olrligâtioÍs, particutarly lhc nÌtcrniÌio.al.onventio. âganÌst ràcial dis.rimnìãtion, lirdelòle it is adopti.S a pÒlicyof rmltianlturalisrì. It gocs or, in tbè nri. tcxt, tô reitêratê ÌrúmârÌiBhts .oms as paÌt of the rübstãnce of the muhiolhralism poli.y.:oYou could haÍdly ãsk for à cleãÌer ttatement that úultioltrralìsm is tdbe unde6tood a5 an Ìntegral pa.t ofthe human riSht\ revolutÌon, and an

extension of, Dot bÌaÌe on, ciúl Ìiglìts liberaìnm'fheÍe is not a whiff ofcultural conseratisÌn, patriaÌclÌaìism, or post nìqìeÌnìst decoDshuctionism in this íarenÌert.Il is thevery nÌiÌk ol EnlìghtennÌent liber.lism andunjvers.l humaD riglìÌs.

IrÌ lacl, this point lÌad alÌeady bccn Ìnade expÌicit ìn lhe original 1971padianÌentary ÍatemeDt on mllticuìturalhm in Canada, $'hich Íatedlhat'a polìcyofrÌullicultrialhìn within a biliDgunl L6mework is basi.allytlì..onscioús súpport of individúâl lreedon of choicc. Wc arc frcc to bcoudtÌves' (Tmdeâu 1971: 4546).

These fÒnnulations âre inte.ded as ãn instru.tidì to tlìe rel€vart polit-iGÌ a.to6, fronì minÒdty a.tivists to buÌeâu.rãts tô judges, that multi-cüìtüralnm must be ündêrstood as a poÌicy inspired by libe.âl noÌms.Nor wàs this lcft to.hancè, DÌ to th€ good*ilì of politi.dl actort.'Ihe

MulticuìturaÌism Ad is ìo.aled sqlarcly wiÌhin thc lar8eÍ instihrtioniÌframework of lìbenl de'Ìo.ratic conslitutjonalisdÌ, aod hen.e ú ìegalltsubie.t to tlìe same constitutnìral constraints as any othcr fcrl.raÌ poìiry

^ny fedeÌaì action done in dìe nane of múlucúlluraÌisdr must Ìespect

the .equúements of tlÌe Cnnadian (:harter of Rights a.d lreodom5, as

interpreted and enforcedby iudiciaì bodies such as thc Câradian HumanlÌights ConÌnìissio! and the suprcme Courl.

So ihe wi_v in whi.h nllticrÌl(ralisrì nÌ C.nãda has been Ìe8:lhdelìn€d matres cleal that it does nol cxisi ortsidc tÌìe fram€woÍk of ÌiberaldemocÌati. constìtutionaÌisnr .nd hunÌin rìghts jurnprud.nc€, or as !nexeption to it, oÍ as a deviarnnr ÍÌom ìt. lÌilher ìl ìs lìnny cnìbeddedwithh ihal frameworl.lt is defrned as fÌownÌg Ìom huÌÌin.ights norms,as embod)ing those nonns, aDd is enlorccabÌc through judiciaì instÌhrtions whose !Ìandire ìs to (rplìold lhosc norús.2r

OI coursc, lhis is jost onc cx.nìpÌc frod onc countrt ind lhercmay bc aspc.ts oI the Caradiar apprôa.h that ãÍe not fould nÌ othcrWestern democracie5 ìì.ven so, it5 an inÌportaDr cas. to .onsider, sinceCanida was the i6t @untry 1o adopì aÌÌ ofÍiciàl muÌticulturalúm policj,nnd as a rcsull has pliyed.n nnportãrt Ítc in shapìng inteuralionalconceptions ol wha( m(llìcrltftalis!Ì is.

^s Í6nÌc€n

^bu libaD notes,

C..ada is widclys.cn aroud.l thc world as a (Ìúìtry wheLe mllliculturàlis ì 'existt (Abú-hban 2002: 460)-where nìultiaÌturâÌism is a wellestàlììished pÌa.tic., not iust à rhêt.ric ãnd Canadian fornúÌatio s arèoften studicd ãs prôtotypcs. Ior exaoìple, the way muÌtjculllralhrì isürked to húrrr rights in tlìc pr.aúble tÒ the Canadian MuÌticullúraÌismA.t is o$entiàlÌy dupli.atd nÌ ôe UN's 1992 DecìaÍahon on tlÌc Righrsôf MiDorities*botn nìsist that the Ìights of minorities are lòlndcd othuman .ightt norms, and so sh.uld be interpeted as iurtlÌcr cxtcddnrSand implem€nting ihese noÍms

ln any eveDl, Canida is far fronÌ uniqrc i. thc wây it ties muìtìcülturalúm to ìiberalism. we s€e a simiÌar Ìinkage irÌ Auslralia, foÌ examtleAccordirS to Ja,nesl upp who played a pÌrotal rolc in dcfrning

^usÍalia'tnúlticúltúralisnÌ policy,ÌullicultúraÌisnì nì Australi :

i5 essitially a Ubcd nlcobgy arìi.h op{ales wirhiD libeül iníiLútió.s wiih tlìruniversaÌ approval oÍ liberaì arLitudes.Ir accepa drat aÌl hurìans nrorkl bc tr.ircd

Íc roilrs lee4: e4 (MLúúcuìnmas .boiq rnd

'_upúl 20os, whoÍ mmron sivcs rnÌpre errd! .È !

Íânrcd bã.kúúnd tô rhe nrniâL Ì

107

Mnling Sens€ of tib€ral MuìticuÍturàlkm Ìhe Origini oÍ tiberal Multiculturalìsm

rs .qui^ rnd thJi difìeÌent LalluÌes ca n L_o exht if úd a.ept libcFl wahos 0!pp

As üi Canada, muluculturalìsnì was intro<tuced in ^ustralià

by the sâúcleFlibcral or sd_ial dcorocralic poìitìcaì Íorcei thaÌ wcrc pushin8 f(tr IiL)

úalization more geneLiìI, such as strengtherd 8cnd.Ì cqualìtl, nondiscnriúàrion, and gay riShls.?2

Thc sanrc basicp.llern can be found in otheÌ We\tem dcÌnocra.icstÌÌathav. nìovcd in 0Ìe direclion oía moÌe muìtiaìturrl atprra.h.

^s a 8cn-

úal rule, ÒúlricuÌl!ralì5m has been adotted by Írciàl-deno.ratic or lefrliberal parli€s nnd coaìitions ihat €ndorse liÌreÌâÌizàtiÕrÌ niore 8€n.ialltr.d thc rcsúlling poìjcies have been dnfted in strch a Bry that Ìnalcs.xpli.it ilÌcir toandation in human riShts nornrr.

To bc súr., public connderce in this'ÌibeÌãì e\!€.tan(:y' vaies â.ússtiúr d aüÒss socielies, ind there have heen tim€r and pìa.er wheÌè

leoplè hãre Lrccorìc s.eptical lba t rìú lticu ltu raì ism can secüÌe ly be rcot€dirÌ libcral democrilic consrúutìonalism and hüman riShts noÍns. Atrdas Ì!c will sc., lhis scepticitm heìps to expÌain Írme of thc ÍÌongopposilior to molticlll(ialhrÌ that has arisen re.€ntìt and ÍnÌe ofthe high plonlc .ascs ol a ,Ìetreal tÌom múlticuì1xÌâlism' But these

cascs conúrnÌ lhc kcy poin(: DameÌy, tlÌat sheÌev{:Í mülticultuÍalisnìhas bcrn adopled and inrpÌcDerted wúhÍr th€ \!€\t, it is a distinctlyliboral nrodcl ol múlLiculluralis!Ì, suppoÍ€d be.ause and insofar a5 itis sccr âs consislcnt with, and indeed enhancinS of, ÌÌberal deno.ratn:vdlues àrd hurì.n rights ideais. WheÌe that b1k tr Dot p€rceived,either in rchtior tô on ticultftalisnÌ gcnetilly oÌ in rcÌation to therÌainìs ola pá.ticulâr hniôrity group, publi.súppoí lor nnílicultúâlism

ln short, we r€€ varyinS levels of publi. bclirfnr übcral tmÌtielítraiisnlacross the West. What we don't s€e, however, is âny othcr tyP. Òf non-ìibeÍal muÌticultürrlisrÌ, $hèther .ooted nÌ Herdcria. culhÍal .onsüvati5m or Nietz\chean portjnÒdenrism. Th€lc ârc Hcrdcrìa. add NictTscheãn muìticultuÍalists in a.:a{temia, partidÌarly nì sortÈ bunâ.iticsd€partnÌents, but it is not this sort of mültnrìtuÌalìsÍn that har shapcdpublic pollry in the WeÍ Reaìì)'existing mtrlricuìtuÌalisrn in Ìhe Wrst is

liberal muliicuìturaìism.

':

,.'

t

Bringing Politics Back ln

Thc naÍative Ì'vc told 50 laÍ of th. risc ol lib€Ìaì muiticulturalisü as

a íage in rhe evolution ol lìuman rights is a! imPoÍant part of thtsrory, bur not th. whole story I havc starled $iÌh it becausc, withoulnndcstanding thcsc lioks, the sholc tcnd becomes inexPlicàLJle lorexâúplc, BÌian BaÍy be8Ìns his iniìuentiàì critique of muìholturãlìsnìbv sàynÌg Lhat he's be.n baüÌed by the adoptiod ol nìuìtiontuÍal Policiesin th. Wcst ('arry 2001). His be$ìkleÌment is undeftlndabl€, tince he

staÌts ironÌ the assu!ìplìo! tìrat these Iblicics are rooted in a relativist

Ìejcction of libeÍaÌivn, and it woul.t ì ndeèd Lrc diflìc! lt to \€ewhyWcstcÍìI'ÌÉÌal dcnìocra.ies would abandon theú cornitLlionaì rule5 rnd vJlucs

to adopt Í1ch poìicies, or how such polici.s coll.l eìner8€ iÌoÍn the

poìitical pioccss llowèv.r, iiwe aewjììin! tÒcontctìplite rìre PossihilityoÍ a ÍnúlticlltuÌaìis thaL is root€.t in huiún ri8hls, and if we ldrk torthe ìe8al, politÌ.âì, and conccploal ljnk5 betw.cn lhc tao, dren tÌÌe Ìú. oflibeúl !ìultì.ulturâlism (nrts to be.olne !ìü.h more undeÍlta.dàblc

Howrvcr this ôbviorsly is not the wholc nory lt attribuÌes frr too

much to ìhe'poser of idcaí. NÍuìti.nlturáljsú nÌiy nrdeed bc a llau'sihl€.rtedsion ol th€ logi. oI human riSlìts, lciding iÌom de({ìlonizâ_

tion through racial dèscgrcgalion to minoity ri8hh. llot ìo8r is rotseltena.tirìg, and i.l€as do.ol move of thcir Òwn ic.ord ìhe moÍal

logic of multiculluraìisnÌ n.cds lo be aÌÌictìâted, úÌobitizcd, neSoÌiat€d,

and comprôrìiscd within r largcr lìeìd of lower Ìcl.tìoDs.zr 'lb imPìy

tÌÌal the Ìise Õf nruLÌicultuÌalisdì rclÌects the unloldnì8 ol the human

rights revolution makes it sÒund as il public lolicics wcÌc loDulatedin acadeÌni. pÒlìtica1 philo\ophy scrÌinars in which pâ i.iPants attemPt

to disp.ssionat€ly identily Ìh€ loSic ol monl ar8ünìè.ts. PoliÌicâl llle úóbvioúsly not likc tlÌat. lb l)e \urc, th.re is su.h a dìúg as'the Power oÍidcâí ìdeas.an nìspire, intorrÌ, ànd posuade Political âctors. BúÌ llÌk ìs

or. lype of poscr anonJlst othcrs, and often coúroDts lhc dctermìned

resistance of iúportant adors whôsc üÌleÍeÍs or ìdcntitics arc PotentjalìytÌtreãtcned by ac.cptilg nes ideas.

ln shoit, as an ac.ìant oi the Íatc of tthnlc politn:s úì dlc W.n, lh€

stor], I'rc told so faÌ is stian8eÌy devoid ot actuaÌ Politi(\' Thc nortÌativelo8i. b.hÌd nruìti.ulhtralisl clarmr rs itrìporlalt, but $e nccd r ri.h.r

t ns cuilhoi turd emil ìherir

Makìn9 sense oí Lib€ral Mülti(ulturalkm Ìhê Origitu ôf tibeÍìl Multi.ulturalkm

iccolol oI how tÌÌese .laìnN get dcpÌoyed, cont€\ted, and neSotiat.d úrLhe rÌcssy ÍeiÌ worìd po Ìlics olconlemporary Western democra.ie\.

It would be impo5tibìe to Eive a comprchensive ovcrvicw of ìrow tlìcscpolitìcaì p.ocesser hâve played out acÌoss the Westdn dem)cra.ies. Thehuman riShts levolurion ha5.reaÌed a conL€ptuaì opennr8 fôr liberalmuÌticultlraìism to €nìer8e in the wesÌi but uh€theÍ paÌhoìaÌ 8rôupsìn partìcular coun(Íics are srccc$lúlnr putruing jÌ dependr on comtleìpóliticiÌ lactoA lhal arc licd 1o spccific nation.ì (or eren Ìocal) coriextsTo ttuly'brnìg politics lr..knl, Nc hould need to engage in a Ìrigh degre€

otlncthodological nilionalGm' wc would ree<l io lookat the detaiìs oflhe lradìtìonal poÌÌtiel pady Í(ctul€s a.d eìedoral \ynetrs ofdiffcrenrcoúntrìes, aod lhe soft ol clcctoial nÌcentives aDd allÌan.es rhey makepossiblc or pr.clrdc. Wc úould also have lo looìr at the way .ivÌì societyìs structurcd nì difcrc.t countrics (c.9. corporatisl ve$us ljbelal), ard atthe relativc s.op. iordiffcÚt pÕliti.al tactics (e.9.litiga&rÌ, rìcdìa campaìBns, ciúl disob.dic..e, lra.k rcom lobbynìd.'?4 Trying ro Írnlnarìzeâll ol thcsc 1ìcto6 would Lrc an nnpossìbly conÌpÌex lnsk

We can hoscvcr rìàk. a few rìÕrc gcncral obs.Ìvauons about some oIthc politi.al factoò that ha!. supportêd the tcnd towards !Ìulti.ulturilism, eitheÌ by fa.ilìtãtüì8 thc I).ìiticaÌ mohilizatio. of nìinoritf groups, orby Ìedü.ìnA politi.àl opposition to theÍ.ìatns.

'fhe frÌst .lndition that has e.abìed the eff{tive rúobilizãtnrì ofmìoorities is, ofcourse, demGtacy itseìl ì)€m@Ìacy ir reìevant fd manl,rearons. Át the simpìeÍ ìevel, the consoìidation of dernocra.f Ìimits thcability ol elites to crush ethnic l)olitical movêments. 1r) many cou.tÌièsaÌoundthe worìd, eìite5ban poìiticil movementt ol ethn ic grouD, oÌ pa,v

thugs oÌ paÌiìnÌììiiÍjes to beiÌ !p or kill €thnic group ìeãders, or bnbepolicand judge5 to loct thrm op. The lear of this sorÌ of repression oftenkccps non dorìinant groúps lrom voicirìg cven lhc most moderateclajms.(ecpúgqui.t is the safrst option foÍ nìinoritics nì nìrny Òurrrics

In consolidat.d derìÒ.nì.jcs, howcvú, wÌÌere democricy is lhe onll8âüc nÌ tosn, t|crc is oo (rption but to allow cthni.8.oúps to Òobilizcpolitically and advarce theìÍ .laims in Pübli.. As ã rcsult, hcdb.6 ofethnic Sroutt ãÌe in.ÌeasingÌy uDafrani to \peal.ut. Thcy mãy not winthe plúical debat€, but they aren't aÍaid ofbeing lille4 iailed, oÍ 6Íed

.o Ì,ír{riveÌy ,.tus dre wd(nÌ (kÌ(Ír.ieJ. sr, ru eiânìlrc, K6furLJ drd shdÌa ìiìnìì oPrnituniq rtu ba' avâ

110

tor iryìi 8 I Ì is lh is ìoss ol fcar, conÌbnÌcd with a new Ìigh ts consciou!ìcssderivins lronÌ lhe human rìghts reloltúion, which expla'ns lhc rcnìarlabllv(ral nahÍe of etnnn poìiti.r ìr.onteüìporary Wèsrrrn democr.cies

MoÌeoveÌ, d€mo.ra9 irroìves tbe av.ilabilìty of nÌult'pìe access pointstodeci5nr nìãkinlt Iiagrouf isblo.kcd il onc lcv.l by an unyüpa lheticijoveÌnm€nt, they.an pu8re lbcil .liids ât arothcr Ìevel. Ij'cr il anunsynrpilhelic poliri.al pâÌlÍ wcrc to wnÌ pwrr at the.enrlil lcrcl, .ndirÌerÌpled lo c!l b.ckon nìc rìghls ol Ìrôr d{rnnú.tgrou!5, llrcsc groupsco!ld shilt theirlòcus lo thc rcgionìl lcvel, or to the Ììuricipil icvcl. Â.deven il all oÍ lhese levels sere blockcd, tÌrcy could pu.sLe thcir claiNthrou$h the courts, or evef throagh inlcxÌatio.aÌ prèssure. lhjs h wbitdemocriq is all aboot: multiplc nnd sh úÌg pÒnìt5 ()fa(ess lo pow.r

A rclal.d lactor is dcnÌo8raphjcs h thc past, many gove!Ìrìcrts hxdlhc hopc or qpcctaÌìon ihat ro.-dôÍÌinant €thnic groups would snrpÌvdisappcar, tlrrough dtnÌg out ór assimiìatnrn or jnredniriigc. It n nÒwcÌ.a. OÌrt dris n ôt gonìg to happen. Due to hlgh birth ratcs, nìdigenou!peoplcs irc lhc tislcí Srownrg scgúcnt of th€ pplììatio! irÌ rìanv olthc couDÌrics whcrc thct arc found. The per.entage oÍ nnÌnjgrants ìdthc popuÌrtiôn is growúg stcâdily in most weitern coartrics, and mosrcornmcntatds agrc. thrt cv.r nxÌe imìni8rants will be nccded in thetuturc to offsct dcclúrnìB biÌth Íates rnd an ageing populâtion. Ánd substat€ nati(naÌ 8Íoupi úì the West are aìso 8rowìng id absolutê numbe6,even if they a.e 5taying the same or margirÌally dccltìing as a peÌcentageofthe popuÌation No one any nìore c.D havc thc drcrú oÌ deìusion tìratÍninoritier Ìvill disapper. l he nLUÌbeN count, partituìarly nÌ a d€mocr a.y,and the numbec are shiftjnjl in ihe direction ot non.lohinant grcup'

'lhese two Íacto6 of democ.acy and dctnogÍapht taken k)Sether withth€ human ligÌÌts revoìutioü, help to explain the 'purh' Ior pollci€sol accommodatìon. lncreasing rìghls-cors.úurÌr€ss, increisnrg ac.css toniultìplc ar.ras of sãfc politi.al rd)iìi?2hon, and incrcasnÌg nuìb.rs allhelp to cxplain thc growing strc.gth of politi.rl mobiÌization by cthnic

Píin.iples and Geo politi.s in the Human Rights Revolution

'lhe more puzling politi.ãì (tuertion, perhips, is why dôminânÌ 8Íoup\have been wiÌìing to a(ept thc.e d€nÌaDds. AltÚi11, nìost Wcstern statcthav€ a dominant natnrÌal group that lornìs i clear núDìcdcal najüittand in a dem@Ìa.y 'mai{rity nÌley. So why liale tn.jority goupsbc.oore

Màlin9 5€n5c oÍ tibeÍal Mulriculturalirm

úrore willnrg lo respood to lhe5e demands, and to n.goriate thcÌn? v/hv

not use thc PoweÌ of thc slate to strpprcss the\e dcÌninds, wìtÌ! lorce ifnecersary as was Ìhe câsc jn lhe Fast? I( üould b. nìce to thnìk lhatÌhe po*ers ôl tÌoral aÍ8uúcn t have bccd s!flìcient to overcome tlÌc lonS

húktry Õf antailonirns ind tÍ-"iudicc tlìat have slaired ethnic and râciaÌ

Ìelatnnìs nì 0ìe West. Bul tlìat doerft seenì likcly TlÌere must ÌÌ:ve b€en

otheÌ rrorc p'rdential or srÌategi. fx.to6 underlyiÌìg lhis changt ol heaÍt.

l{lentifying these ìixed motiv.s ior .c.qÍing m!ìticultÌúrlnm n

importanl, nol only to bttlet undeÌstaDd how nìulticuìturalisrì cnÌei8ed

in the W.st, bút al!) to bctler understand the PÍospccls Joi ProniÔLing itiround tÌrc globe lf sr a$rnìe that rmllicultuÍalirdr aros€ nr thc w€st

5oìely or prinìarily Lrc.iúse of its fDwÚluÌ moral logic, th€ü all€nìPts

to p(ndotc il abroàd wìll laÍSely.onsht in n)oral heckfl)g ol other

societiÈs As I roted úr tlÌc lntrodnchôn, llììs indccd has been a tc.dencv

ofma y commentatús, who benìoan the aPParcdl inabiìitv Ôf Peolle in

rhe post coFmuni\toÌ Posl colonial Èorld ioünd.rsltDd the doÌ.1Ìosn:ofnteÌâncc and.lìve6iL} and who Ìecomm€níl (rc )cdocaìing thc lo.aìs

il rhe ÌneannÌg of liberàlisúr and hunìxn rlShts lli rcaiil), howèvct the

vr.ablc iale of liberal !rtllÌ.trltuÍalisdi in different socjeties mdv hive Ì€5s

io rlo with peofìc's.onrPrehenrnnì ol lhe morâl logic ol htrtrra. riShtr'

an(l rtrÍc to do $ith thc lil8eÌ tÍatrÌ$tork of P.wèr relations itrto whjch

lhes. noÍn.livc a.8rürcnls are inscúcd

One wry to ÍaÍt unLotcrhs Ìhesc dixcd nrìtives IoÌ i.cePtüì8 mul

liculÌuÌaììr!Ì is lo Íeturn to Lhe PÌevnNs lwo stages of the hunran riShls

ÍruggÌe aljrúst etlrn i. and r.cìal hleÌaÌcht a nd ask hÒw thcy ca m€ alDu I

\icÌther dc(olodizahod ror ra.ìaÌ desc8rcgatÌon sas soÌcly tìre rcsull olnÌoFl p€ÁursioD, ând by idcntilyjD8 thc other mor. Íritegn: factors

it wort nì thosc trc cas.r wc ci! bettei únderstãnd the contemPÉrypolilics of nulti.tlluÌalism.

Con$deÍ thc ibun&tnÌral .onlnitmen t to racìal equâliti cxpÌetsed üÌ

thc 1948 UDHR. l said eârÌicr thal it was rc!úlsion at Hitìcr's 8eno.i{tdlracc haired thal nìolivated acccpìance oirhc idca ol Ìa.ial eqÍality 'Ihis

is (|€ ülal ac.ount Siven by commentntors lÌì Íkr.steÌÌnannÌ words

'capli.:r ra.ial dorinaftrn losl its l€8itiÌnacy in the ilas .hambers oftlì. Gcrnìan holodúrf íBoÌrteÌMnn ì9931 81) 1ìú .atastoPhc, it is

sar.j 'slÌook the .onscience oI ttÌe riôdd', and nrPired Ìh€ úìternalìonai

.o !ìlnity to re.ognize tlìe sins of úcìaÌist idcologies, and to conrmit

ìtself tÒ the cause ofr..ialeqrâlity.ÌÌì rr.lì ÌÍ horvevcr, lhc de.úion tÒ bâse the Po\rwaÌ inteÍn atiotãl order

or raciil equality sâs lake. beiotu thc Èlolocausr was widelv krown' an<ì

lt2

Thê Orìgins of tiberâl Multiculturalism

üìdccrj bclore the war was over (wolton 2000: 2 3). And onc inÌportlntr.ason why theÁllles agreed ro thh prnìciple wnsprecnell lo hclp cnsurcúìai tlrcy would win rlìe wrL lvhen rhe British and Americans lìrst outftÌcd thcir plans 1òr the posL war order in the Allintic CharteÌ ol Augun19,11, thcr€ was no sl)er:'nc ÍeÍeÌence to Ía.ial egualiry (lhur.hÌlì tell uÌalscll deier m i!ãtio. should be Ìesroì ed tothe rlüropean peoples conq(ci.dand.olonizc.l by the Nazis, but he did.ot want rìrh irrerprercd as

a iuíincarion for BÍantin8 FlÍ deteÌnÌinâÌion to non fìnotear pcoplcsconq!Üed and coloniTed by ihe B ti\h and so the Allanric chaícr is

carclllly wordcd to say Ìhri'soveFign rights.nd self goverue.t b.rcstorcd lo lhose who have been rbrcibly depÍjved ol them'. LÌ othcrwords, tuiopeiD peopies alro poÍesed an inteÍnationally re.ognizedsovereiSn Íate, ìike the cze.hs and the lÌnes, *ould Íecover th€n toF.rcìgn'rìgiìls ol self deteflÌnìarion, wheÌeas non Flutopea. colo.ial popllatìons rhar had.ev€r been ÍecoSnized under intcÍ.atúnãÌ ìaw as sovereìgn stal€s r!o!ld ÌemaiD under the thumb of the British f.ÌpiÌc. incase anyone misunde6tood ihe 5ubtl€ry oÍ thú wordinS, CÌruchÌll loldrhc Brilish tlorse of comrìois tììat'iÌ tlìe atlanlÌc meetìng, wc hidln mlfd, prìm.ril, the Íe\iontn). oÍ the Í)vereigntt sell8overrn!'nland natonil ìire oÍ the States and nrfl)nt of ìiuÍol)e now under thc\azi yok.', which 'ìs quite a sepaÌate pÌôbìem' trom that of th€ rìghts of.oloniil populations who 'owe aììe8jance to ibe ìÌitish Oord (ÌúoÌcdnÌ Borflv.rdl2005:30).

ClÌurcliill was indccd shoclicd irl lhe Arynn slprerÌicist nicology ofdre Nãzis, but Ìrlì.t shockcd hnn (.nd niny olh.6) was thc r!ãy tÌìcNàzis scr trcâúÌg oÌhcÌ while Erropcans.s if llÌcy lvúc no bcttcrthan

^fricrns ãrd Asians Nrzi polìcy towards thc Slals was mod.ll.d

dire.tly on eaÌlier GcrÍìan lrôlicics towards Afri.an.olonial popuÌatnrrs(ì,indquist 1996, lhrnã.n 1998), an.ì nidccd Eitlú s nÌ thrt'Ruisiâ is

oür Áftn:a and thè Russians aÌc ôur Ncgocsr (Ìuot.d ì. táur.n 1996i

136) lvhiìe few Westen pôw.rs bãd .otrphnìcd about Ccmar cobnialprictices oi @nquest, Ì.s€ttledent, àrd forc.d l.txruÌ in

^in.â, even

slìen it was knoÌln to Ì.id to dìass stãrvalion and dcath, it was sÌb.k-Ìn8 to \ee the same pR.tic.s applicd wirhnÌ luopc itsclf r\s St CIaiÍLÌal<e prt it, 'erteÍminatin! SrshÍÌen and Tâ\mãniarìs was one thinS:.xterminaIìrÌg lèÌìow !ìnoperns'lÍ a difteÌ€nt ra.e" wa. quite a diÍÍerenl

aÌlcÌ (Drike t95l: 26.ì, quoted in Inyton 2000i 170 n :l) Chur.hjll'snÌìti.l impahc, $i!ed by nroÍ Áììie5, was to re'terate this tradiriooalasurìptio. lhal lurop<ans should be accoÌded a (liffe.ent and hìgheríat{6 lha. olic.s. ìie wanted to.Ìiticìze the N-ir, not f(Ì.onstnLctins

l

Makinq sense of Libê.al Mulli.ulturalish

ra.ial hiÚ.rchies, blt Íathci lòr misidenhiving then by ignÔiin8

!h€ nles by $hicir civiliT-cd !úrope.r P€oPles shÔuì'ì 1r'at onc 'n

An.l yer withúÌ a yeãÌ of tlÌe Átìantic charto, nomentlm had swun8

ìn favoúr ot th. idea that tlÌe new world orde! should be based on a

pÌin.iplc ol thÈ cqúaÌ Ìights oÍ aìì PcoPles to selÍ delenìinrri'n what

changcd? lart of thc answcr is military stÌategy.]Ì€ British had bcen

slìo.kc.ì LJy the Íall olsin8aPorc to thcJdPa.ese nì Icbìuarv 19'12, aÍter the

local populirìon Ícfusedto hght Ior tìre Brilì5h The lo.al Chin6e, ì!Íâii-v'

in.l lndìan populiLion! lo dit fiShtúÌg to sive lriLìsh

ìmp€ialìsB Whf shouìd tlicy care Ìrhcther thcy wer€ rúled by iirithlÌ or

Japan€sc overlords, partiGÌhrly when thcJaPa.csc prctniscd Ererter seLl

Sovenìnrcnl? Ihe'disloyaìg oi the ÌÒ.al PoPulaliÔns wâs also a faclol

irÌ the rapjd Íall of Burma and Ì!Íalalsìa, d€vastating 8Íitish Ìnorale and

wir planning. I he Bri lish (PÌesscd bI their Aneri.a n :ìì ie\l "' li7€d that

iith€y hoped to havc the suPPo ol thcir coÌonial PoluìahoDs i' the war

againsttheJapanescinÂsia, oÍ .8innt rlìc CermâN and ltalians in ^ftici,lhqmust Promise a PoÍ war ôrdct in which thè snìs ofwhitc nnpeÍialisrl

wouldbe ãddressed. Thls the ^nÌciicans

presed thc Britúh to promisc to

rcturn Ho.g (on8 tô the ChÍrcsc ind to grant India indePèndcnce (and

similiÌìy prcssed lrance to Prcmisc to rcìnìqúish Vietninr), io às Ìo secure

thc cooperàtion (or at lcast DeutrJlity) of thc l@ì PÔPul!Ìion\ in rhe war

As somner Wclles RooscvelÌ's chicf toteisn poìicv adeiser, said in Mav

1942:

ìlthiswaÌisni lacta war fol thc Ìjb.Í1ri.! or ÉopÌes ìt nìu{ asulc rÌÌc sovercì3r

.qurlity ol pmtles LlÌ.oqhoút tlìr wtrld, as wcllas in lhc worÌd oÍ ihc AÌnericas

olr vidory muÍ ìJrnÌ8 in Í5 iÍain the lìbcÍriioo of alÌ Peopìci Dncrimi'ation

lÌiwecn peotles b..ause oÍ lhcÍ Ía.e, cr.cd oÍ coloÍ trÌuÍ be ahtnhed Tb( rge

of inperÌalnn n eoded.r

rn Aug(Í 1941, the uritish oPeÍatcd in the lìope and cxpedaftxì that

BÍitGh nnpenâlisnì could contìnue udclúnged aiteÌ thc war' ^ftcr

the

faìì of Singapore, they Ìe-eval!âted this a$ürnption' a.d a.quje5ced iiAmenca ciaim5 thât lhe saÌ was a stÌuggle aganBl laciaÌ dis'riminatior

'tu È$c" tu an$aN dd udtih õo ihc NIe oÍ mpeiarsm a

, ,..i., - ",--. .. .- i4t 'rì"rr , n

..,,".-,Jr'úú",úìhertEal,irshoÍt,w)|itilcplüÌdrÌ

Ìhe Origint of Libêrâl Multiculturalism

I:-

and impe|alìsnì. Ás lvolron purs Ìt, rthe lajÌ oI Singapore hâd dis.redireduhaÌ was seen as "shte jnìperiilìsnr"' (wolton 2000: 152).

Therc is a ralutary le5Fn h€Ìe l he idea of Ìa.ial €qlalill is a pôlvcrtuÌone, but its intriìrsi. persuasiveness sas ro grealer irÌ May 19,12 thar in

^ü8ust 1941, or in r€bruar] 19Ì9, when theJapanesc únÍlcccssÍully pÍl

po5ed a Ìa.iaì e{lualit} .laure to the ì eagle oi N.tions.,6 What chan8edsas the laÌger geo poìitìcal conte{t Ìhat dramalically aÌtcr.d the .oÍsand rirks a$ociated s'itìr icceptiDg tìÌ.l idea.:r As wc wìll see, this ha5

ìnrpÌìcations lor howÍe un!ìe6lind the pÌospccts foridvan.nrS mnìorjry

A similar Íory car also be told about llÌe i!ìpulsc LJchidd tlÌe se.o.dSreat stagc of the bunÌin rights revol(iion thc Afiicãr-^nÌeÌican desegrega l ion canìpaign. Il hotlcns.id uìattlìcsuccc$ofthe.iviì Íights moveÒc.t rcncctcd a growirì8 pulrlic rccôgíitìon that racial dis.ìim!fitionconhadicted úÌe lo(ndnÌ8 idcals ôl húnìan lrccdoh àÌìd equaìity ìn theArìoican Constiturion. D(s.grc8ition, iÍì othcr Íords, Ìenected a (longovedle) working o!Ì of the i'Ìlìúenl nÌoral logic of A!ìcricrn lìbeÍala.ddenD.ialic principics.

Bút, hcrc too, it would bc a rÌistâkc tÒ ov.rrnthasize the inpottanccôf üÒràÌ l)cduasion. Afri.úr^Ír.Ìi.àns hìd.ertâinìy been invoking thãtrÚ.àl lôsic foÌ rÌany d€.ades, but the sudden $.cess oÍ Ìhal atglrìcrtin th€ 1950s had a\ mu.h t() do with foÌ€ign I'oìicy imperililcs as {ithdomeshc moral peÍsuasnrn

:ó ü .ouÌs, iÌ'e j.p Ìere dsn ,d roÌ i n.iil eluÌry .nurc ÌìiP.4/orid( nnr úoÌi I pn tr.i ple

^: JU rJrê'ìudi êver s nJde cìeàr the Jr rr

idor.ry !)l ú.iiì !{nsDr.} (rrid),ün?,b), whi.h dÌe isd r si\ins tbcn rhc Í*bri8Ìüouõ('lurcnÌee6: 140) rn!Japancscdid..'.hircrn,r rúenoÍ Ìr.rFrhey rinpÌy obj

ê JdprN. wcÌe ore of n, rulcno(iír,nrÌy) nìey trÍnblu tu nitu.r útJipFi,,.icr.

^r ìhis n,pnn

.Ì.â. ni dF re3o\ r re1tu, JtrPâm.br c,llrlly ucrc dclqqiúmar.d, Áhip !r5ÍiÌ to rndn,ryir'.h rf.â.N úìê iÌÁr voer 0nìponenr ôí È.iâÌ Èq!âriÌr âi dre u(iild Núons (B:nton

or noaì |\râIq, Ì sbould notc th.doMd rh. púr.iptc of á.àl eqú

ihc lshr of non luop]r popìs, but mthcÍ to 0Íotcd shrs trrìo niShr be rur]i{r t!rìún cndcd (fi,rtìi 1ee3). rlhrc Lúiorcans hâ,i iì cfÍed

Making sense of Libêral MultìcukuÍalism ÌheOIginroÍLib€Ìal Mulri.uÌtuÍah5m

The U nited Stàtcs tmer8ed fÌom World War ìl b.k€.i nr a SlobalrtruSSlewíh lhe Soviet Union for influencc ând power ADd nì lhis conte\t, racial

discrimi natiod {ithin the Urited Stales was a .ripplirÌ8 liabiìity. The Sovi

ers ensuÌed thãt news rePorts about the mistÌ€atncnt olÌrlacks ni AnÌericã

were circulâted widely úÌ dìc Third woÌld, xdd Ure State Dcpartment

was re.€iving rePorts on a daily bãsis lom its cdìbassies ovetseas âbout

lhe con5equenccs lhis sas havÍÌg Onc American itÌbi$ador notcd 'tlìepaidul 5enlitivitl {d all

^!ian prôPlcs on lra.ial disüüninationl r.d the

lanristi. slrcèss which Communist Prop.gandt hrs had in cÍeâtnrg adti

Anìeri.an fcrftÌg... ìt it impossibLc lo exagSerat.' (AmÌrassador Chcsteì

uosÌes, qnoted in layton 2000: 162 n. 78). LcadirS Post'wd. Aúerican

statesnÌen, such asJohn lostrr Dulles and Dcan R!sk, constartll rciÌ€r

ared Ìhat lnn Crow is Juinins ourÍoreign Poli.y. The cff€ct of thí nr Asia

.nd Aíìca will be work foÍ us thân Hun8ary for the Rússians' (Dullcs ìo

Laylon 20oo: 131), or lh.t "l he biggest snl8lebuÌden thitwe(arry on ouibacts in oür forr'ig. relatiôn\ .is ìhc probìem of racial dis.rimrnation

íRusk in Llurcn 199ó:2,14).The foreiSÌì polic-v impìicatnxìs oi donÌesti. racial discÌiminati(xr ot(en

had a tragic cotrIic clcment to iÌ. Whtnever AfÌi.àn or Asi.n deìegatcs ro

the United NãtioN in New York drovc down to Wàshington io taÌt toAúúican governmcnl otlciah, they Pâ$ed Ìnto dle Ì.nd ol Jim (-ros

and woe tore€{t to usc raciilly se8reSatcd restauÍants ànd washroor$-an ÈxPoien.e tbey foünd humiliatinS, to say thP ìe,\t Th. Ámcrnìan

Sovenlnent setuP ã tÌaior ÍclÌowthiP pogramme to tlrürg lut!re lead€r

of Thnd world countries lo stud-v iÌì tlìe Uoited stàtcs, in the hopÈs

thàt this wooìd en.ôuragc a PosÌtive vi€w ol AnÌeicà, bur thc ô6t hand

eipeicrce of se,lÌegâtion olten had ih. opposite effP.t Th. Ámerican

SoveÍlnerr hoPedthat !Ìany uN otSaniuiitions wouldbè heidquarteÍed

in the Unitcd States, and oflìrcd lo host thr UN5lood and AgriclltureOÌganiation (FAO) in Baltimore, bút the IJN cotld haldly ãgÌ.e tolocateús offr.cs nÌ segregatiónht Maryland. (lìe FÂO ended uP nì RoÌne ) Ín aìl

ofthese.ascs,lhe cost was lìot júst a djminished internatúnal rcpúlation

1or tlìe Unitcd st.tes, but a renìfo(cnÌent of the Soviet cìainì to be the

only tÌue belicv.r in racial elualitt and the only truc lrie.d of the noÕ

European peôplcs oI the worìdIacd wúh thesc ncgatìve effect! of ra.ialdúc.iúnDúon on am€ri.at

8co polÌtical intercsts, President lnmar cve n tual ly .ì.cid.d he hâd to a.tAs lnuren puts it, 'extelnaÌ pressur. fionì the CoìdwarIìow began to pl.t'â dÌonlmeDtal Ìole in cÌelting a new begi ìin8 for racial cqlality s ithinthc Unìted stãtcí (Lìur€n r996: 201). AtLer 1946, Truman instructcd thc

Juíice and St.lc Dcpa.lments lo súbnÌit aÌnicus briclì supporting legal

.ases bÌoú8ht byAiricin AnÌerìcin orSinizaljons, adrising tlic ..uÌtl thatÌacìal seSregaÌion was an obstacìe to Íoreign poliry, and a lìabiljty nr theCoìd war stru88ìe $'ìth the Sovìet Unjon ln the limous BíoM y BÒdni ofldr.,iio, case,Ior examtl€, th€ federaì govenrmenl brìel said lt n nr dìecontext ot lhe present world stru88ìe between fi eedotn and t_lranny thatthe problenr ol ricial discriDiiatioD i! the LJS múí bc licwcd'(quoted

It is dílìcull lo know how oìuch Ì{ei8hl sÌrould bc giv.r to theieexleirÌal Seopolitìcal factoìs in extliin:ng the slcces ol thc African-r\nìerican civiì ri8ht5 movenìent, ó .ompaÍed to doììesÌi. chadgcs nrpolitjcalopnrìon about the morality olseSregairon E!( ìt's worth.otinglhal lhe idilial puslì within tìre Íederaì goverìnÌcnl 1or dcsc8re8atn)ncinÌe lron the Exec(lìve Lrranch, and the Slale Lleparlnìcd1i. paÍticuÌar,rithÚ thin lÌonÌ cither the iúdiciary oi lhc legislaLlúc. In fâct, ïÍuman's.orlnitrncdt to addrcss ra.ial discÌnniDatìon was so out of line wirììpubljc atlnúdes or judicìal nonìs rÌìat he had to circ(mlcnt thc otheÍtwo bianchcs, cnlorcing desegregalion in federiÌ institutions bl Irx€útiv€Odcr, râlhd thrn thro(gh icgúl.Lion or jrdicìnl rcview Wìthout thúfoÈip poÌi.y nìspücd push lronì lhc lrccotirc, itl dot .lear wheÌher,or wlÌcn, the úôrâl logi. of dcscgr.Sâtion would nàvÈ been accepled bydther th€ sÌÌite nìãjority arnoÍgth. publi. àt làrgc or the.ouÌts zr

'ì hcse a.counb of the hixed motivcs unde.lyúìg the ârst rwo sl.ges oithc huÌnan ights strugSlc againn raciàl a.d.thnic hieÍaÍ.hy.ontaú nnìmportant lesirn nrdreìy, dìàr trttitudcs tôwãrds race and ethni.jìy.reprcfoundlJ infl uen.ed by Ìarg.Ì SeoJxtiticâl thrèãts 'Ì he sor ts of poÌiciesthat aÍe adopted are deteÌmincd, at least io parr, by percepÌio.s oI whatwiÌì be a heìp o. hirdranc€ in the ltiuSgle wjth extemal eneúics Had itnol tree! ior Ìhe €xtcüajthlcats poscd by the Axis in world War Ì1, ortìythe Soviets dudÌÌg the Cold War, the mov€ment towards dccoÌô.izatnrÌand desegr€gation m'Bht have been much shweÌ, or evetr stoppcd h itslFck. Populir accept nceofthe moril Ìogiclorthese relorÌns was hclpdby rhc cxlra púsh rhat conÌes tìon coocenìs about geo politìcal sÈctrÍiry2'

re Ì.Ìrr rÍ3ìnien(,nÌr lgr l[lrni3hr ryihtri È r€Íorro5ir{wo

rndtóud.dr{nìigin..nLv.br ,8ntrr i Lun,iriìroniìinâron

^tâ.l.sn lr ttr3).ôlet ì

!.dè(râ d r\ Òirfe nì ju{ie ôÍ .olon i] hÍì hãd lrk.n dúÈi íÌlÌhc f'f,rl d(obnnãii.n púsh ât rhc ! N

Matinq sênrê of Lìberal Múlti.ulturalkm

And thh, I lhink, gives ús an imPortant cl(e to why W.íern denrc.r.cies have adoptcd a nex âPProa.h to mnÌoritìes in the pan fofv vci6FoÍ tho 6rst tinìe in thc twcntieth .entuÌt ând PcrlìaPs lòr the 6rsi time

in ieveÌàl ccnhides, dinorilics in the WcÍ hâve.ot in lact beed tools

in a laryú Seepoiiìicâl írog8ìe. ^nd

this n c.ucinl in etPÌainnìg why

stat€5 and donÌinant SrouPs lìave been dìon wilÌnlg to accePt (hÒweve'

grud8inSlyand reluctantÌy) nor mod€ìtdf nÌultiaìhìr,ì â..ommodatiÔn.

Ihis n an iúporlinr poúìt thal wilÌ returface in lateÌ chap(€6, so lct Ìnc

cxpìain it in sonÌe detth.

Geo-Political S€curity and the'Dese(uritization'of Ethni. Relations

Wh.!e statet fê.I nÌsecure in 8co poliliciì tetrns, Lìarin of.ciShbourinSeneÌnics, theü treatment of mnrorìti.s ìs heavil!' dÌaped bv ttìis scnse ofinsecúrìty ln PaÍìcular, Íãtes will ne\eÌ voltúÌlarily a..ord iights and

powcs to mìnorities if they thúl lhis wiu nìüe.se the likcÌihood ofmi.ôdties adinx as pol€ntial coìl.boÍalor with, or as a'lìfth colrnÌn'f.Ì, à ncighbouring cncmt

IÌì thr pa st, th Ìs has oftcn b€eD an issre in the Wcst Fot eÌamPle piorto World War ìÌ, lialy fcarcd that theCênnan sFâking Ìnnroits in South

lyÌoì wâs more loyal to Auíliã oÌ Cenúny than to ltaly, and wouldrheÌcfoic slplDÌt any attcnÌPt by Gerüiany/^$tria to invade and anncx

South Tyrol. Similar feas weÌe exPr€ssèd aboutthe CdÌÌan minorities in

lelgiüm, Denmark, and thc Baltics. t hese cot ntrÌes worÌi.d rlìa t GeÍmany

nÌight inv.dc in the natrc oI'1itreÍating' theú co ethtÌic GcrnÌins, and

that tlìe CêrÌnan minorities wo(ld colÌrborate with su.h an irvasionThese fea!5playcd â.ruciaì role nr shaPnrS nlt rnationalresPodscs to the

'núÌorìry problcÍn' al(eÌ both the world oa$.Todat howev(, thls ìs esenrialy i non_irsúe throughout rhe estab

lishcd west€n dcnÌocÉcje\ rith respect to n.tioMÌ mnìÔiiics and

ìndigcnols peoples. (The situatnD ol sonìe idnì8ranl SrouPs is trore

complcÌ, as ì dit.bs lrtlow) It it difEdlt Ìo thnìk ol a sìn8ìe WestcíÌ

demôcúcy whele tlìe srate ÍeaÌs thlt a nitional úirÌority or n'digc

nou\ gronp wouìd collaboÌaÌe üith a cighbounng êrcÌny and Potenriaì a88tusor3o ìraÌt ôf thc reason for lhis is that WesteÌn states do

ed h!Í.Ín dcno.ndeJ, cYrÍús ts

1nrk1h..-ypdot nionty. sen br thc GÈek cypriotìo!ìnEtd n cuür' âssrsron/inene ìio. byTrÌkey.

Ìh! Oriqinr oÍ Liberàl Muhi.ulturdlism

Õol bive neiShbourìng cnenìics who üighi nÌladc ìhcm. NATO has

been spectic!larì-v su..esstul nÌ rcmovnìg thc possilrility oi onr WcÍúncountry jnvrdtì8 its nciShbours. A5 a ÌeÍ!lt, the question ol whelhelnatìonil minonti.s ard njdiSrnous pcoplcs would be loyal nÌ lheeveDt oi invasnn by i dcighbÒurnì8 slatc lÌas been .emoved lronr lhe

Oi co!tre, wett.rn dcrrocÌâdes dÒ hàrc morc long distincc potcdtiale cdics such a5 Soviet Corìnìunnn nÌ thè paí,lsl.nÌic iihadisú todatand pcrlraps Chinâ in !m€ tutuÍ€ scenario. But n! rclatio. iô thcsc lÒngdistince threats, there is noqu€stiôn tlÌat dational ÌÌnÌoritics and nÌdi8crous pcoples ar€ on the s!Ìne side rs ot. statc. If Quebec 8airts inú.asedpowcn, or cvcr independen.e, no onè nì thc rcst ofcãnada woúìcs dìat

Quètr.c wiÌl sLarl coÌÌaboraring sith r\Ì Qa€da ôr CÌlnÌã to ôverrhÍ)w theCanadìar statc.l Qoebec.ationaìists may sant to sc.ede fiDm Canada,

but â. údcpcndent Quebec wouÌd b€ an âlly olCaMdá, tot àn eo.my'and sluld ÒopÚile Ìog€tlìer sith (ianada in NATO iuìd other Wcstcmdcfercc and s€.uriq ãÍan8cments. Snrilàrly, âr irìdcpcrdcnt Scotlandwould bc an allt not eneìnyoll.Slandi an indêPcndcnt Catàlonià wôuldbean allyofSp.nÌ, and so on.

lìis may sceüì obviols, but as $e wiìl see in ChãfteÌs 6 and 7, in mostparrs olthe wÒrld rii.orit)' groups ale stjÌìseen as a fifth cohmn, likelÌ tobeworkinS fora n.ighlrouringerenÌy. This h paÍrÌcuìaÌìv a @nceLn where

thc mìnoÌit_v is Ìelated toà reiShboúrirÌ8 slale by ethnicity ot religìon, orwhcre a minoÍity h foúnd on botlì sidcs oI an int€rnãtìonaì boundary, so

thai rhe DeiShbou nS stat..làina thc riSht 10 intereoe to protect'jts'

Undcr thcsc condìtions, we are lik€ly to wit.csswhai polilical s.ic.tìslscalÌ th. 'sccurìlization' of ethni. reìarnrÌs.3'z Rclations bctfucn states

and düror ics are seen, not ar a matter oI nôrnal demo.r.tic poljliÕro be neSotiatcd and debared, but as a natter of nation.l scturity, íìwhi.h thc (ate has to limit the nomìaÌ derìôcratjc proccss irÌ ordcr loprotect ns vcry exisrence. Und€. conditions of scdúiti2atio., hnìoityseìf or8anization nMy bt ìegaiÌy limited (e,1. minority polìti.al parties

banned), nìinoity lcâdús may Ìre subject to sec.et loli.e suweiììan.e,the raising of prri.ular sorts ol dcDands maybe iÌÌe8al (e.8. ìâws against

dÌ tnÌè!ênd..r QlclN h. r fiicnd to teren$? ((ay 2tlí)6)

Maling Sens€ oÍ Liberal Multiculturatkm

Promoting lecession), ard so on Even il mnrÍty denÌinds can be vontd,lhcv hiÌl he ditÌyrcicctcd by th€ iargo sôcieqvand Ìhe stârc. AfrcÍa , howcan Srorps ttìat aÌe disloyal hxve any tcgiriÍiat€ .laims aganrst rh. state?So lhc sc.xritization oietúÌic relarions crodcs borh rhe dcdrocrâti. sparrto voi.c rìtxÍiq deminds, ãnd rhe likelihood thãr rtrose dcÍÌands w'tì

ln úôst westen countiès, howevcr, .tlnìic polìÌics havc b.cn aìmoslenti(ly lles<uritizcd'. hhnic plitìcs ir jüst thar noínâÌ, day to darpolitìcs. RelãtioDs bctsccn the sra rc ard rÌúrÍity groups Làvebeen r.keno!1 oI the'se.urity' bor and pur jD rhc'd.Ìno.rati. poliücí Lìor.

'lhis dcsc.uritization ot ctlúic Íelalions. conÌbincd wirh th. âs'Í3n.aProvidcdby rcbuÍ humaD rìilhts prolcctiods, Ìì€lp5 roexplairì hòy dominaDl groups in the wcsl havea..eflcd dcúands Íor multicutturaì Íefonìs.Both of th€se tacto6 draÌnari(aìly rcdr.È the rnks lo thc membe6 otdorúrant gro!ps ol adopting liberal rrltìcüttuÌalnm. Th. fomer eDs!resthàt oìuiticultúú]nú ú nor a ltrrcat ro peopì€! coltcctne geo poli(icatseo.it, the ÌatÌer enÍtrcs that ìnulrì.uthtrrlism is nor a threar to rtìejrìndividuaì human s(urit,r linder these cÍdmrranccs, ÌnuÌhoìtuÌalismn cssentiallya low risk pRrtositìoD, ãnddominâDl groups are mor€ likclr

Ì use the tcdn'a.quiesce', bc.âuse it it 'mpoíart

rDt ro oveBtarc ormi\inteì?ret thc l.v.l ofslpport for nÌuìricull!úlisn amonSí ÌncÍÌbcrsof domirÌ.nt groups in mosl WesÌern s(ieti.s. Thê rwo tacrors l,vc iusìÍnentioncd ttÌc desecurilizitìon of erhnic rclãtio.s, and a$orân.cs ofrobust lrurÌan riShts tÍorectio.--rèduce rlÌe ris(s âsFciared with nrlti.oltualisdÌ, LJut do notprovid. adypost've argurì€nt in favoúrofit. tt'sof couise positrle that sorìc meÍÌber5 ol lhe dônnuDr 8roúp have beenpebuadcd by the àÌgunÌcnts of minotily lcadeA thar muliiculturalisnì rnot just..,!irtu,r riíi, lJtt àlso rcqunú bf, human lights norm!, aDdis nccded to ensure thc full implemcntatiôn of Ìhese ronns. I towever,we shouldn't exaSSerate tlìe extenr ro whi.b this moral argument hasbecn i..lptert among th. wi{Ìer plblic. Ther€! relatively litde evidencethât nenìbeb oI thc dominanr grorp have becorìc ,true believe6, irÌtrrülticulluialisrn in that sense.rr

What does appcarto have happcned, howeve4 is thàta suficÌent md!Ìrer oicilizens hâve b€.ome convnred rhar mulritulhlralúm is corsisront

Sinrn.wnìnì.Íitis,i' exrÌnplc b) rishcnn s .nrry p

120

ÌheOriginiof LiL.Íâl Multr(ulturalkm

wìtlì lhcir country's bàsic liberaì democrali. valucs {and its geepoliticatsecurily), ind hcn.c ii ã tcz,6rirl. poliry oprjo. They may not bcpe6uaded nrai multicúllúraÌistu is a partianarÌ_Ì/ bcnehcial or üÌruousplict le( ilonea nÌorâlly oLìli8atory one, butso longas it r.spe.Ìr hunra.Ìightt.nd sr!Ìe secúli(Í thcn it is an a.{eptabìe oplion, and nor worrhmobilznÌg .8ainsl. ÌrÌ that scnse, th€ attitude of nÌost .itizcns rowardsmultìculturalisnì is onc Òf pasrive a.quìescence, ralhcr than a.Ìivc indwlÌoiehci rlcd support. This is.eìtainlvwhnt nÌanypolh hav€ nìgges(ed.r1Èot prssivc i.qui6ccr.c .an be enough ìlcmocr.qr is oÍten said tôbe a syíem ol'nÌajority rulc', but wheÍe nìajority groups aìe |tssìve,and minorilies .rc wcll orga.iz.d and motivated, nrnÌority views .an be

I'oìiticil ly cllccl ìvc.3:.h./n'rr'r'r l:L rol nL.r rl ""lsn rpFrr-\' ., pr 'l

ÌatlÌei than ictiv. support r)f most members ol do!ìnìànt llÍoups neansllÌat it is vulrìcràtìÌe tó backlash and renrat, pnrtiorlady ifr:ÍiriÕ are ablcto r.isc feaA that it Ìnay after atÌ he , threat to huDdn Ìigh$ or slatcsecúril)rr! And, as wc'll s@, thi\ is pÌ(irely whal has ocdmed in sonÌehr8l' p uhl . '., . ur 'r- "ar Fi,m mrl ! ü r.rr, h,m .

4roric oÌ Õtn í$ti.al rbod dr

toÌticrl J(nir' d'ef wirr nor .ÌÌ'nsc thcn voüns prrcÍr niìpÌy b e!e sood ftaens orhcmÁ. ro i4r!

uiìrú arlmm.try r mjonry anndcsbndiìs sn,cÈ

nembcs or thc nrarorq tnì'caìly b6 md hunìâ 4Lr nonÚ, thqr b

sonc beyond tbe .ìlÌ or d q rld

mQnins miroriq. Mcnbts oÍ min Ínr 8iôqx, .. d,e oÍÌer hand, rypicárÌy rhÍrk dÌ.Í

and rtmdf cadieÌ új'stncs, andmjlodl' pcóÌr.u!c, thc fad düt ocnìbcn or

'ht ìnâj.,nry erp(i tÌr

adoptÍ'3 nn'ld!ìlbnlinÌ Íllrs$ thâr rhcy hâverÌ úúrf âc.errt d rÌrè injüntc or .a ieÍ

trc 11Ìú driun.rion i'âtr tderòrhcndrcÍtrâ(rcoB)Er)..nqi

121

Máking sens€ oí Liberal Multi.ulturalism

The Retr€at Írom Multi.ulturãlism?

So lar ú this .hapt€r, I havc ldrk€d at ive k _! nrúdarions ot WcstunÌlre.ds tÒwards ac.orìmodatnjS dìver iry. Incrc.sn)3 rights cooscioGdèss,denìogrâphn: changes, a.d rnultiple a.cess ponÍs for sâfe t)otíical üobi-Ìizatior heh to explain wlìv no. donrininr groups have become Ìnoreascruve of multìcrltftaÌ.IàinÌr; lnd lhc d.s..uritizarion ol cth.ic rctations and a consensús on human rights hr\r to Í€duce rlìe ristì to domi.ant Sroups oI a..rptnìB these cl.ims. W)cn rtÌese iìv€ condìtiôns ar€ inPli.?, the tÌend lowards 8r€ater accoüìodation of €rhnocuttural diveFsity n Ìikeìvto arise, Ìcgardtè\s ofrhe prcscn.èor absence oI particuÌar t)eÌenalitiei, orp.rticúlaÍ poÌìti(al p.rucs, or pa i.uÌarelecrorat systems.rT

TÌìis anilysis rot onÌy h€lps to cxpl.riì th€ ,Ìc of múlrì.uÌtuÌaìi5n inthe We5t, Ìl also helps, I beìirvc, io €xplain rhe,rrr.,r fronì mulric(lturâÌism io some lvcsten counlrics. WheÌe one or morc ôf these nveconditions ls abscnt, or put inlo qucstnrÌ, pbÌjc support foÌ rEÍicllfulornìs otmulrÌcult(râlisÈ cãn dimiÌìhh. Ard nìd€ed w€ can scc.lear câsesofthìs, alÌhough úìc cxtent ofrhe so câllerl'ÍetÌear frcm rnultidrlturaìism'nì the west has oftrn been exaSgÚatcdi and nìjsinterprcrc.ì.

Some corìnìcrtat.rs have iÌgucd thar we are witrìcssins a Sen.rairetreãt ilon dNìtimìturalhnr in tbe West, and a rctu.n to more rraditionil idcâs ofhomo8eno!s and rnitar Ìep!blica! cüizênship, irÌ whichethnocúÌtural diverity is banished from rhe public reâÌm and relcgated tothe privalc spheÍe (e.9. Joppkc 2004, RrubakcÌ 2001, l,nrzin8er 2OO3). Thi\has Ìcd soh€ cttics to exprcss the hotE that lrultiflìtuìãllsm will pÌoveto havc b€en a passing iad or rarhion (Barry 2ool).

IrÌ rcãÌiry how€ver, theba.klash agairÌst nrl&rlhrralisnÌ is quÍe Ìo.aìizcd, rèÌcvanroily to th. .laims of.ertah úinorities in ccrtaiÌr rcunrrjes.Iôr€ìampl€, ìrhas not affeded statc policiêt towüds narioral minoritjcs.The trènd ldescribcd nì Chapre! J todàrdsgreat€r ÌecogiÌitnrn ofÍrbsrarenarioDâl8Íoups, ollcn üì th€ form oi rcgio.aÌ autono'nv ard oficiaì ìanSuagè statusi remairÌs untouched Tlìüc has been no bicÌtasÌr aljainsr llÌc

rcsbrâs cn br nrr r clficinr ânì.n púpìe iàúr tcm 2qr1)

rrÚli.ielu$aììyhasnoúìúslÒdêiedd o bÌâì Ìishb úaì ha(.o hmndd ÕsaÍ.ìl

(e* anGTs pri! ert tu ded úoÌiir Íhoorr). so ú a .cnú lÕ,er or q Ònonr 0Í.sFrnlr , h io^0"r ., . ..,..m ni..,r.:

cor$lidation) 'nry

hive (onodc pneqúnn6.

122

rigìÌts of..Ìionil minoritics withnì ürewe5tern d€nd È.nr Th.r. ir no

casc in thc wcsr oía country ÌctrcaÌilg irom any of thc àc.ornniala tionsit has accoided to i ts tubía le .itìonaì SrouPs. On thc contÌily, a5 we wilÌsee nì Chapter 6, this tr.nd his bee! reafirmed by uÌc develoPnent ofinte âriônal norÌs. su.h as lhe F_rame$lrk Côrvcttion lor the ÌÌotectnD ofNationiì MÍuìtics adoplei by ihe Coun.il ofEúiope.

oÌ coÍsidcr lh€ ca5e of nìdigcnors peopì€s 'Ihe tod towaids SreaterÌeoSnitiôn ol nrdÌSenons rights, ollcn in the forn of lard chnns, recog

nitio. of cunoÌÌary Law, and sclf SotÚn!Ì€nt IiSht\, aho rcnÌains iull-v

in pla.. irÌ lhe west, wilhout a.I Ìreawble ba.klasÌÌ or reteal Aodit t@ has been reafnnncd btÌ the deveìopnÌent ol üÌleÌnational nonnt,su.h is tlìc UN's Draft Dcclaration oD the lÜ8hts oi lddiScnous l'eoPÌes,

or compàÈblc sl.ndards of nìdiScnols riShr\ by thè Orgaoizalior ofAnìeÍi.rn Stat.s, llÌe ìnternatiodâÌ t bour Ol8anizatntr, or th. World

B.nk, disdssed id C|aPteÍ ?.

So rheE is ro aüos the boa rutr€at ircm mllticuìturalistl lor bothslbstat€ nrtio..t Sroups ard ürdigcnous t€oPìes, thc trcnd lowards

lhe pubìic rucogni(ìon and a...núnÒdnlion ol ethneuÌhral divc6iÌtrcnraÌtrs i.tact, a.d indeed is now Ìnore trr.Ììy entrenchèd, rot oriyr@ted in donì.nic accommodations ând ncSorÌatbns, Ìmt alsô ratih.dà.d proÌecÌed by intúDatìonaì noÌms.

TÌÌe retrcat fronì rrulliculnraìism, th.roforc, ls laryely Íelt.icted to ônc

donanì ol eth nocultural dile6iry nam€Ì, ürniSrarìon. Ánd, as w€ wiìlsec in Part lll, unlikc thc case of natìqÌaÌ ÌnnÌorilies and indiSe.ouspcoplcs/ lher€ has b.cn no sedous attempt to codill cuìturd ri8htl foriúúigrants at tìe int rna(ìoDilìevel 'lhe key qtrcstìor, thelefoÌe, is{hyimnìigÌânÌ multiolturàlism in Pa.tìruÌã. has conÌe uDder such atta.kWe .an bcgnì by dismìssnì8 one PoPulaÌ exPlanâtion. As I not€d earìier,

vaÌiour cotrlnenlito6 hàv. srSScsled that the retÌcàt fronÌ ìmnÌigrant

m(liicuìtuÍalisdr rclÌects a ÌetuÌn to the rÌadihonal liberal bclicl tlÌatethnicitybclongs ìD rhe privat. sphÚe, that the Pubiic sphere íÌould be

neutÌaì, and that ci(izenship shouldbc undìItèrentiated. On this view,lherclreat Írom úntÌiSranl nìulti.ülturâlútn rclÌ(ts a Ìeie.tion ofthc wholc

idca ol a liberal denìoüa Lic concPtion of trúlticlltuFì úmÌut this cannotbc OÌc exPlanation. Ìf Wcstern demGrãcies werc rcjcct

nrg thc very nl€a of libúal nÌultìaltrúalisn, they would havè reje.tcd

the cl.nns of subrtate nalional 8rcuPs and nìdiSenous P€oples as well

âs inìmìgmnt!. ^fter

all, the claim\ of national SrouPs and indigcnoúspeôplcs lypicaÌìy invollc a much nrcr€ dratÌatìc insertion of ethno_

.a rural direÌsity ìdto ttÌe pubìic sPherc, and a núte dÌamati. degrc.

Íh€ Orìqins of Lib.ral Molti.ultuíalism

Íh. origìns of Libcrâl MuliiculturalirdMating 5pnr. oÍ tib€ral Multi.ulturJlism

oi diÍler€ntiated .itizè.íììP, than is dcmanded by immiS.aÍl grouPs

whereas tÍdìigrants tyPically \€el( nìodcst vaúations oÌ exeÌnPliont Íìthe opcation of rnaìnstÍeam iÍÍìlutions, hisloric natiodaÌ minoriticsan.ì nìdi8cnou5 pcoples tl?ìcalÌy seek a much wìdeÌ Ievcl ol recoljni

tion àrd ac.omnìoditìon, in.luding sDch thnÌ8s as land clajos, s.ll

Sovenrdìcnl PowèÌs, lanSuaSe righìs, sepaÍatc cduational syslenrs' ând

rven seParate legaì systems lhcsc.lai!ìs involvc a ru.h Ìnore senous

chaìì€nge to idea\ of rndiilerentiâtcd citìzenshiP ind the prieilizaútÌol ethni.iìy lhan is nttolved in acconlnodatúÌg ünnììgÌânt gro(Ps Y€t

westenì dem@Íaci.s have not retrcaled ai all from dreir contri(ment to

accooxdodatjn g thesc historn Dúrorities.Westèúì deDo{racics ire,

'n fâ.t, üìcreasìngÌy .onÍoÌtablc with cÌain$

to differcntìated citizcnshjP and thc Pobìic recogniiion of dilìren.€,when thesc cLaimr nr. advanced by histoÍn mnÌorìties. For.xamPìe,whiì€ thc NetheÍìa ds is ÌetreatnÌg ÌonÌ imlnigrant multitxltdalism, ìtis strengthcning thè riShts of it! hìslorì. IÍisi.r ÌÌinotitv; GcrnÌanv Ìs

retÌeãti,8 fron úìtÌiSrant ÌntttidltuÌaìism, Lr!1 js celebrâting the 50th

annivcsaÌy olthe spccÌal statüs oÍ ils lììst.ti. Drnish minoity; Britain is

reheatnig tom imrnigra.t mühìculllrilism, btt has accorded new self-

8ov€Ítrú.t PoweÍs to iÌs hi\toric dations nì Íotl:nn :n' w'l's: ^u!

lraÌìa is rctrcaling froÈ irnmigrant muÌlicuÌtüalistr, bot stc gdreninS

the institÌúio!.Iì72tiôn of AboriSi.aÌ riShtt; [ran( h retreatnìg lrom

imnrigrant ú!ltìcultr.dlism, but stÍ€Ígrhcning rc.ognition of its hisloric

úinodty lnnSúa8€s; and so on. Noneofthis nìakesscnse if we erplain the

reiÌcit iiom itìmiSrant úullìculturalisln as a Ìet rn ol orthodox libcral

idcas of undiffúcnli ated .itizclsi iP and .cu tial Public sPlìeles

So iti5nottlìcidc. oIìitìcral nÌuìiicüliuràlismt.rvthâl hascoìneu dcr

rtricn.r 'lhe bacllash, ÌatÌìer, is larSely Ìcstrict€d tr) inlniglation Ardevenwithió titc sPhere ofnnmigraiion, tlc retreat fÍ{nÌI multicultuÍãlisnÌis fâr lrom nnifornr a.rcss cotnlÌies: it is úore pÌonourced in West€rn

l,uÍope than in No.th ^nerica,

for exadpÌcTo understànd lhis, we .àn return to our list of sourccs and Pr€cordi

tiods The two kcy h.rors tÌÌat reduce majo.ity oPPositio. iotNlticnltúrali\rì have both bccn pur in doúbt in rhe.ontcxl oÍ MusÌn. nnmigraftn)into Wcslern Eu(Ìrc. Many Foplc lìave lucíioned whethcr Lhe libcÌal

eÌìrectâncy aPtlies to Musìims nÌ thc saoìewây it apPlied to tarlieÌwaves

oÍ imrrigrant5. l hesc 1ià6 ext€ld bict âr ì€ãst to iie Ììushdic aflàÌ, and

ícrn dcBocd is aL. Íri!(1in8 rihif È, Í. FE."iy lifory iÀnm t

\{, c.s. Joppr. 2m4.

124

havebeen rca16rmcd by lhe Ì)an*h cartoon affair, âs wcllis bvP€aútuntLepoÌts about coer.cd âÍanged naÍiagcs, honour Iúllnr8s, o. Íemaìe 8crital Í(lil.tion.re The oPttnhtic is!mltnD thal human ri8hlr noíìswill nìcvilalrìy \trenglhen and trirnÌPh withh Muíim .ortnuritics ì!the Wcst has be€. Pticed in doulrt.

Thc 9/11 attacks, and the srlrscquent Madrid and loDdon bÔ.ìtrin8s,

havê àlso led ro thc 'rcsecuÌitizâtìon of state lvluslirD relati.nìs, as Í..ishave ariscn lhãt lo.2Ìl-ï setÌìed Munnns nright couaboiate with extcxÌal

enemies of the West, s.Ìving as a 6ith colìÌnrn As a rcsult, a nünìlrcr ofi5sues thal lsed to bc iÌÌ ihe'ÌxnÌÌnl democÍatic polilics'hox have bccn

pot bâck nÌlo the 'state secuÍity' box. Debatcs about M\\1im schooh, Ioleramde, !s.d to be disclssed nì tcrtÌs ol the rclative tìerits of diftir.ntDodels ànd !Ìixer of Publi. and Prn'ale schoolioS, tÚrìs that arr fâúiliaÌitoìn eaÌlicr debates aboll ChÍistiú and Ìewish íhooh. Bur in.Ìeasnigly

the!€ dcbales have bccn influ€Àed by con.ens tlìat Musìi schools,

or other inslitunors sct úp n) seNc th. MuninÌ coÌÌmunit!, tìi8ht bc

captÌücd by Ìadi..ls, ind uscd.5, b.eedinS 8rolnd for iihadisls who a.e

comnrittcd ro atÌa.kjng the lvcn !0

Gived thal lhe public ac.ePtancc ol nrulri.ultüihm in the Wcst has

dependcd on íre Í{rccplion that il is .onsistÈrt üìth bodì dì. gco

political sccurìly of thc íat€ ârd the peÍsonãì rcc(li5 of úr.ìivi.[úl.ìlìzens, suPPoÍ loÍ â lilroalmulticulL!riÌist aPP.Ôrch lo rhe nrt€gralion

ol Muslim irndìi8Únts fâ.cs an uPhill balUe ìn Wencrn Eúqre In.Lccd

rc hare witncssed a partiaÌ ba.:klâsh against Ìibd.l tÌuitjcuhtrâlisÌr,pârticúlarly iú L_ount.i€i Ìrhcrc Muninr forn !.leãÌ nìjoriLy olthe imrìi"

Srant populaìio. aod h€ncc are the fÒ.us ol <iebtn \ nrôlnd muìtnxÌturâlism íKa sen 2ü'ì5).4Ì Ìn most of Westcin |uÍoPc, thc l.l8eit 8ÍrüÍ)

.,," h.:.- {-nd,d:,.,-.... ,,Ë" ..-n.-r r-r,' '

ã ttrbÌr(rv hnrknornìu'ity ..nia,h rncds {ii h,ìd lrco üphfed L,Í jihr.ltsb

'lhqJoFf''h. N,' " '";" '

ltlo'"''"''.'

lìÍoÊ,.rth il,cf do.Ôtfr..prnnjii.rnd.ìjíÍnrn rdÌ withirr.

125

Makinq 5€n5e of Libêral Multiculturalhm

oÍ.on ÈuropeaD nlnììgnnls ìs Musli.rÊup to 80 Pcrcent in counÍi$ljke Fnn.e, Spain, ItãÌt GÚmant lÌre Netherladds, clc., co.rPared to t0peÌcnt or lè$ in carada and tne unitêd states-nd so Pubìi. dis.Õurse

in lurop€ often sjúply eguates the.ãtegory of imnìisÌarf {ith thc

cate,rory.f 'Muslnn'. Even in llritain, whÚe tlìe imìnigrant nrti'kc is

moÌe mixed ni tenÌs oI reliSion, itsues of hlam have come to doninatcthe debate

^ recedi â icle h ihe JÌ?.tdldr wâs tilled How hlam Hãs

Xìlled Muìh.uÌtuÍaìisnf (Liddle 2004). lhc titlc and arlicle Íe de.idedlybiised,a'?but it seenr tme lhat prbljc suPPort for múltiolniralúm hìs

d€.Ìined as NÍusln$ lìavc come to be seen as thc miin PÍoPonerts orbenefrciaries ôf thc policl

OI cou6e, hlaúophobii is not the only sôu1cc ol the re.ent ba(klashagainst immigÍant úúlticolluilism in luÍÌre. Irdccd, s

106.rSrcthatfear about M(sLìms are 5i mPÌy ttlc dÌoí rc..nl .aÌionaliza-

tion ofi deeter and pcsiÍing lree floatìn8 anxi.ty iborl 'the othef, and

noíalgia Íor â hm€ when cveryonc was assümcd to nìarc lhict boods ofconìmon hìstóry and identiLy. I'eopìe disÌikc ethnic a!Ìd r.cial dive$it,bui tìrey .io not wârt to appear as Ìacisb or Ìenophobes, so lhey nDkaroúnd lor some mor. la.ccplable'leason to otìpose nDmigrant m!ìticuÌluÌ.lism, such ar fea6 about illiberal practicet oÌ sè.lntf thrcaG (o1ctime,

.conomic bu, denr, abusc oÍãsyLum prceduÌ€s, etc.).Ir lÌ..csarl, peoPle

bvcnL or exaggeÌãte rhêse risks, even wÌren there i! Iiftl. ôr .o cviden.efor thcú, in order to hld€ the tnì. nalore of theú oppositiôr b nnÌnìgrarts. Thck lea6 aÌe jüst tlìe sú.lacc !ÌaniÍesÌatìonsor ratioralizatiorÌs ofdccp.r lorms ofpubli. Ìa.jsm ard xcnophobia tbataÌÈ quite indcPcndeDt

ôf r_ortingent fad5 about th€ libÚality or 8€o Political s.drity inÌpactof particular migrant grout^. If ra.ists and xenoPhobes couldnl nìvol.thcsc spcciÊc lìars, they woüld sitrPlyÊnd so!Ìe otheÌ Ìãtionalizntntr forotpsing iÌnnriSration and muÌtidlturalism.

'fhis is undoubt.dly lrlrt of th€ story add ìl is slrcly lrúe tlìat mul-ticulturrlisn will rot gain wbolehèartcd püblic ac.ePÌãn.e unìess oruntiì the publi.'s tree Roating anxìetl'abÕut divesìll is r€duced, and the

ddDhs llpuny di$ìruuish 'gcú nrnisrant sDupr wr,o a( rÈoì

inmisÌa sÌoupr, wl,o ìal bcscc,

pubri. llppo nr ú]iúcttÌtuübmofÍtt i. FúrrIè Íìpo Àoft ofther rrekptiors nì eiarriniìs súrro Ío

rot hlanìiDhol,ia, whrh has tiud nn'ìúulttriri$ì

126

ïhe oriqint of Lib€ral Multìculturalism

racism.od xenophobia that teed iÌ are t ckled Howcver, trcc lloatingarüietìes about newcoìneì s, whììe st.on& caDnot eÍpliin lhc vari.iior ürsuptDrt Íor immiSrahor ànd multnÌrltuÌãìi\m betwe€n.ou.tries, or overtime within countries lhey cannot explain why some countrÌes adoplÌnuìtìcrlturaìÍm policies whiìc otheÍs do not, or why some.ouolriesnaÍ down the road of multi.ulìuÍaìism and then .etreat l-or exanÌpÌc, núrlriculluraÌism wa5 initiaììv adopted in íÌ€ Netierìands lor thcir(prcdorÌininllJ Christjan) ex coìori,l immìg.ants (e 8. the soulh Moluc-cans, or the Aolilleans), buÌ it became much Dole corlroveAi.l whcrMuslios IÌonÌ-lurkey and Nloro.co be.ame perceived âs the maii bedcôciiries. A sim'laÌ pÌqesi (r(urreiì in llritainr nrültieÌìhnalisnr sas llrstdemalded by (predonÌinantly Chnstian) bÌa.ks Íioìì tÌre CatÌbtreao, addÌÌad signilcant leveÌs of pühìic suppoú, but thìs 5upport droppcd wh.nMuslnn nìmigranis from I'akistan and B.ngladeslì be.amc pe(ciÌcd as

thc Ímii drivcrs ol nÌulticul(uralism. Ir bollÌ cases, lhe pc(civcd rirksassô.iatcd wìth tbc polìcy changed as lhe main targcl groups.hadgd.j3Thcscvariilions suggest that in the eDdoÍìÌìg ÍruSgle betlveen lhe pobiicvah.s of lolcranc./oon dis.rinìinalion and plblìc leas aboul div.rsiìtthe o(t.orÌc oltcn dcpends oD spcciticand conlingcntasscssnìc.ts ol th.úks involvcd. Thc varying la(c ol rnlltìdltrralisnr acioss tlìc Wcstcrndc Ìno.râ. ics süggcsts thal úanyciti2cÍs arcwilÌnÌg ro ac.cpt alüticultrtr-alism poli.ies when thcy arc pc(eivcdas Ìow risk, but oppose thenì wh€nthey are perceivedãs high risk.

'this raises an obvious dilcllnr: it tÌã), wrll bc that rnütticulturaìismpl'.ies àr€ úôst rccdcd prccúcl! whcr thcy arc mosi hiSh .isk. Pêrhãpiit is tecisely when thê me!ú.6 ofà pàrtì.trlar Sroup arè seen as a 'fifthcoìumn', oÌ a! a thÌeât to ürc libual-democâtic .ôrsensus, tlìai pÍ)actlre effoÌts a.e needed t(r prevcnt the t)olarization {rf ethnic reÌationsConvefelÍ we miSht thinl dut jl there i5 little or no disuust Lretween

€thricgÍo!!s, tlÌe. multi.rnhnalknì lrolìcies may be easier lo sellbút lcss

necessaryin pradÌce. lfso, muìtiaÌhÍaìi5n miShtbe most needed whe!it is lcast lìkely 10 be adopted, and most populaÌ when it is ieast necessiry

Jan Ncdcrvccn Pictúse slggeÍs is much wÌren he sâIs liral'Thc corcproblern of Ìibcral núlticalt!ialism ú thit it providcs a soltúìon lor ahichthe.e isno prolìlcrÌ and a rcmedyIoÌ which tlìere ú do iilncdt'(Pictcrs.

ì drc.ady ì990s nì arrnaú,Ìhên, roú,ê pli.i was âdtt.l twcnir ycià entcq Muíh in glant (pÍimaÍly Íonì sof:Ìlir)nâíPd to i.nú.o.c Fblic dcbrtcs

in.c Múslnni loÌn iur Ì0 rrccnr oÍ 'h.

úìnis n dâke,

)27

Ma*inq Senrê of Liberal Multitulturalúm

20051 1271).lhis i5 a P.radox that arises nÌ miny Posrconìmun'st â.d

fost-coloniil .ontexts as w.ll, and I will rctun to it in Part lll But th.W.stcúì expeÍien.è to daÌe sugg.sts tlìal tìre Publi. accePtìnce Òf dNlticultor.lhm depends on ÍeeÌÌngs of both bisic individualand coll..tiveseturilt and wher thcse feeìin8s ârc cÌoded, mrlticulluralÌsm will íxcc a

ìJut cvcn a5 som€ Íatcs seek to ctrrtâil lhc per.eived 'c{ce$eí of trIltiolturilism ìn hiSher risk contexts, thcy lypìcally èmphisize ihat drcy

are not Ícvertìn8 n) oldÚ homoSenizing and a5similãtionist models ÔÍ

nmìi8Ì.tion, andthcy contìnueto ac(pt lhe need for Pubil. institutionslik thc schooìs, tr'ediâ, heilth caÍ€, ànd Poljce to adapt Lo the realitics oIethni. dive6ity ìmDiArnnt sÌoups aÌè.o longer expc.tcd to hnle thcirethni. idcntìly in public lile, and th.ir claìms foÌ ÌcasoDable forms olÌe.og.ibn and accodnnodatìon in Public in5titutidìs (c 8 in the .ÌÌtrmor sclìooj ruÍicuÌunt are acknowlcdgcd. ln shoÌt, talk about a 'retrcalfron (iÌìnigranO rÌulli.últunlìsú'typi.ìlly obtoRs a more omPlexÍoN nr whnÌì a fcw Ìnulticuhurâlis!ì policies are cúnailed whilc olhets

bc.onÌe more.lecply i.íìnÌtÌÌìalizcd 1r As with national nìÌnontìcs i.dtrÌ{tig.nous p€oplcs, â Lr.seline leveì ói tccog. Ìtion' a.d 'acconì modation'fornnúìigrant5 has i.cÌcasin8ìy been âcccpled as an úcviLitrÌe and lc8itimatc aspcc{ ofìife ú a liberal demo.ra.y.

Sothcc is no strglc íÒty oI 'advancc' or 'rct Íeai' of trÌulti.ultuÌaì ism úr

the West. There aÌe.ìiff.rcnl tyPes ofcthnocul(uÌal diversitf, taclÌ lairingÍr .wÍ diíin.tiÌ€ sorts ol oìultna tural clai s, and eaclr with iis o{ntraiectorics ol resistan.c, accepta.ce, andbãcklaíì. Ihe frv. fàcto6l have

discussed i. thh chãptcr hcÌP,l believe, to êÌPl.iÌr lhese vdrling lo(unes

trom Social Movement Multiculturalism toCorporâte Multi.ulturalism

At thi! I)onÍ, sonÌ€ Ìead€rs Íray thìrkthar Ì |rvc rnissed a mrciâl tàctor ifcxp Lai n ing tÌÌe cnÌerSence of t!ultic(ll u tal -n dam€ly,8lobãÌ caPitalism

add the Ììse of .co litr€rãì e.onodìics. The emerge cc ol n Ìricultüralism

nì lhe pa5t tl)irly to iòrty years nìôrc or les\ (ttsPoDds in tinìè witÌìthc era oÍ intense cconom i. ,jnnraÌiza tion, üeìfãre stâtc relrenchnìent, th.pritlLi7atì.n of publìc owned codPanics.nd Ìe$urccs, in.l the deÍe8ú

latjon ol mark ts. Ánd foÌ 5orÌ€ comìentato^, thcsc l$o develolrr.nrs

t2a

Th€ Origins oÍ Libeial Mulli.ukuÍãlitm

fuc clcarly nlated ind€ed, a(cordìig io Slaroj ZiLck, the ideal lornrot idcology ol this gÌobaì capitãlnnÌ is nÌulticulluàlistrl (1997i 4.1) Onthìs view, rìllticuliúrahxr sÒrrehow reNes to Íacìlitatc or iÌútifv rlì€exrensÌon of global .apitalisnì ànd the'washingÍon Cons..suJ.

I thinh thh is a ÍÌntakcd ánal_vsis muìtì.uÌtufalisrÌ lìas qrit. differeDloriSnr lroo neo Ìibe!âl c.onomi.\ büt it is true lhai Ìnulti.uÌrrmlúìnhis not bcen ürto ched by the\€ Ìarger changes nì thc global poÌiticalcconodìy. Árd its impo ant to fi8uÌe out wha l tlìcsc .onnccti{ìns a r e.

Thc üeâ thât úuhi.rlturalism enì€rged as a lool ofBlol)al capitaÌi5nì htinìply nol bor rc oul b)Ì lhc fa.Ìs. As Ì have reFatedlyerDphasizcd, oìuhi.uìturaìism was fÍst nrtroduccd by l€ft-lib€Ìaì or soclal dernocrâti. poliricalparlies, nì r.sponsc ro popuìàÌ rdriljTatio! by non .l.rDnÌa.t grcup5It wa5, i. sho.l, 'sciâl nìovÈnre.t muÌtiruìturalisnr'. At thc beginnin&the corporatc sr.tor and th. polin.aì fa.tions suppoíirìg d.GlilrcraÌ econorÌic r.Ín.tuürg ìhe Reaganite\ a.d that.herìtcs Ìrcrc opFsed rorìlllìcultúralúrì, which theyviewed asi cÌassic cxaúplc of howrhestitcwas being nristrscd to mbsidizc tpêcial intere5tí.45 Nco libcral (onomi.orlhodoxy nÌrisfud tlÌàt tlÌ. statc 5hould Dot nÌlqlcnc ni thc tÌrlturalrìarkctplãcc' by supportür8 úinoÌity lan8uages or crltrnl activúi€5

So Ìnulticulturalisrì fiÁtcncrSed from popuiÍ nìobilizrtidì ú the taceof r.sistance fÍ(Ìn business eliÌes and n.o libcral ideologues. llowrvccor.r tnüe, it is frÍ to 5ay that rbe corporatc world has made itt pcaccwith trìultndturalìrm, and

'ndeed th.l i djstnidiv€ nÌm oÍ /corporatc

multiorlhtrâlnh' has em€Ìgedshi.h iúeracts irÌ Òx'plcr says witb ihcca.lier to.ial tu)vement nuhic!lturalism'.16

CoIDrâte multiaihraìism aDd sociil .Ìovcrìent Ìnuìti.ultulalis!ìhâvc nÌneúrnes drawn on each other. Thc ncolibrral push Íorde.eDtÌalizatn)n,loÌ exanìple, orìSinallydonc ii thc natue ofe.onomi. ell.ienctb€.xm€ more popular wlìen ìt was ljikcd to nL ti.uìhuaÌisr atgunicntsãbout iccommodatirS divcrsitv. Cônv.Áelt to.iaì nìovenìen( nìulticaìltuÌalists hav€ sonretimes needed lhc Írppôrt Òf the .orprate rvorft Asve've reen, social movcrÌent multioltuÍâlisnì Ìlat ãhÌe b secaÌc so )ejmpoÌtlnl r€lorms, bút lhcsc wc.. frà8ile vi.tories Because nrltìcultur.aljsnr is loleratcd ràthcr uran activelv supported bI dorÌinant g.ôups,and hen.e is vúÌrÌerâblc ro bicklasl and ÌeÍeit, nÌiDy slpportrÁ have

ri Ìjor úrc pc^r\.n!s d d,n.riìqÌr rÍ,nuÌri.trliuÌrlrm rnìons:l

tori h tr\ 2ü)6 .n'd ì{rhLrk lees Ìc5p6rivcry ârúìoush âdâúi

)29

Making sen5e of tiberal Multi.ulturaììrm

attemplcd io try lo lìnd !Ìore positìve ôtguDrentr in ils favour that tìl8htb€.onvindìt lo meÍrbc6 (tf thc domi ântaoup. Ih€e includc íeâlâimãtions ol rhc únd€dynì8 moÉlâÍ8um(nl that úúltk\ÍtuÍalistrt cxlênds

and turthers the logi. ol hudLad riShts, but defenders haie also hoptdto 6nd oth(r nÌo.e stralcSi( or sellìntcrcsted rcasons why mcnìb$s ol

Ìhe tujority $ìDuìd süppoÍt it. TiÌey want to show thãt 1nuÌtiolhúalirnpã_vs" e lhat rncmtE6 oÍ I lìe doÌninant 8rouP Gn view multirultuÍnlirdras a l{rclìl l(} themselÌes, ánd not iúst a morãl obliSation the} ose l(,

^nd llìe rnost com!Ìon stÌatcgy ìt thh regard his b(iì to enrph.sizc

the c.onomic spnr oía lom m!ìti.llturaìilrr l).fflrdc6 havc lillcdabout'productiR diversily', .iúng ei'nknce that irms with morcdivêr*wortfo(cs ténd lotEnlorc prdluclive and innovâtive. MoNveÍ, having

einpìoyccs with diüerert cultural backro!trds and Itniturge skills is sanl

lo be ar asset ú an Írclcasìn,lÌy globalizcd economy Orly thole wlthstrcn8 inte.-olllral skjlls wilÌ bc .ble to compcte on üÌc 8Ìobàl slaS€

chine* immiSnnts to NoÍrh Ànerica, for exdple, lhoüld bÊ to(outsaged tô naÌnÌanì theÍ molher toDSúe and culturàt 0ucnq, s as Ìo tcn e

as fa.ilitrlors for globaì tlade and investmcnt ln sÌÌort, 'rNltìculnlralismrÌ€ans businêsí, to.itc iì phrase thâl was PoPular hÌ bÒth citradiÌ aDd

AusÌÍalú i the l9aos and 1990!A elarüd ârgunÌcnl ap|Xals lo the ideâ thât multicultuÍalis mak6

a counrÌy moÍe aftrâctìvc Io. both tourists and Polcntial highly sÌilledimÌnigranrs. Citier'brandcd' tÌremsclvcs as multiNltttral, higÌÌliShtirgtlìeir etÌuÌic neiShbourhoods and ctbnic reslauÌmts, in oÍdo lo httrâct

visito.s, eli(c immigrants, lld foreiatr lohtmeot';Tlìe argaments have had sme scccss in *llint oìultirultunlism to

memb€^ of dominanì Sroups, but they alto have an obvioüs dow sidc'lãk.n on thcir owD, they hàvc the Potcntial to reduL'c nNltj4rltúalisÌnto a m.rtetirrg pìoy, âs il thc Soal of multialtüúlhm ìs not to challenSÊ

inhrrited racial and cthni. hicó(hiet, but Íathc. to rcpactage cúlluraldiffec.c$ ás âÍ (ononìic .*t in a Slolxl (o.omy idd/or as a coíh

nÌodity or lif€style 8@l that çãn bc nìatkdcd and .o.s! hcd. And itrdccd

we tce ân ongonÌ8 Lratttc by súiil rÌovcmenr nulllculholists Ìn n)âny

, k{c.n coMUÈ haw 'Ft

goslìy.ooprrêd ro atd ìoÌ.tlrrH ilm*ÉnB, b'írheR n a sowtr'! .onpctiìon {o rÍho aÍ! sen s (ontibutnìt{ h â .ou.ty's poqf,dy and vraltty.

^ ir thÁ (trtrpdi

uon it n wü(ìe ând I thn* .o.Krìr 6m!{ rhal nultilaltuúÌrstr lrúvid6 r nÉksi.i'rYd4H* shachar 2rÌ)6.

130

ÌÌìe Oriqinr oí tiòeral Multi<llturrlirm

coutlries to cDsurc lhat thcsc arketing tbys supplement !!theÌ thândisdaft thcoriSinrl cman.iPtory nimsof aültiÒrlluÌãlisnì,

'l-his is hãÍdly únnlúe to m lticúlturàlis'n. We se a sirrihÍ dynamìcwilh oth€r nor.m.nl\ for progrcssile soci.l lctom, inclu.lìng íciÌiaismand mvúonmcntâÌisnÌ. Thcse nlovenÌents iniLìally emerS.d iI thc iìce oírcsistân.e froú corpoÌate clilcs ard neo Iibcnl idcoloEues, butepitilismhâ!nIlcmpt€d tÒ rc.qp€rat. th.sc nhementri a d ti'Ìd i{ay5 nr Ìtp:cÌiagcthctÌ âs brãnds .rìd omnnÌtitics, Ánd so $r 5tc onSoina slmSSlct by\ociiìl nrovemcnt activists to rclain .ontrol ovcr lhe agendr of tÌrrscDovcnìenr5, to preserve th.n oriSlnâLrcfü lht goals

A nunrbeÍ of te )t have Lìo.. dcveÌofd b capture this phcnomcrod:.r(ics hatc talk€d about'órtbratc multiolturulism,'consumerist úulti.uìtura lism', tDul iqoe multiarlluralism', 'neGlibcÍal m! ltior lturalisÍ1,oÌ'ÌlrÌÌclto. multicullunlism' (aftcr ore ôf thr n(útnìalional .oÌpoÌa-tnÌrs thal nìoÍ succcssínly brôndcd ilseÌÍ as ü t,urvcyor oÍ $nhodihedorit!trãì dìv€^ìty).4s The prLwal$e ol this phcnuìenôn has lcd somcoüìmcoÌatoÉ tÒ attum€ d'ât lhis is the r€al rourc of tbe Íi* of drultiruìturnlism in the Wcal. Eutin fact/ co4DÌate mulliollúralism has alwâysink,wcd social movcnÌcnt nnnticulhralisnÌ, and eh.rgcd in parr a5 a wayof buildi.g popuìáÌ Írpport f.Ì thc lartcr l'm not awârc oL rny countryì,ì Ìhe Wctt wììere nullicultUraliÍn wãs adopted timâriÌy at the beh€\roÍ corFÍat. clit6.athcr lhan siâlmovcmcnt actiústs. Corporal. elit6hôve tvpi.ally tEen lal(anìe6 to the rNlli.úllúrãl bandwa8oo,.rd theôlsl to jrmp ôÍÍ the wrgon in peÍods ôr b.dlash and r(tlear aganrt

ln slìo.t, th€r. ir [othing il lhc loSic of nìultinarjonal catjtrliyD tlìarrequiÍcr (or pÍ{ludes) muhi.ülluÍâlism Í. (rnlrics wheÍesodal nogenent rÌúliÌcult!üalisrÌ has achicvcd some \u((6s, .orpornt. elites .âr

rr for,rÁüsio.s, y{,({mux 19sr,lr,ilx ì 2, ÌvírrDrjk ìee3; R.n. r tuoo]rriidslrs3; Mâcdím,Àd an.r MúrdmÍ zroúj rlrc 2m2 Dtncrotr r rqìúbrion fo, ÍruuirìrxÍ,r

irot?Nl that h.úno R€ne|lm hinú{í kltr Ülrvnla U0h'|8trr,ínÈsof rad in ()rrk rârú fÍo, llPiíâFchcrndr,D (irradhs2006).

L' 'rh. Kìaìioni'il, rÉÌKcn e(r,r !ìôvcd.nì and loturr muxituÍc otupÌ,Qrd !trrsldr tht w6t llirhln the wen, (.4rÌârc muÌtQ'ihtrul\n' lÍpicrllyhn{tionr ó a depoljtkrrd rnd .onÌmodlíRl Íom oj 1tri01 mo}cmn'!oki'r8 ib topt\ ihout lìc iÍlri)írn$ oÍ rquâìit n'Ìednft, and iúorcdn[ r.ys. r:t@hR, Í@ì]ff, oülriturìorEr côlpôrãum úere 'vrysrhnrcÌnrkrryo.ridmrhsonlÍoíúlno*nrc rhulturrturdrirn lbrcimpk,in rhc n.'íc ol 'e0c<iln( Íìe diÍícF.r orlbÉ * Ím', rcmFenÊ Íclì âs shÌbn.rsând Moonàldr mpon({ly fÉcúcc sc.doÌ 4esaú.. r.d dMnÍ,úìârcpLod c1,ì3 .rdìü ihrn ÚDrrc.sús uüìnrd FúcÌni of hknúdìy Ànd cicluron, andviol lu brrr.Í Llìao prunÍ LìE lnúÍel hr tr',!' dshkcodnjtftrr rôcqúlny ô1dnnr8

'I

Ì

j

llt

M.l(ng Só* oí tiberãl Multialrú.Jirm Ìhc Ongi$ oÍ titErat Múttiotro.àtÈm

sftk to makr DÍÌr.t Íroh il by nrarketnrg omrÌodihcd fürns oÍ.xlturaldifÍcrence is a consú.ìu 8oôd, where socìâlÌnovehcnt multicú|tuálLhi! ÍailÌn8, corporalr eìitesc!n happily distan(c thenúelves fronì it/ as thryÍadÍìonally havc donc.

In any cvent, lecert cv€nts have rcveaìrd the cssential supclicìalityoí the id$lo8y ot co.tDnte Ìrukicuilurnìism- AÍt.Í 9/lt, Madrid, aadthc Danish c.rtoon alfaÍ, no orc.!n pliosibìy thidk rhat .Ìu lÌicuh' Íál6nr should bc endorsed or rejc.led on the basis of whethu it in.rcises8k'l'il e(odomrc oÌnpditiv.ness ôr âttd.|s roúrìsm. ]-heÍ @ent\ havetunÌi'ded !s tìrut tire fundamcnlal qu.sliôn is whcther mullicuìturaÌìsnrcaD sewc asa mcans oÍ citiTeoiarion: cân nrultiolrurãlisrn helt, orvqtour ìDìreritcd .ütaloguc ol uncivil êthnìc and ra.ìül relationFìn.ludingÍelations oÍ @nqueor a.d <rìqueklj .oknìizer dd .(toniTd; *l(leÍand iÌÌd\iènous, ra.ìalìzrdand unmnÍkcd; noúÌa lized a nd dcvianr, ortho-doÌ and hLÌrti.,.ivilized and backwad; àìly and cnemy; Ìnâst€r indrlüvc into relatio!s of libe.aldcúocratic citizenrhip?

Ihe imnedÌatc rea.tion of núry púple, âlìer 9/11, {as to (rÌcìülethat muìtidlturatism hâs tuited in this .e8ârd, ând hôr simply Ícprodu(ed relàtio.s of cnnrity and hiÚ.Íchy. Hôwcver, as we will see in llìen€xt chôpr€r, th€ru is ámpL €vid.nce dú( mütticultuÍàlism har

'tr íaci

.ontribúted to the constructlon of Liberal-demo.raÌi..ilÌrenship In anycvent, tlÌir is tlìe riSht gucslion to be áskjn8- Earìi€r laì\ ãL'out'prorjL!.tivc div€6ily' and 'mulricultürâlitm qrcans bu5in€sí can ô lontcrdistract us fÍonr addÌ$sin8 lhe morc proloun.l and i portaut .lailnsrâir€d by the o.igúrâl movclr€nt Íor multi@ltuÍalisn âbour lhe lÍrt<bcìweed cÌhnocultuÍ,ìl divclsill, human rights, and lìbcral {ienìocÍatic

concluslon

^rìy attetnpr to tcll thc srory of the ri* of mrlÌnìuÌruraliem in Ìhe Wesr

is incv'tably pdrtial and o.e+idcd, ând I do not (laidr tu hâvc prcvidcda (lrlPrchrisive à..@nt in thir.hrpt€r I havc timply tÍied lo id€rtilysohc Iackú tlìat I think have b..n of widespread and cndüri!ÌB importan( âcros lhe Wcsiem dcmftrâ.ies, td to.ârl doubl on uììe othcrexplanatnrr that hâve ÌJen oÍfercd.

(ìdtiary ìô somc .ohrrcrÌtaìo6, I 5ee lillìe cvlden..lhat oìullioìtu!aÌisn har cme.Sal as ã rcúlÌ of a revival of Herdoiar Gcrmao Íomanlicisür or Nictzscheàn postiÌìodenìhm or crltural cons.Natiioì, or of ihe

r32

r^I't€n.pot ,'. rrlhr" c.ono1ìn r,\.luia r,8 t1\n.dd, t11,\, rorurrion hve othê' ÍJirors ()4 theo'lc trd,d, Íx,f$,r, r8f.,(.o,.\:our ,\.dk to the ìruhm righrs revotuÌion, <lcrÌìographic.h!n8es, rnd mrtliplca.lÉs lrinrs for $fe lFtiricl obitizâlio, hdp to exptaìn why n;ndoÍÌiDàntgR)ups hlve be<ome nìorc asscrrivc of nìulti.xltuÌal claÌ rns; o.th€ oth€r hand, the dercurúia r ion ot {rhnic rcbtn B and ! @nrensuson human riShÌs help Ìo redlce thc Ìisk to.lourúÌanÌ gÍmps oì ac.cprnÌgtìrcse.lains. Thcsc ladojs, t.tic,ì rogcor.r, hcìp k, explijn toth Oì.btedth of thc shiÍt toqa.di libc.d ,\rttioìtÌúaliim in rhc wcst, butrìu s rd;ilr nìt'.rp.,hr I4,r,\.t).p,ilt) 4_,r,Ídr,,t i,ntr pis\r\.rtìlun\en.? rather than a(r'w supporr.

of ()urf, for tìr l)urPosfs oÍ this boo& rhc nìÒrc irn?orrnht ilucslionrr whrÌ l'BIrt rlh Jnrt)\rs rhí\r\ on lI. pr6F\r\ ftÍ theStotut díftr,o,,nr rib.rrl rr r.!

't. rr.rt ,,n. tt r,,.sc br. LUndIr)h\ dfn.r .,ne\t',rir i(rurrhr t{6t4 dn|oc'J,rr, rr,d Jr(\rD^\r,".r,r.r,"a n.",

",,,,,,,,.lhis is eve. morc t.úc ot orhc. .rgiq$ oa thè woÍtd. As we will re€in l,aÌt rtt, il reDaiiìs a úlhel râre (tcurcnR foÌ !lt tìve condìtiorsôf lih"nl mulÌiculturalisrn lo conveÍge, .nd rheÍ€ ir no fcnent rcÍ.dcncy ior rlìis constcltatior) of fack,s ro b€come ,norc .omÌìron âruurd

IÌi Inct, thclc sc€4rs tobe â rârheÌ systeharic ihbalnrìcc üì thcsc tÌendÌtÌcs. To ôve.stiplify, we oul.l sa), rhnt thô conditiods that hclp toSeneratc grear€r demânds for tiherdt mutricolttllatism iÌrc nrded be(omtrg n!trc ({rÍÍxÍì lound the worìd. We .an sce th. snràdy ïtreador a o(r dise,u6r ànd .(rr{nrurn€si oÍ hínun and mnroriw Ì;ghtr,Ás wcll Js a. {in.o!ìprete) pÍo{rss or denÌoclaìizarioD thrt is cÍeaiinSh,{d \tu, s íír ute tnt,rr!r mohit,/rt,on by ,nrno,rtrcs. But d€ çcm1tn h- no ,onìt"rhle trend r"BI(i.18 thc ,ontr rro,D rtb, rr Jht. iìn.crr ourrlj. .tilc, dnd .jom:rìlnr BroJpì lo Jt r,Ìn tn.Í. m,nofth .tìin,,ln b'ord rcsion\ oí lhp wo.ld rl.c h r^ ot J,{n,nanr I,nunr rcgariÍ sIh-,, Ned Iìolrti, dt \Êcu,rt o, lt,pir.nd,Jiduat v {rr\ ro;ì,,,,:,.;;:,;;,:etloÍts ro adopl tib€íat oültiouu.âtism. Thc pÌcrlidãbt" *r,tr ii*,iáu,politìcal turbulcncc, íìs üìc dcìnaÌÌd fôr liberaì Ìnutiicutlumtisnr excccds

Thú imbalan.c nì üc urdrrlyìnt .onrtúions of lÌbetal nìutticrlturat-!.xr rdis6 r numhêÌ., n',,fuJnd,tdjjên8e tor jnr.nlitrorut d!trún mthÈ hetd. Ttì( re A an ôhwru\,trnÂer rhrt ,t.c ríorr. o, rhL InrrÌndtnDal coornunìty, wherher by inter8ovêhmentalor lon golcüúnuúatorgani/:rtuns, higt't hinteDrionaly exaftrbarc rhis irnbâtaocc, nririn8lifudtrÌ dcnrnds for lib€raÌ hultnuttuÌaÌisnì r,ithout stleng ìenhg tÌr;

ll3

ï

Making 5ense oí tibeÌal Multiculturalisô

.o.ditions thât cnabìe their accePtancc l think the ÌDt€rnâtional cotìú!.ity hai nìde€d iSrorcd this dangú in sonc cases, aDd ii olher cases

Bclo.e explorii8 this dilcnìma, howcser, {e nced to frnish our 'rPloration oÍ libeÌal muÌti.ultúalism in tÌrc wrst bv €xanrining its lÌick Íeco

5

Evaluating Liberalin Practice

M u lticultu ralism

ln thc pÌevious chapteÍ, t dcscribed rhc optimisric oiiljins of liberat n -tirulrúalism in th. West, enÌÚgnrg ã5 parr and parcel of a larger hlnìanrights Ìevolutioni and conìmitcd to !ftacliig inheÍìtcd hiera.lhies a.dextìaDdilg indiridual ft€edom. Brr rhjs Íorv abort the Ecrcalo$, ôfliLreraÌnulticulttúâlisÌn is prirnarììIi story abour bctiefs, irìtcnrioos, andaspiratiÕns, aDd dôcsn't rell us how thiigs havc FÕrked out i. pr"cti.e.'lhc ley queíio., óne nÌiglÌr thÌnk, ìs dot wh.t Ì,èÍe Ìhe .aìr€ oi pnrushopcs of the pcotÌe who advocìtcd o. dÍaÍred rhcse poticjes, Lrut whârhâre been llrci achnl eflì.t\? tvc now have closc to forrJ- yeaÁ expcrienc€with vaÌious fodrs of Ìibcral muÌticdtuÌaìism. Áre thevworking w. 2 ÂÌFrl.rv " ! ,,, .\ rhrr w,,irn,. " r o'. rti,18 | .. rt.o"t J,rru. o;.,

Thú is Dot ao easy que$ìo! to answÚ, Siven ihc nany diffeÌenrfoÌms of rruÌÌicult(raliín poìicics, and thc !ìãny ditlrènt goah thel arcìnÌendcd to serve. Thêre are i lcw things rlc.dn saywittì somc conÂ.le.ccabort the eíccts of mullicultuÍalism i. pÍadice, büt o! ,ìàny orhèrimportant jssucs we simply lâck rhe lctdant eviderce. lrÌ rhij chapteÍ,I {ìll súrvey whal çe know,.rd don,l 1oÕw, ãboút the sÌren8th, andìi mitations of lib.ral mülÌiculturaÌúnì !Ì pràr'rice.

trt he starl with one obvious buÌ Ìmportant poiÌÌr. ^tthe

mÒst minnhãllcvêj, it is cl.àÌ that lhc adoFion ôf libeDl rìuhicülluralism has norimpàired whàt we mighr .atl rhe basic tunctioning ol wcsten dcn(x.ra.ièi, nìeasuÍedby Ích iÌrdiators as p€ac€, dc.roc,arÌc stãbiìi1Ì, dìc ruìeof ìaw, oÌ ..onoDic p.osp€riry No.e oi Ìhe cotrnrÌì€s that havc Ìbve.lalong the múÌticuìruÌalist pàttì in tììc Wesr halc strbse<ì(c.dy desccndednrto civil wàÌ o. aDarch, or faced nÌiltary coups, o. sltfêred eÒronj.coilapse. On the coDlrary ev€n a cãsuaì inspcctbn of tlÌ. Iirr oI counrrieswlÌich ar.'stÌong' nÌ theÍ comÌnitment lo Íjr hcul(úraÌism polides (scc

ì35

Mâkinq 5en5e oÍ tibêral MultÌcülturalkm Evaluatinq tib€.al MulticultuÍàlirm

pp. 68 74 abovc) sÌÌows that Ìhey ârc arìon8sr rhe most pèa.?tuì, srable,and posperous s@icties on the planct.

This alône i5 suflì.ient to reÍÌrt€ so.Ìc ôf the more apocatyptìc predictions that have been Ìnade aboül thc dcstâbitizing €ifects ôf mnlticütluralistrì.

^sJacob lxvy.otes, critics ol ÌnultidrìruÌaÌisn arc fond of the

'reductiô ad Hitìe^inf argutr)enr (te!y 2004: 334),r rreitirg thÈadoptionol muÌticuhulalisnì âs the lìrst ncp o. a nippery stopc towa 5 üciilard rcligiour slrilc, tÌ( 'Balkaniza tio.' ot sô.iery rhc slppÍlssnrn oÍ civiland Bniti.aì lìberli6, ìndtheoverthús ofthe deDoüa ri. .onrriiurionilordcr With ovei lorty yÈars oi expcricr.c to dÍaw !pon, it,s .teaÌ rha(these prcdidbns were olltarScr Às I dúcuscd ìn Chapter 2, rh. expeÍiencc ollib€Íaì multicolturalism in rhewcsr isà srory alro!t rhe Dr),rreslive'nodralization' ol ethnic poìjrics, so rtrat €thnic pollical mobiìizarjoDbcconìes just one úorè form ot evcr)day pea.elul legat ân.l deìnooili.

We al$ havc good reaFn ro doubt many ofrheorhÚpèssinrjÍic prcdicüons abouttheeÍlecls of muìti.ull uralisnÌ ii prã.rice For rxample, sonrecrìtics ãrgue that thc shift tow.rds nìulti.nlrurãÌism wcakeni rh€ welarcÍât€, bI eroding the sense oI pâ.-èthnic soljdarily needed ro slstânjsociety w,de ecorotrrn: Ìedisfuibution (BaqÌ 2(x)1; Mjchãels 2006). Thhis often callcd the te@gnitìon versüs Ìedishìbutìon, trade orJ a pÕÌiti.rof multi.altttral recogDition is sanì ro displa.c a politics of cÌrss-base(lÌedúfuibution. HoweveÌ, recrt atremprs ro lcst thir cìaim harc fdited topÌovide anysupport lo. it. Couotr'e5 wiih strong drutti..üìruralisú poli.ieshave had do nore diíìculty ÍrtanìiD8 tììeir rdndbutive social poÌicierthan countics wìth nÌodeí or weak mullicultudlism poLicics (Banhì8

'lhe lìct that nìuÌticúlluralirm hâs prorc. to be.orsistcdt wfth theb.sic lì.chonin8 oi i libcrâl dcDocÌilic w.lfarc srrre is cnôtr8h ro nal<cii an attractive option for IOs ro considcr Ìlh€n dealing rith nulr'erhnj.Poí conniunist aDd post.óldnial coúnüics.In man),ol rh.se counrries,oldú úodels of!.entralized and lìonìogdizin8 narion stâtc have clearhlJrrJ.

'nJne$ r'.od.l.di"

'F-dpo rl ',, nr',.,pe q rrtr Lr. ,1,.ìu'rn8r."tirJ

ol etbnic politicaì nìobilizãtion. Sin.r libeÍaì mulliftlturãti\m is onc suchoption, aDd has not jcoFÌd'zed p.arL, democ.aric strbiÌity or prospcntyú tbe Weí, ìl hasbeen incìudcd nrnìrnyoftìreIO sponsored listsof,besrpractices' or /tooìkits' lo nnnagtì8 diversiry.

Nu.nì â.d siilinrn evo w.ru,(KÍnbÌ leet: r5)

146

Bút lhc meìefa.r dÌat liblrdl nìulticul((6lisnì hasnt ìedkr the(tlaPs.of WcslÚ. states doenlt ieally cxplaiÌÌ why ÍOs have attenlPted to Pro-mote thi5 nn)del âroúnd the wolld. ln mary contexts, IOs hav. h.atedliberal muìti.rlturâlisÌn nol snÌply as one legiinnah ophón adrÔngíolhe6, but as a prclcrred opliod, ever as the only legitimrte oPtion. TÌÌ.clcar€st example is thc dccisiotÌ oI the rU and N^T(l to üìsút on rcsPcct

lôÌ nrinorily ri$lìts as a .ìnditìon oí adnìissi.nr to thcse oÍ!ànizatntrs.Thìs prelc.cnce f(r liberal nÌulticulluralisD .annot be erPìained Ítely lry

rulÚcncc ro the basn: tumtiônúg ol tlÌe slite. ÀfteÍ all, while it is clcar

that s(roa8 muhicultrralism Policies lìave PÍoven k) be forsistunt withpeace, srabiìity, ard prcspújlt il is equaìl) obvious thrt such Policcs arc

not a pre.onditirm for tÌrc basìc ÍunctioninS of dÍ: state. Ma.y w.stcrn.ounüìes üúh modcst or wcak nnrlli.uìtuÌalism Polices arr also staLìle,

Pcacciul, an{l tÍorPeÍrus.Thc iusljllcarion foÍ proÍ'ôting liboal nìuÌlicuìhralism, therefde, lies

eìsewhcr.. Tlere aÌe many reâsons rlhy IOs hive expressed a PÍeleÍenceior nìul( i.!ìnraì iÍ trìodcls, which I willdúcuss in the Ìrert two.haPtc6,lrut rì lcast paÍ of thc explaration is ihlt many Peotle withúì th.soorSanizâtio.s shar€ the optimistic vi.w llÌat múlticulturalism advan.eia ìa4er hunai ri8hts agenda. This nìdccd ìs explìcit in the Preamble!to the vaious id.rn.tionaì derìaratidìs .nd convenlioDs on minorityrìgh$ NírlticulturalisnÌ, on th is ottimistic vicw, not only PrcseNes etììr ic

peace, ìrutâctuâlly rcd(ces ioequaÌities and rcrncdics iniuíÌces, clhaoceslÌberaÌi7âtnrì drd dcmocriÌÌ7ation. and tuúhcrs thc idc.Ls ol llÌe hu'nanli8hts revoluhor and oI civil ri8ht5 lib€ràlisnì h thcre any evìdence rÌÍtiÌÌ5 oprimistic vicw? We can safeìy concìudê that thc mosr Pessimistic PLerlictions about thc dcslabilizing efÍectt of m ltiLrlturãljsm Ìravc not come

ttue, but have the optinìislic claims nìade on it\ b€halfbccn fuÌlllcd?Thìs ìs a diÍlìcult qucstio! to anster, since it is rÒt ertirclÌ,.lc.r

how {c wolld nr, say, 'enhancing ìib€ralìzation ãnddcdìocÌilization', or /ãdvan.nÌg a litger human riShts â8ctda'. Thcse

aÌc diluse and muìhdnütnsionãl goals, with imPlicatìoús for th. sftial,{ÌÌnrnic, politìcaÌ, and.:ültuÌãl relàliodslÌips and stnctuÍes of a society.

Á.y atternpt to systemati.alìy mcdsnr. Írcccss nì ÌeaclÌin8 these Soalssould b. an cnonÌous undeÍakin8.

For our purposcs, lÌowev€r, we can focus our.ttcntion on lwo SeneraìaÍeâs In previous worl, I have said that the underlyirì8 princìples ofLìtreral mnlti.ulturalism can be .attuÌed nì thc lwin ideas of 'equalitybctween ,rÍÌrÌ*' ar.l'lrecdom withnì Srrla' ((ynÌlicka 1995), and I wiìlase thesc twd hea.lidSs lo lÌame mydiso$iôn nÌ the restolthe chaPteÍ:

Matinq Sense of Liberal Mulliculturalitm EvãluJting LiL.Íàl Multi(ulturali\m

tì) IÌtrÌ-N tup l,9ualiry Hav: mulnclltrraÌism policies slccecdd in rcduci.g inh.rit€d €thnic a.d rã.iaÌ hierâ,chics/ Have rhey Íedu.cd thc potit-i.al nÌirgnìaÌizdú)n, ecotronìi. diiadva.l.gc, and crÌtuÌat nrbordtìatnÌrof nììno.itics? Some cri(ics lìavc aÍgoed thir lhcsc lrclicies hivc scrvcd t{)simply papcr over the endurnìg realiry ot crhnì. and Íaciat hi.rar.hics,tubíilutnìg symboÌic re.ogrition for nÌorc subsrantive retornN. Othcr\havr argucd that ihese policies may harc ì.ruallv rcintorced hierarchir:s,bt' Iu ljersti8nìatjzìÌìg thc órheì' as d iifcrctrr, d€len dent, a.d nèody (e IDas GuPtâ 19991. Yel olhcA a4jue lhrt wlrilc diveNiry poticics nat nrde€dhelp rcúcdy !,ne ineqliÌiti€s, rhev do sô in ways rhar iÌc ondcF lndoi'eÌ inclusiv€, crealing dew and equally arbirrary Ío.ms of hi.raÍ.hy in

(ìi) lndìrilunl FÍirnon Have trmltitulruÍaltsm policics suc.eeded nì cnÍ!r,üìg thit thc âc.dmmodilio. of €tììnocuirual div!ftit,v occurs {ìthnrthe Ìrorndarics of ìibeÌal valucs, consislenÌ with human righh i.d .ivitliberties? As wc'vr seen, these pôlicies origiraled úì civil li8hts liboalism, a.d werc dcfcnded or lhc brsjs of enhanL-njg the lreedonr otnÍlividuah'to make the Ìilì that rÌìe indivìduil is abte and wishcs tÕhave', Ìr th. wods of thc Canàdian Ntll(ìculhtrâÌìsm ÁcÌ This vnìonof a lìbcral rmlti.ulturilisrì nr tunì rcÍcd on .onlìdeD.e nÌ th. .lilreÍal expcctàn.y'i accordirÌg rÒ wbi.h lh. gravitational puiÌ of lib{:ÍalvaÌles wiÌl opeÌate across cthni. and.r.ial hìe\, and rbc lcBal sytremwill ploridr otÌrt protcctions agairÌsr rhrÈats ro ihose vatu.s. Hrvethese túentions aod expcctatidìs becn futÁÌled? Or, is sonrc.Ìitn.s haveargucd, have nÌuÌlicrltural polìcies inhibited rhe sprca.l of libeÍaì vatucs within some !ìino.iti€r, sftengthcning rhe hands of .onservativclô(os that seek to prcvenr ljberal ienrms, fr€e7irìg idènrÍies and pÌactices, ìnìprisonnrg pe.ple in nÌhcritcd .u ltu raÌ s.riprs, a.drherebyrcdrc-ing people's frc.dom and ieopârdìznrg their cilil Ììbe.ries and huriàn

whcDev€r muìticllturàl poÌi.ies lrivc boen ãdopted ii tbe Westi wehaveseen th€se d ueliiÌìg pÍedidions of ttÌeir tjÌety e[ccts on f.eedom indcquali+ Indeed, lhcsc.livergenl .ssnnìptions undcpnì most of the dayto-dày debate arood multiolturalisnr. Wth torry y.ars ofexperiencc tÕdraw upon, we should now be ablc to dÌaw sone conclulion s abo( t whichofthese hop€sand fca6 have.orìe true.

UDforhrnâtcly, theÍe is far lcss €viden.e avallabl. than oDc dight.rrF.t. of lhc twcnty,rhÌee policior Ì Iisred eaÌliÚas.haraclerisric of dìesbift towards nìulti.ulturalisrì, vcry few havc bccr sysremaiicilly Í!die.t,

l18

i shortcotrÌb8 thàt has often been ìimcntcd. A rc.enr 5tudy ior tiìcWorld lìrk atte!ìptcd to c(nll)ilc the availabìe evidcdcc o. rhe inpacr ofmllticultüral r.lorüs ú thc dclìvery of public sen iccs, pd.tir.uÌarly ìn thcspheres ô1 hcalth crrc, rdrcatidì, and a..rss to the Ìrw, and concludcdthat t1Ìc cvidcn.c is too fú8Íìcntaryand anecdotal to draw any lìfln conclusions {Mar. 2005). Snnilatly, th? Iìa a,Ìist t\otc.l thãt 'a!to.ishiÌrgÌylittlc n k.own' abort tlìe inìpacÌ ol nilÌmalivc âctnrn (hc E oú.nin1995). Thc sanxr could tre said Íor moí ol lhe polìcics on my lis(.

This lus Ieft thc Êeld wide oÌten rìr pundils to cngalje i. ar!ìclúirspcculatior, or to rush to pÌeÌnan e iudS€menl Íor or a8aj.Í nìulri-.!ltúaInm. lìor.ìâmpL, sorìc coìÌment.totr ootc tlÌJt raciaì p.eildiccÌÌas dnnürnhcd üì cou.trics$ith mu!hculnirainm policils, and concledcor rhn br\is that rìultnultuÌaìi!Ì is . suc.ess nÌ redu{jì8 Ìnrer SrouÍ)nrcqualities. But nì fa.t Ía.jaì pÌejüdìce his bc.. d€dnìing acros theWcstÈrÌ d€mocÌa.ies since the 1960s, whctbcr or not they havc multi,culturalisxì poli.ics, and indeed Írme people woriy tlrâtÌnulriculluralisrrPolicics rar weàlien oÌ deìay thal trcDd by.itilìciaìly .cinforclng groupboundãnes and rctènÌments (llarles 2004). Wc dccd to know nÌorc aborrwhat Íte, iÍ ant multj.uìtuaìism poÌicics in particuìar pllyed nr thetÌerd toÌraÍls dechìing prejLrdice, and whcthcr ôr hos thaÌ lrend diff€rsbetween .Ìnnìt es w'th difterenl lo.Ìs or dcllrees of nÌullicultuÌaÌìsm.lì answeÌ that q!€stìon, honcvú, r.quües the soìt of largc scìle úo$national and over time dala that hasn't beÈr coìl{ted or analyscd inreìatioD to mullicúltolalisnr policics.

ConveÍsely,.rìiiÕ note th.t in cou.trics with Ìulticult(nlisrì policie\,nlneraLrle membeB ol sornc nnìoitics continue to tre lhe vi.túns ofilìiberaltreilmcDl (srclì as coÚccd núÌ.ìrtj€t atthe haois ol theü Iamiìyor elhnic connunit', ind conchd€ on that basis that nulti.lltuÍaìi5mis a iailuic nì cdhã.cnrg tÌdividuaì fÌeedoìn (Wikn 2002). The muìricllturalislS gnrÌblc on the ÌÌbcral erpedan.l',

't is sald, Iìas rot worked

Ìiberal dorús a.È rÒr LìenÌ8 internâlized withnÌ soúc drinoÌir)' 8roups,and libcÌaÌ natès have not been able or willirÌg to prct(ct the Ìighls andfrcedonìs of the wlnerahìe rnemtros ol lhcscgroups.

But heÌe again, illìbeÍal practìces pedist nì âll WcsreÍn derìocra.i.s,whether oÍ not thev have nìllli.ultft.lisnì poli.ics, and soDÌe pcopÌcârllue that su.h poìicies provide lhe bcst tool for enhancing both thcgravitationaì puÌl oÍ Ìiberal value5 and the capâ.ity of state instÌrrrionsto cffectivelv protect these values wìLhnì dinoritv communitics. Tesr,in8 thú h,vpothesh reqliÌes 8onìg beyo.d anê.dotes ro Ì@li ar hô*diffcrent types ol muìhculturalism policy in diffcrcnt rcntexls shapr

llt

Makinq Senre of tiberâl MúlticulturalÈm

:rj

.:

Evãluãtinq Lib.râl Multiculturalism

processÈs of Politi..l socializâtion withnì drnÌority gÌotrps, and thcÍrclâtions wúh statc ürstitutjo^. And we sÍnply donl hãv. tÌÌat ift of

Ii lìct, it is nol easy to isolâlc thc cffc.t oi nnrllicrllu.alhrn poljcicslion rhc othÚ nÌyrìad Íac(os lhit aliccr rlÌe slalus ol miìorilics nr nrulìicthnì. so.icües. Il $c co(rld ÍìrÌd lwô othcNisc idcnticat socictics tbaldiffLr orly in thrir connìitÍrc.t to

'ÌultìcultLúalisÌì policics, wc ighl

b.àbÌe tô draw sorìc úúì.on.ì6iôns. Brt sü.h 'nrtuil .xpcriÍtrcnts' dorot eìist ni thc n.ld of clhìic rclations, a.d cforts to build long tcntcros naliodâl databases tlìit irÌÒrporalc inúllicrJlúralisrÌ policies is ivarìablc r( onlynÌ their idfancy.

Iôr thc lo.csccablc ltúúre, tho.forc, wc haÌc lo ichnow[dgc uìat we

lack tur.ìúivc prool alrout thc cÍc(tl oÍ Ìnulticrltrúalisnì polìcics. Wrâr. lnàking politi.àl choiccs undcrur..nanÍ, ind ou itr.jgcrncnts úustthcrciorc bc trtaiiv..

Norcthclcss, thÚc ú sonic frigÈcdt.ry crirlcr..lhJr n ìlorth considernÌ8. ln rhe rest of this clrapreo I wiÌl cxarÌin€ th€ three b.sic lòinú oIÌiberal nÌulÌicultúraljsnÌ rclilirìg Lo Íìbsl.lc nalion.l gÍorps, nÌdigcnoúspcoplcs, and nnnìi8r.nts. IÌÌ.i.h c.se, I {ill lool< at tlic cvnirn.c for tbcinìpa.t ol libcral nnrlticultuúlisú on boú úrtrr gúup ìdcqualiti.s ardon nrdi!iduaÌ f iccdorl

Substate Nationali5t Croups

As !c s.w h ChapkÌ 3, lhÚ. n ar id.rcasiig tc.dcn.y withú th€Wcstcn d.mocracics lo acLDrlnodatc sul'statc nàtiorìâl trorps such âs

thc Quélró.ois, S.ols, FÌcrlish, and CâtJlìrs througlÌ soÌne fonn of fedeÍalor quaJi-fèderâl devôlution of pos€Ì.'lheÉ Ì€f(trÍrs typicaìly irìvolv€ a

conÌbnÌalìo. oi (a) lcúitorial auloronÌy, Úd (tJ) rc.ognition of x rrtÚ-irys languag. .s rn ofhciaÌ ladguâgcwithnr ìh. srllgovêrnúì! teÍrit(try a

conìbìrìation I lìavc súrnnÌarizcd undcr thc ÌrlJcl'dultinâtnrÌ and ÌNlti-

'fhcse.cforìs ha1. prôvc. to b. consìst.nt Nitb the basic Íunctio.inSola dcÍÌdrâtic st.tc, but have they Íedu.ed inteFgnut in€quaìitjes andÈnha.ced i.dividurl trcedÒnÌ? L€t's rtaÌt $ith thc issu€ of inter Srou|

]^lnnport,nilìôìÍc!bdot'

equalìry cÍitn:\ of nNlti.ìrltur.lisni often obj.ct thât it i.volves Ììêrelysymbolic recognition ot cth.(ultÌtril divc^iit without substàntíechanScs in dìc rcÌatilc powcÍind posilion ol dìileren t 8loups. I I isclcar,Ith ink, that dÌis criticisnì is oiftargrl nì reli tion to m !ltiDa 1ìor tideralisÌn.ìb bc suÍr, thcst rlòrnÌs.onlain a súong sy.rbolì. corÌponenl, andaÌ€ cenÌrâlìy corccÍÌcd to rcrìcdy lhc eaÌliÚ cxcllsion ol (he nÌnorilysìangüã8e and cuìtuÌc ftonì prblic spacc ú.1 public nÌstitutiors. Iid..d,nìuÌtÌlin8ual multiratiôn fcdcraliú givcs a v(y high lclcl oI public.ecoSnition ro rhe !ìúority J .uÌture, at ltrst at rhc r.8ion.l lcrel. ItsÌanguaSe is Siven Òfi.iàl status; ís history.nd lilela(ure arc laugh( nrschooìrj it\ ans are.ìisplàyrd nÌ public .mscüús; ils legal tr.dilions arcnÌaintainedj its heÍfts ar..clcbrátcd nr públic holid.ys and prbìic stâtucs;

.nd so on ln fad, this n!ôd€l Siver thc national dìüÌority úàny of thcsanÌe por{eb to exfress arddiftuse its lanSuàgc ard cullurc àt thL substatcevel rhat rhe .najorÍy group cìcr.is.s rlìrÒúgh tlìc ccnlral stalc. This ispeÍirap\ as.lose as otr..àn 8et to.quJliry orparilJ' bclw..n üiiority ìndmÍxÌity gÍoups h lhc..pacily 10 hivc one's culntre.Ílìrned nì púbÌlc

Ìrlt muìtinatn,n f€dcÍalisnì is not jÌatâbôut rccogditìon IÌ also invotvrsa substantirl redisÌÌibutnnì ()fpolìti.rl power, and hcncc incrcascd opporturilies toÍ eÍfe.tive political particÌltion by nario.iÌ dìnìoritics CNew

nÌa! 199{jJ, a5 weìì a\ a rcrlìstÍjbutnrì of econoúic ot)poíunrtirs. Con-sidcr, tor cxàrÌfle, th€ cas€ ofthe lrench-Cânadiar rrìrôrity nì Canadr.Prior (o üre 1960s Ían.othones were undeFreprÈs.rtcd nì th. feddàlcivii s.rvi.c, a.d $ere 5ec.nd cìass.itizen\ iÌì theÍ own provin.., Ìelc'

8àtcd to thc loeÚ lrngs olthe e.onoot economn:alÌy suboÍdìnâte to theI.8lish clilc rhal h.d been pÌiüÌeged u.deÌ 8Íitish rule. Sin.e the mid-1960\, wilh thc sLrcngllìenjn8 of both oficial biÌinguaìisnì and pÍovin(ialauk)nomy, fnn.ot) lìonc Qrebeers lÌavc .chieved a drarÌaiic equaì iTatjonwith l.g]nh Cnn.dians âÌônAalldimensnnr, whethermeasured in termsofecÒÍonÌì. opporl!rities and standârd of living, or tÌ t.trns oicffe.tivèpoliti.al rcprcscrÌtaliorl and voice, or ìn term. of thê pubìi. statüs oflânguagc ànd dltúrc. Thc hislori. patteor of e(onorni( di\advanta8e,

Doliti.aÌ \uboÌdnÌation,andc(luÌalmaÌgirÌaljzation havee$entiaììydìs

tu qdr.. ,Latituirnì hr!. rhnhtrionr i,{lurnis, t)rdrúhny i

ú aurrr( rhn'v$ rrúretj. polti.ür

t4Ì

Maring s€n5< oÍ Liberàl Multi.ulturôlìsm tvaluâtln9 Libêrâl Mutrietruratijm

SotrÌc cÍitió acknowlcdgc that mulrnìátion fed€ralhm hd helpqlruincehiíoric hi€rardrict but {orif tbatinrhêp.(rc$ it has iusl creat€dncw lìieÍarchics. llar thc histod. pÌiviìe8nrg of lìnglislì over llen.h inQucbec simply b€en r.vc.sed, so thiìl now tlìc Fr€n.h âre donìnìônt ovcrthc Ëngl'sh or oÌheÌ'inlcr.at minorìti6', such õ ÁLìodSinal peopl6 orúnnrigrants? Thcre arè ccrlninlt calcs ofsu.h leverals aÍound lhe world.Oncc Álbâ.ians Ìn (o\ovo a.quircd altoDorìt they qulckl) htr)ed oD

thcú Ío.rìeÍ S{b opprcrsoÍs simila.l}, muÌcntatoB id l2tür A'reri(asp.elare wh.rhcÍ thc.mpo*€rÍìcDr oÍ indiSenouÍ pcopl€s will siDplyinvc'lve 'flippi,ìg the to4illa', tunììng the cuÌrcnt.,ntio cllte into a suboFdnì.led mnìorily, whiÌc nìdi8€róüs ti.opìe\ brìcomc llc ne* opplcssou.

Bur rheÍc t lntle evidcne fd such a dynamic ú the W6tcíì carsof üNllÌnatnnì lcderahÌÌÌ. lhe Lìr8lhlì múÌoÌi(y in Qucbec has strongerlanguage .i8hts lhan docs lÌre fren(h nìinoÌity ì. mort olher CarÌadianprovÍÌ(s, and rêmains (!oo'ni.!lly píGPtrous. Similady Qu€Ìr€'s IDIi._Ì lowaÍds

^ÌJo.i8inâl land.!aiaì! and 5elf-Eoveínment is moÌ( proga

\ivÈ lhân mon otheÌ Cânâdiãn pruvnì.es Or indeed rnost othc! Werrem druntÍier). ADd lvhilc Q'Fìrech prov'ncial'inte(ulluraìnnr/ policytowardt immitÍaDts ma), be l€ss tcncrout thar lhê very stroot mulÌicuìtulalism policics adoptcd by the Canadia lcderal gove.nment, it j5

certainly stroDSQ than thosc .doptcd in DlDy ollrer wcsteÌn rcu!ÌtÍies.wheilu we kx)k at the historically dodinant ÊÌìglish <oÌnuniry Abcriginüh, oí iNnigÌarts, thc trcatment oÍ rhe* nrternal mnìoriti.s withinQuehe( üìcets or .xceeds nrnÌinNm standards ànd conrmon prãdi(cs oIwst6n democacies 4

-lh{Ì vme Írrry.an be rold oí internâl múbnti€s in otheÍ.á*s oímuÌrÍration fed$alisnr, such as the lnglish iÍ Scoll.nd rnd W!lès, orlhe ClrtiÌiars jn Cal.ìonia, or lhe ltalia.r in Soulh lyÌol. TÌìese a.chardly oppÍesíed grcurx. l he_v no lonscr dispÍopoíionâtely dom'natethe e.onodry, pdliti.aÌ sttuctrrcs, or pubÌic.uÌturc, but they have notbeen redu.cd los.rord cldrs status ln e.o oÌni(oÌ pôlillcaì ten.s,lnpaÍtl,(âüte they rc'nãid thc domnúü( 6Íoup at rlÌe natioDal lêv.I, whichensuÌct p(Ícclion of thcií riShts arìd intêÍ€sts,'

1 tuÌ r üeÌailcd Nrhrâlon of ì,o* Qrch( he6 dì.Í rl rLdr K thr Ênb,l (okrn! ri,rr&rq Mtu/ô,, /d" (ca^D rest

ofou'n{eim rft{r rlr Íâd ìhar t)Bô'rìy opt6cdgúúpl me lrf r\nsitire ro rh( o tiuribÌe extlúadonn íüdy ÍÌ,t tcflbÌi,r aulorcn) o}]<rtrs nrhn' a l83cÍ núe sÌuctur"

'd Ntunr

rú ììÉ sul)pon ot dri,cns rnd I'Õúúy 6 a srbÌ.. ì^(T â ncBl/ mlo*rn natutrJt ìi.oÍity b íLrìccr)xHÌo.Íâ(ons,swnhlr,pÕunrÍonruÌìnúto'.ìrGdôólrrnroll.lvânBh.

112

Othê.swo.ry (harth€shiftto 'ÌutrinaÌiod tcdcÍalÀm (kãt6 a newand

invidìous hieÍarchy within rhe suhsrâre nar'onat nìiio.Ív ftaji brMpnrl'Áe in.r,le ôra uut.rJL ÌtH \"tfriúr,.r.rig rer,rtory. No rndrt\* h,,hi|lrÍnàì hourdar,,, drF Lhdtri, i\çÌe $r bc mêrnb.rs ot {.nar_ondtmino.ity who live oüts e rh€ setí-8overnitr8 te.rilory. Wtuldnt ir trbetteÌ, the.eÍorr, ró 6nd some nonìeÍÌrorìat-,ìÌechanisn 1ôr potecringsubsrate nilio.al nìinoüic! wìrich would bcrciìr irs tDcÌrbeÍs whereverthey live?This is ! mmnrnì obi(tion ro aijop(iog nruttiÍàtion f<teratisnìamuDd lh. íì!rld.

^nd ìnd.e.t itl truc rhat üì( Db.s ôf thL mino.íw riv

rr Eiul\r' F l \cl jt.rr rindrqr,,^ryõ .ì,orr r,..ru.J(.r{. rk{no\el"Ìs.eh n"ri ritià i!r ({ r.nìitàt!,n to, c\rr,ptc .nu.rr mr.,rorfEncophone in Cinãda who tive o!6ide eucbcc conlÌruc to !uíe, ,.omeconomic disâdvdnrage nnd hi8h rarcs of lìnguirtic alsnnihft)n (l,indrl2005).

HowcvcÍ, thc adoprioo oí mülrination fol(latism crn, ând oít.n dds,8o hâDd tì hanil sirh rhe r(oSnitior ot non rcÍiroliât culÌuraÌ andìinguirti. righls (e.8 ro nìorher roD8ue educalion) that apply throushour lhc ioü rr^ ü: d whot" \o í it not dn riidÊr",,h,,,e tçr*e.te.rilorial aulonohy or on lcÍlorial riShrs. V.noú cohbinations ârcposiblc, Mor.over, nÌeinbcs ol thc mirìority who lìve ourside lhc sctfgdc!)iiìg ÌÈÍikn.y indiiccuy bc.clit ÍÍon hdvinS a suì)sr.re gov!!!ìrÌìc.Ìtlút i5ommitted ro nurtu.nrS thc trritrority,Í lahEuage and (lruÍc. Thirn pllhâps one.€ason why nÌcmbcrs of rhe minoriry oulside rhc \clfPr\.Ìnihr prrit(,l)

Sarcra.t\ o.,.in ra\nur ôf mUtU;irton r.rurati.nrDst fÉn.ophdres li!üìg irì wrjt rr Càna.tâ juppo.t euéb€c,5 aúlonomy;rrost Cltalans livÍrg ú Madn<ì supporr aulonoml foÍ Cntatonia; ndttrueÌto Rnãns lìving in Ncw yoÍk suppoÍt auronomy lor tucrto Rico, hosrethnic W€h]r living in tnStand suìrpo.r aurononÌv Íor Walcs: an.t vj DnMullin.lor tedcral'\m b not a PInàea to, mcmbeB or rh., no,rÌ)livÌng ouhìde tlìc self goveflrÌn8 territory but nor is it à dijndvaotatie oÌ

So we havc lome g.oundr fo. optimism rhat úultinarion fde..t,sman bc an cfi(Ìive toot Íor ícdocilu tlc nìÌìentcd hieraK:hy b€rwe€n rhcdoIrurn Jrr.Ìrrt rn,i.{ } ,, rJ .rlr5rdr. iltnrndt Trro.itre, Bur wlkrabout the sccônd oilerioo oL su..csFnàmciy, individuat frcedodì? HasmdtÍution f€doiìlism [uli[.{ rhc tibcdl eÌpdlancy? has it opcÍâlcdwithÍt thc orstlaidts ot libcdl dcnúratic vatues ãnd human dghts,and lìclp.d tu .lcepen a corìscnÍd acÌoss ethric and Ìa.ial ìines on ìcscviluês? Or has itstrcnSlhcÍrd úrc haod of rraditn,natisrs and otrü.ât(onscrâlivcswhosel loGist tibcrâlizntion of thcÍ rÍaditions ind pracli(6?

t4f

Màlin9 5ênr€ oÍ Liberal Mulh@lturalism tvaluating fib€ral Múlliculturâtkh

lib€raÌizalior within spaìr, noÌ i!í thÍrgh ìts own inrernal poÌici.s,but aìso throuSh Caraian ÍrppoÌt tôÍ ljlJcraì artl dúìocraric Iorces ar rtccntre. T Ì h€ corstruchon ol a denocra t ic dj uÌri nn tion fcdern l rystem j .Spaür oul ol üìc óhe\ oÍ lìscisr di.ratorslÌÌr is slrclt one oi thc gÍealhc.ess nories oI Orc se.ord hrtf of dìe rwcnti€rìr e,ìrÌtr, an{j Cìraianràtônalisn was a vúaì part of thar s!.&ss. And yct the rtÌctr'c otCataiaD natioralists ir ollcn dceply drapcd in rhc larluare ot tradiriooIndeed, lhc Cãtala. s1r!881c id regionaÌ aukrnonì. was otlerì des.ribcdas â deüÌar.Ì nÍ the resto.rtion or r.vival oÍ ì.n ,ftemsi lhe sysrcrìof local .oÍo!ìãry law thal had been uscd in Caralonia belòr. ir wassuppre5sed by tÌrc cenrÍal sparish srarr nì l7tó white aalalnr natjoDilittr ìike to claÍn thar thcir /turor we.. nr€ demo(ratic ttìan rhe te8.l\ystens ol otlìer ÍeSions al thc rime (w|ìch na_r' be trud, thr Ìealiry isdìat lhev wrre neither dcnúcÍatic nor libeni in a.y oxrderd scrse, andrhc coflcrìporart exerc6c ot auronomy úì Câlalonìa has transfornredÌh! fu.,!r bcyÒrd alÌ Íe.ôg.ìtìon thc idea of rradirioniwas invoted bÌlcadcr5to jlrlil), and Ìnrtúea profon nd lv nìodeÌ. izirg prôie.r ot r.gionaÌ

ìÌis nÌaf s.crì likc a panÌlox, búl nì ta.r is a lbiquirous íÈtrtuÌe oinarionalÌsÌ pÕlitn.t

^s thcorin\ of nariorrtnm lÌav. b.8 norc.t, narion

alúnr ìs a 'lânus faced' phcÌrcmenoo: it úÌvoì(e5 thc gt(Ìies ot urè past iioÌder to Ìnobiìize peoplc lor tRrje.ts ofthe mqlcnizarion oI so(iery. lt jsan nÌl(cstÌng (lueí io^ -bcyond thc scop€ ot (his book s,lÌy rpp.ah tosr.led tâditions and glornrus hìsÌoricsaÌe ofled.ccded iÌr ordcrtomobiÌize suppoÌt foì modcrnirng Ìelôdtr. Ìlur jl is nnpoÌtanr ro renìembLÌúal nit€\ have tt-pi.alÌy ju\rincd ÍrippiÌìg ÌÌnìoÌiries oI lhcir tradlliooâìsell governmenl by arSui.g rhit thcse nìinoritie5 $ele ,bà.kward aÌrdth.t theú tr.ditions of Eovenlcnt aDd liw weÍe iÌincjvilizèd,. .fhc

hrsttask of aly niúràìi\t movcn!€nt, rheiciòr., has bcen to (,Ìest th€seícÍ.oÌr,?es, and to p.Buade others (and lbcrìJctves) r]ìat l|cy arc worrrlol s.lf-Soveirìmc.t. When narìo.àtìÍ leade6 s.y thar rhcir krdjrions oflaw ârd selÊgovÚnn.nt shoutd be respeded, dìey are Ìealty salinS thirlhci. nation h capàl)k' ol €rü.isnrJj rhe Ììgtr t() decide on nrues of las,ànd goverDmc.t. they do not ÌneaD lhat they s,ìsh to.xercisc th€ser!honnì rlghts nÌ an'autbcntically rradjLioral' s,aI

'lìeÌe is i rclarcd rerson wÌÌy nodenÌiznjg nationatijt cÌitej enìphalze.ltt al Lridition. Lthno.ntlonaÌ grcúlx ôfren de,ìadd sctf Soveúlncnr

ln ge.eÍai, it seenìs.ì€aÌ dìat nNìtinatnnì frdcralisnr Íì thc Wcí lúlrìlslhc liheril eape.tan.y. IoÌ one thins, rll of thcsc ÍrbÍàtc iulonomiesopeÌate eithb tlì€ (Dstranits oi libÚal de.ìoüilic constitutìonalúm,which 6mly upholds úìdividurl rightl. Thct arc Írbiccl lo the same

.onstitutionaì .{rnstraiDts as thc ccÍtr.l Sovcíln€.t, an<] so hare no

.aF.:Ìty to restÌi.t ìndividrúl Írcc.loÍts nÌ thc niinc ol üralÌrlaìiiD8 culturaÌ aulhenticitv or.uìtrrrl Dürity. IrÌ fa.t, thcsc slbnalc aulononroús

Sovernrìenh ryti.ally show no wiú to.dopt sú.h a consQvativcipproa.lì ro iheiÌ dhur€. llìeÍ membe* ãrc àr.onnìtlc.l to libe€ldeÌÌocrati. values â\ thè nìajôÌity group. I.dccd, lhcl aÌc ollcr horlredsôf social expenmentati.r, a.ìÕptür8 r.otu p.Ògrcssìvc polìcics tha. thoseadopted it the (nÍal level. IÌni.ìrs Ò. Scndcr cqu.lity or giy righh,Ior exanÌre, are mor€ prrSresrivc in S.ÒÌlaÌrd tlr.n tlÌc rcsl oi Brnain;Dore proSressiÍe if Quehec than in otheÌ t)áÍs ôf C..ada; ard moicpÌo8ìlssive iì (,!talonia thãD oth.r parts ÒfsP.i.. Mor.ovcr, súpport folcosmopoÌit n vrhrer is aho tytiLâlly highcrnì thcsc substatc.cSions tlìanÌ. orheÍ p!rt\ of drc.ountry, üì.luding slppo.l lo1 loreìgn aÌd, oÌ foÍstÌengthenin,j the (n. of tÌ( nuropcan Corrl olHúman RiSh(s, ot othe.rnteÌnationâÌ hrmrn Íi8hts irÌstruhènts.6

ln all oÍ these r.spe.ts, rNlttÌation fcd. hu luÌlils thc libcrilcxpe(llnry lhr Ía(t i5 somctin.s obscrrcd by th. rÌrctori. of trìditiotadopted by 5ome minoily naúÌulist leadeÌs. Clan.s to àutüìo!ìy, io.cxanÌplc, i'e oÍlen wÌapped trp in \túÍins histdi.aì narratnes alÉut{he glories oI rhe an.ient tÌãditbn5 of self'1joveÍìmcrú, rnd thc d€{lto Ìclúrn lo therÌ SjmììaÌlt the maintenan(€ ol di\tind l€8al tradi-tioDs is sonìctiiÌrs descrihed as a ti.red duÌy', an erientiaì l)an of the

8rcupt 'idr.lity', whi(h musl th€retore be preleÌv€d at aÌì osts. r\ndso or. And ycl lhc vcry same Ìcade6 eho nrvoke Ìhis rìretoric of tÌaditiôr oftcn súppo( the draÌnnÌic rcvising of ihese trâdition5 of seÌf-

Sovcn!ìcnl ànd l.s, so is 1o brinS lhrnì in li.e silh m.denr standafth oflìúrìa. righLs, ind nr ic.ordanewith modeÍn a\pÍations fdchoi.o and

Consirlrr thc .nsc ol Cilalonla. virlually ever) conrnlentiror on thetranritior to denìôÍacy nr Spiin allo lhe deatb oitrarco in 19/5 agrees

tlìãt Câtdlan ration.lisnì rlas i rìajor loÌce ú nipporirìS and 8!,ditÌ8Ìhe denDcÍaiizàti.ÌÌ procc$, ìnd tÌral it renìains a poncrlìl locrs oi

Making 5en5e ol Liberàl Multiculturalitm

on the grounds lhat it is needcd ro Proìect thcir 'nìh'ÍtÌ diff€rcn'es

Y.t lhe causal rcìationsÌÌiP can 8o tht other wâÍ '4s RaineÍ ÌaúLrdk

Iüts ìt,'ììathel than scltSoverÍnÌent btinS a rncans to preseNe dlnralàiÍicrenG, this differcnce ú ore oÍten pÍeservcd asa ncansto iustillthe.laim 1o tellgoveÌnúc.t' (Baubock 2OOO: 3lt4' 2OO1: 332-5) foÌ cxamPÌe,

ethdonaturÌil nÌinorities may claìF that lhev need Í:lf governúcnt in

oder to manÍain their distin.t l.8al trtrdilions. Ii Íealitt the dislnrct

legal üa.lition is oÍtcn ÌÌanìhincd D order to it5hf-v 'liinrs to scÌf

g;vcnÌmen| Aiter all, tlhnonationaÌ Ìnürorìti6.r. coDtünralÌy tequúed

;o eÌllain why lheI.LtscFe s€lf SoveÍÌnÌ8 tiShis and hxvnìs a dhlinct

ìegâlìraditioÀ 10, Ìargoa8e) Pútirles odc Possible answcr3 lhìs meins

tììat tlÌ€ maintcnin.c ol a dìltnÌcr legal kaditiÒn doer indced become

a knÌd of'sa.rcd'nrheritance, lrut not h a conscíatìve scnse: it does

not prcclude dramiÌically r€lornÌing that dìsrin't lcgaì tradilion so as

ro nÌatch ìntcrnalional lrutran righrs standèrds, o. lo proÍìole g€ndc'

eqúlitt at ú.lced has happened in thes. rcgionàl 'Ítonomies.So I would argue rhat thc modèl ol nìultiuìgua1,.ìrltjnation Iederalism

cmergnì8 in ttìe West is a piomisii8 exa PLe 'f r lew apProãch that

.ccomÌnodates etlÌno$ltüral divedilv in a way that deePc s reìations

ol Ìiberàl demo.ralic .itizu)slìiP, rcdtcÌrg nìtcr 8Í(Np hierar'hies shilcprotecúÌg lree.lo!ì.e lt is indeed thc clearcÍ cxanflc of success in this

;e8a..ì. Ore nìeanue ol this súccess is that, tnLikP rÌÍ Ônrer two foÌms

ofllbenl n(ltiaìtuolism .lisclssed bcloq thÚ. Ììas bcen no signilìcant

nÌovem€nt in any ol the wcÍeÌn deÍrocÌa.ics to (tl back eitho the

tftritonal auronody o. the ollìcid lãnsuã8e riShh 8ra'ted tÒ súbstatê

ratìonalist mÌnoritics.In thn .ontext, thc., tÌre IO's.omdnnÌent to slPPÍt 1o1 liberàl mul

hdtruaÌism scemr Narrinted lt is Para.loxical, thÚeforc, tlìat this is üeone mod€Ì ofliberãÌ mullicultüalism that IOs have beeD mÔí ambivnÌent

aboúl, and indeed havc recently backed away rìo'. diÍnÌsÚi8 inteÌnãtion

aÌìt ior rennnìs discusscd in ChàpteÌs ó ãrd /

Íid dn 'n

aueF...4.{barJtrr"

;i,. ô* , ""d,

Lh,*-.".";,.,--,..l* *,, ,",'., o..r. rr ".,,r, ; , r"r'i--,-:--. b.,,, r^ì'. ür'"i-"i- ..a mi'." *' r,

" "- tt

" ri. -." ou,r"a *r"r,"*.t,i.*."* -.dd..r -,ìii "ri"' ''"."...'-..'t\ , - ,00" "",r-;.. 00

146

lndigenous Peopl€s

ht ÍÌe tü. now to the second main rôim of liberaì nìuÌticulhrralismüì the West, focosinS on indiSenou5 t)eoplcs Ás Ne law in alhapteÍ 3,

ttìère lias Lre€n a sbilì awây nln a5simiìationist poìi.ies tlxlrds modelsoÍ intêrnàl dècolonizallon based on ã conrbìnatìon ol land cìaims, s€ll

Sovernment ights, and ÌccoSnition ol indiSenors brv.lìow hat thit sÌiift allictcd cqr.liÌy and lreedonì? Iel nic slirt wjilì

ìssues of ÍÍeF8roup cqúalily: lìave lhe5c Lelormt sinrpÌy pÌovided synÌboìic ÌecoSnitn' oÍ indiSerÌous dilÏeÌcrce, or have thel effectiv€Ìy lackled undeÌlyin8 hìeÌàrchi.s? As irÌ thc casc ol Írbslate national groops,

there are many \ymboli. âspects to nÌdiScnoos policics. rorexa,nplc, thcpublic visìbility of indiSèrous culhtrct his bccn drarìati.ally cdhan.cdwithìn rhe lalger lociery Irìdig€rÒus arts are íow prorrnìcrtly dhplay.dnr nÌuseums and state nÌsdtütiÒns; indigc.ous lca.lÚs are ÍccoSrizcd n)state symbols (c.9. ÍarÌpt; nrdiScnoús rìtuals are incorpoÍ.led in slatecercìno.ies (e.8. th. pr.scncc oi cldc$; inrligenols pÌ.yes lnd phúset;indiScno(s hisiory ú nÌ.Ìuded ni s.hool turritula, â.d tarioús apoÌÕgics

hav. bccn made for lìistoic wnngs. ]ÌÌdi8ènous languag.s and Òltüesarê âlso naturaliy gìven 5ymboìic recognitnrn sithÍÌ nìdigerous peofles'owr àutononìoús spa.es and institutions Within both nrdigen.u\ com-munities thensclvts, and lhe liLger socìety, theÌe is now 8reãteÌ Ìecognitio. and àccôdÌmod.tiorì ol indi8€noüs cultuÌe.

But hã\ this shift donc anythiiìg to iackle the unde.lFnS politicaland economi. ìneqnalitics bctMcn ìììdìSenous peopÌes and the settle.societìes ihathave hniori.ally donrinalcd tlÌcm? As wni slbstate natìonalist groups, there has b€€rt r rierr cnhanc.Írcnt in lhc poliLical voiceôl indigcro(s communities, not just through iúc.casc.l sclt govcrntìc.t,but âhô tlÌrcúgh increared repÌer€ntatnrn $ithh thc .tcisiodjnaknrgprocedures of the lãÌgèr socicty. As à Ísult ol'various lind clainÌs, colrtdscs, and lre.ry agÍeèm€nt\, ÍÌdig.nous pcôplcs aÉ oitcn 8!.rantced'ascàt at tlìc tablc'oD hsuer th at aÍl€tt rhèú .orununitics, âdd fairly robútdtrties of.ônÍÌltatioD are now Íeco8nÌk{l in moÍ Westem dèntì.ra.ìes.Ìr)So the oplrúúnitics for ell€ctiv€ poìiti.aì larrn:ipatnrì by údiSeoousp@ples hav€ incrcascd.

Ìo [oÌ soo'l rvnipÌes oí hôw rhesin crnadâ (Hddd ÀÌdàdÌ v nr,nr LÌtmüa Múlh t'l

fdftab), 20oa sra 7r; lrk x,vúDrdlor, 2004 scc 70

l

i

Evahnting Lib€ral Multi.ulturâlkm

Making 5€nse Òf Liberal Mülticulturalkm

'lhe inìpa.t ol cnhin.ed olturàl Nognitbn úd Polìlicil voi.e o.the urdcrlynÌg economi. nìcqúalitirs n less clcar. wherea\ rrost Írbttaìe Datio.al rìinorúìes in thc Wesl oow 5ÌuÌe coÌnpar?ble standãrds otìiving tó thc dominant natio..l group, indig€rous PeopÌes remdì sFtematicâlly disadvãntagrd on vülually aìì nìdicators (heiìth, educ.tìon,

income, enìploynÌent, sui.idc râtcs, incarceÍatidì ralcs, and Ír oD) And

debare persnts abouÌ wlìetÌÌcr rcccnt retoÍm\ aru h.lpiÌÌg or harnrüìg

eftort5 to addrcss lhese foÍmr of social a.d econotrÌic dìsidvintalje, and

hene $iÌ.thcr proSrcss in a.hictnÌ8 eilualitl dcptnds o. extendúg oÌdjsmantling new !ìodels of nidiScnoos SoveÍÌaDcc.rr This dÌ5aEÍctrcnLi5 cxa.erbaÌcd by the fâct tÌút wc lrave ìirtle Ìcli.blc cvid€nce one way oi

llowev€r, what evidence ú availãble sü88e\ts that thcsr decoloniznÌg

reloms aÍe hdced a 5t€p in the nghr direction, and that lìrlher Prcgrcssdepends on buildnÌ8 lpon the .Írerynì8 prjn.iPìes of t,ú8cted, 8ÍulÌdiffeÍentiàtcd i.diSenous Ìights. Cross natbnal studics oí lhe ()nìPrrã

tive ttatus ofnÌdigenous p€opld nr New worìd i€ttlÚ slalcs s!88ert Úìàt

in€qualities aÉ lowe. in (rurtÍies with nÌore nbust ittliScnous Íi8hÌs

poli.ìes ((auffúân 2004), ãnd this rcsúlt is .onlìÍÌned by .asc studies

from withjn individlal counti€s, inclÌrding the Llnited Stâtcs (CornelÌ

ãnd K.ll 1995, 1998, 2O0O), Canada (Chàndler .nd l,abndc 1998), and

Nrw Zealand (Ringold 2005, May 1999). ^

rccent internarbnal Íudy bthr Ilo come5 to ã similal .oncìulnìú that Povettf redu.tntì Írategies

work bcí when .oÍÌbnrcd wi(b €sPe.Ì fÒr nìdiSenots Ìând.laúns and

rcll govcrrment righls (TonÌeì 2005).

It! iÌnpodant not to cx.SSerate the Progr.s ÌìcÌe lhe neSotiition oiland .Ìains and seÌf-govcÍdnÌcnt i8Íeenìenb has been v€ry now and

uneven. And ürere aÍe doubts about whedÌe. t|. ldnds ol seltr8oveftid8

cntitics cürrcntll beinS..cuted are capabì..f Prolidiig clcctive Sovcr_nan.è and .coDomn: opportuDilies. Many of thcm .rc loo snìâll and/or

remote to prcvide the l€vel of scrices aDd oPportunilics neede.l Settler

srates havê historicaÌly attemptud to brcâk up lar,leÌ 8rotrps orco.litions ofindÌgenoüs peoples i o snìalìer SrouPs, ollen !o laÌleÌ than àn nÌdivìduaì

village oÌ .onrnunit}. l heÌe a.e lirt its to úe so of self'8óv.nÌnÌcnl lhatÍrch vitÌage ìevel uniìs ate ciPabì! of.flcctively exeÍcilinE (Caúns 2000,

Evaluatin9 Lib.Íàl Multiculturâlirm

ìvÍoÌeoveÍ, as with subttãre nalionalist groups, thcrc are (luestions abÒutlhe sÌat6 of indi8cnÒus p.()ple who live ouÌside (hesc sclf-8oveÍnin8 reÌritoris. Ii rnany.ounti€\, oveÌ haÌÍ of t]ìe irdìgcnous population hivc,nolcd lronr thcir t.a.ÌitnnìaÌ teritories i.lo !.bad arcâs.'lhese groúpsh.vc súlfcr.d iust às xìu.h fÌom the harms ot coÌoni.lisú, but in nÌirïrcspects fàll bctwee. the ÍÌa.:ks ofÌhe inle!Ìil d.cotonizatn)n nìodeÌ

One posible Ìesponse t.J both ol Ìhesc piobl.nr h the idea.f rggÌ.gation , in $tình v)me indigerrous lell govcrìing powcÉ would be exocisrdat a règnrìal level, ntheÍ tha. al a villige oÌ cdxnunity level (tOG2000). Thrs would not only.reate la.ger and Ììo( viabìe units ol sell

8olcrúúcrt, but trìso Írakc iteasier to incorPoraie urbàri úìdÌSenous populatiôns.'lhis is a p(ÌrisinS nÌ,"r, but a( ilìe moocdt lrrsely untesred.rz

In short, w€ hare mixed resllts in relitioD to tÌrc Íedudion oi irÌt.Fstuup hierar.hies ln di8enous la nguaScs and.ultltrès havea mu.h hìgherpüblic vjsiÌril itv an d respect (h.n thirty or iorty y.a$ ago, and indigcnoü\pcoples have eDhan.ed opporÌunilies loÍ el.clilc politi.al participatiorthrough both seìf Sove rme.l ani üÌcrcascd .ônsultation ir areas ofshaÌe(l Sovernme!t. 9uÌ tÌìesc changcs ha!c not substrÌìtialÌy reducc.l th€dranati( socill and econonÌi. disadvdntr8cs fr.in8 indjSenols p.oples.

WlÌat.boul lhe se.ond úitcrion of su(ess: âÌe tnese relonns 1úl6lìingrhe liberal cxpcclanct âccodürÒdrtüì8 diveÍ5itv whiLe Íil] prote.tinghunì.n rights and diifusnr8 lib.raì values? lìis too is a rúttèr ol (orsidüiblc dcbatc. SoÌn. côfuúc.tâtôÌs a.gue that indÌgenous ri8ht5 a(ticd to idcãs of.trlhrdl .{rì\eNatisnr. l.deedi lhe cÌanns of indigenouspcoplcs arc oltcn.itcd as tÌÌe paradigm exrmfle oÍ cÌaims úotcd úì ideasof traditiór and cuìtÌtral audìenti.ity whereas nòstilc nìtional !lÍoú!sú th. W.st are lern as sÌraÍing ÌibeLal vilues of indilidtrrl fÍeedonr indhuÌnan Íights, indi8enous people5 aE oiten sccÍ as rciccting thele valúcsin tavour ot comnìunitaÌiinism and üiditiodalilnì. Criti.t worry thatgra.ting rnulhoìtuÌaì righ$, nr this conttxt, will lcad to rhe limúllio.of individual freedonr within thegrcup.

'Ì h€Ìe a.e som€ g.ounds iòr lhcsc woÍics. Th€rc are eÌam|les ol indiSc-nousSÌoúPs seekinS locngaSc nì pra.ti.es that many peoplewoold sccasviol.tiog human iiShts, such is varn)us fdÌns of dis. nÌi,Ìation (againstwomcn, or rciiSious rìnìoÍitics), o. denials ofdr€ proces (e.9. punnhingallcgcd wrongdôús witboüt faú tÌiaì), oÍ the useolcruelaDd u.6ud punislìmcnts (c.g. spearnì8, b ìishnÌents).rr

^ìÌ of tlìese pricliccs hiv. been

L3 rior.xamfl.s, s( th. dr.uss

Mà[ing sen5côÍLib€r.l Muln.ultuÍàlirm Evdluàtinq tjbêril Multiolturalirm

Ìiberal expe.tanct is lot woÍking ìcil h Gualemala thar ú, if liberalilra,{rorr I r' r "p\ -

F 'u'

.\''rr"8 rl, t rql E'4\rr,1rn ' rullacrcss cthÌric and raciaÌ lines- it is surcl)' il lea5i PaÌtly due to th. fâ.tthat therc is litlle or no libcral dedoftacy in aluãtemaìa to beSin with.Ìhe poÌitical sltrrcÌuÌe\ of thÈ h.8.r sociery are known nÍ theú wid.5pread hrnì.r riShls abus€s, thè lâ.ì\ oi Lhe r!lc ol las, and entrenchedp.rterns of rlis.rnnini tion ln this.onteÌt, ìl wolld be a minorììira(ìeifnÌdìgenous legàl practices wer€ somehox intús.d wìlb thc PristiDe sPirit

'lhe moÌe rclcvant queÍn)n foÌ ôur plrPoscs is Íh€drer the ìiberal

cxpectan.y is hoÌding wilhin the Westcm dctrocracies themseives Ând

hcre w€ see a (rnpl.r pict(Í€ On the ore hà.d, as I ÌÌoled eallìer, some

indigcrìolsìerdeÍs asscrt ìhatlheiÌseìf SovernnìS.lccisionsshould noibesubiccl lo the .onstitutioDal provisions ofthe la!8cr socictÍ ìn lhe name

ôl prcseNnr6 their tràditiorìal l€8al sy\t€ms. Od thc olher hand, vútuãìÌyall indi8enous lcadr6 .ccePr the PriÌr.iPlc th.l nrdiSenôus lãws shouÌdbe consistent with interrational hümar rights nornìs, even thouSh thes€

may conlÌidÍith sômc aspects of theÍ traditnnìãl PracÌi.cs.This s!88csts that thcrc arc cotÌplicated legât ar{t politi.al írircgies ai

woÌk whcr indigenous lordüs deny that they are subic.l to thc largcr

society's cônstìtuÌion. In fà.1, wc necd to re.ogniTe thàt whed nÌdigc

nous le.plcs aÌe lold to .oürply with donÌestic .on5litutionãl noiìns,

thir ã.tuâlly involves two qüitc distinct demands that ne€d to tìe kcPt

sepirate ^t

one level, ìÌ demaDds that hdiScnous Peotles adhere to à

set of liberal-dadoftatic noÌms or PÌúciPlcs whicb aÍe fairly commona.rôss the \{€srer. dcÌnocÌacies, and now e.shrnÌcd ii ìDlernarional law.

Bur at anotheÌ ìevèI, it aho demands that nÌdìScnous PeoPles icceF theauthorily of a paÍti.ular politì.al entìty and legãl systctì nanÌrl-v, thatof thc larycr state estaÌrlisÌr.d by llìe coloniTinS scttlcrs It n ìhis second

dcmind that is pârhorÌady ortensi!€ tÒ hany indiScno(s peotÌes Àfter

àll, in most ca5es, úrdiScnous PeoPìe! did not conscnl (o being ruledby tllis larger state, w€re dot irÌvolved in fotnut.tirÌg iÌs conslitulion,and have ncvcl had ãny reprcscntition on dìe SupÌcnìc Couits thilinteÌpret thcsc .onsÌitutbns. Morcolo, the legaì system cstablish.d by

the colonial stãtc has histoÍi.alÌy iustiÊcd (heconquest anddispo$cssion

ot indi8enoú p.oples, often on tlìc Lrisis of exPìicitìy Ìaciit rcãsornì8.

Henc€ any nÌdigenous peotlcs do not tÌúst the leSaì systent cstablished

by settìer Íàtes, and do not b.liev. rhal it ever acqui.ed the lcg inÌlle right to rulc ove! drem T. asl údigenols PeoPles to mcriti.àllyacccpr the authority ol the setder stâtè's cÔríilútion.rd courts is, n!

delended by sone ind iSenoü! ìcadÚs (or then non ilrli 8rÌnous advocatetas tÌaditntìal, and hence as worthy of prolcclion udtr a conseÌvatiyc

conceptnÌÌ of m!ltìcültrúalisdì.Al prescnt, súch Practi.es irc l-vPi.ally pÍohibite.ì Ì'nn.Í lhe.orsti

1ltìonal provisìons of thc lrÍger Íate Howeve!, (ìargely lnlkÌÌsful)altenptr havrbccn nrade by sotrìc ìr diSenous lcade6 t() Sani cx€nìPtions

from these coníitrtÌonaì ÌequircnìcnÌs, and vaiious criiics havc $orieiltÌÌal this is evi.l.ncc lhattììe lib.ral cxPectan.y is bilinS rr Thcsc worieshave been renìlÒrced bt th€ erPüìcnce of nüigenous .ustÒnìan 1aw ÍìLitirÌ Ameri.a. Many litin  ì.rican countrics hale Srantrd lcgal status

to the 'úses ard customs' ol nldigenous l.oplcs As a resuÌt disputes

ar.l .rnDes withni indìSenout cotnÌurÌities aÍe oÍc. iddressed throuÊh

aìlegcdly 't1adúnriâl' lrodes ofconnicr lesolutìo. and punithnlen(, gov

eÍìed bI1Ìaditionàl'clites. lhese.rc oiÌen d€s.ribcd, by defen.jds, as

/auih.rric' practi.es, deeplv Ínted nÌ tle sÍouP's hislory ànd heoce

csscntiâl to tbc SrouPt identity. Cireful studics oÍ .uíonâo law inGuatcnÌaÌa, howcvÚ, hav€ shown that th€se .linns ire .o.tcslable. ln

!a.ì, the three pÍoblcms menú)ned nÌ ChaPiêr 4 abolt olturâl conser

vatism have aiì bee. louDd in studics ol the oPerârion of indiScno(s

cuÍodrâry la$: Púrt, tirc legal Practi.cs that aÌe taid to be timelèss and

aurhentic are often ni tacl lìirly Ìe.:ent, based on a pastjche of orlturalinluenes (in.Ìudjng both sp..ìsh CathoÌicism and m(rr. rccently evdn

gelical FrdtcsLantúm). Clãinìs lo cuìt rãl aúOìentjcity or Purtt hid€ tlìc

reali t,v of Nltúra I hybÌidit, ard crc.le false úcws about the 'unbÍldgeahle

gulf betweed indiSenoüs olturcs and ttroPcan oÌtures sccond, the

chnÌ that tbesc pradices arè âút[eDti., ard cssential to thc SrouP\ide.tity, is often cooteÍed withnì the 8Ídup local elites attcmPl to

Íedcfinc these contested practi ce. ãs 'ecred obì iS atio ns preciselv ú order

to !il.n.e or delegitnnize those gÍruP membe6 who whh to challe.Se

thcse practn:€s. Third, the idea tlìal there is â riSht to mairtânÌ such

atrtlrcdlic Ì.aditiots is ìnvoÌ(ed to iústiry di5úìúnÌatio. against romenor Étugces, ard dthoviolarìons ofhúnìan riShts.Ì5

'Ìh€s€ rtrdìes aÍe l@king ai l2tìn ÀneÌìca, not thc con5olidatcd

westeÍì democrãcies, atd thjs is imPortant to ke.p nr tÌind lf tht

t1 Âs { norcd úì chrpler 4, n. 4, à rlü v,ú. Pmvtrcnr ot ú. us linn! s.nh n;d.s rrÉt ,ììt cxuìp'

'dhõben}r'jtú!dawâyúdìè{d0t!i'dightl]i1,.Í]h'ìrj Fôr i .ahlosurs ot iÌìes Pmbì

sN the $o* ol bcbcì sierrer ( ì 997, Ì999, 2tn1)

150lsl

srn5e of Llberal Multi<ulturalirm Evaluatií9 Liberal M!lriculturalism

eílecl, lo ask tlìcm lo a@pt lhc legitimacy oI lhrir..loniT2lión and

Under lhcsc cÍrunÌsta.ccs, iDdigcrous demaDds lo bd 8overned [n.ierdÌrir own 'drtomary lc8al system, rnt|er than bciÀg biecl to thedom6Ìic constihrtioD ol rh. *ttler stâtq lhould not ãutomatically b€

drsúmed to rcn(l an illiberüÌ traditiodalism or onscrvatism, o. â dcí.dtfd lhc LibcralexDeclancy. l,ike the Cit.ìrn denìind lbrthe Ìeíoriìti.[ oldreir histô.i. /ir4rcr, nÌdigeÌurs denìãrds fô. the r.cot3rition ol 'estumaryr lôw rnrybp a nìqlcrnizÍr8 proj<t olrv ured by látlìrionalisl rhclonclnd.rd, il ma), be thal (hr ll,e.al cxp(tan<y is bcsl Írled by scpàÍát-nr8 the lwo dcmôDds I nÌcÍtnnìed ea.lie! thãt is, by 6ndin8 a wry olartnrralnÌganij entorcüì8lihn!ì denìo(r ti. noÌnìs lhâtdoes noì dcp.rdeI(lusìvcl! or ltrinìarilt or ìhe au ÌhoriÌv oÍ the *l ücr itale'5 instilrúlo.íPeÍhâF thebst {ây ro proríore í con$ns6 on lih.aldêm(Íari( valueiand lo sc.nrcly prolcct nÌdìvnlual rights, is to enablc indisenors peopìes

t esÌ.blish tÌrcir own dcrxxÌatic constituhons and @urts, subjR-t tointèínatioflJl húmnD riSlrts rrxnÌs and/oÌ to new .i8hts-!.otectÌoÌr RrchrnirnÌs iÍ shi.h indiScnoús p@pls, útrtr6tic jrdg6, lnd útc.oatú)naìmonitors aÌe nlÌ nÌvolvcd. l h is ìs prccisely whi l sonc i nd igcnous leadê6havc lc.omme,ìdcd as a nlore c1L.tive w.y oi rDruring hurün ri,jhlsprotccttun than relynrg €xcÌúsivcly on the rcúrts of the selúcr staÌe.r6 lìrercsúlh nE legal systcÍn mãy bc dcÍnb€d âr 'l Íãdihonal' oÍ tuÍomâry', brtnr fact nay havc littte to do{ilh presetring 'traditi{}n', ând the ftenrbersol tlr comnuDity Ínal lúlÌy cxpéct Í to rcspc.t civil and polúical righKand lo Íneet íandar.ìr ofdeüocrâtic accoLrntabilitÍ lndccd, this is whatw. s emeÍ8irg úr vaÍioús W(stem .oúdlrì6: indiS€oous leSal íysteúsadiptd to ncw cúdmttanccs úd internâüonal norrÌìs, d(runrâblc totÌpiÌ nr€inbcrs.

^rd therc is Ijrcwing evidcrcc that üìcsc nìembeÌs dô in

f.( t (ndorsc lil,crüldemdrnti( values/ andc.xpect thciÌ lcdeÌs to up|oldtl'em when cxcÍ.iri.g theiÍ law-makin8 powca. L'

ln lhort, as nith tubttatc natnìnal müÌoriti6, therc are rtnteSic.cãrônsfor deinândnrg respecl tor a distincl lcgàl trld'Ìion: it serves as a flrarkeÌofcullural diffeÍêncc, cviden(e oÍ a wo hy!aí, ard ! i!íi1ì.ilion füa

!ó So,nc ÁÌrri*Í',| kìd6 b (trÍítrlot Í*h' b

'rrrly Í,lkitd{pdrítÌen,sts ovcrtoliìnrÌvirr6(scr'od1

' Sc! hì s(ro!G'r {.óúnt oi {'( dcpth oÍ lí*Írld8ht .onrdouÌ,conìúìunìú6, rd rllt gowúa erpRblb amBli ,\hollgbal iú e6 úar Í'.i' l!Ìxlcr(+<r úm vrtrq eníÕd ênr'd rhÍeú

'e Chlner oÍ enìe ínn.bdry r\ÍÍrâlmt

n3hiyproteL D rq n K{Ì'!!xD ( s.h. h 2003, 93, rrxì s,167 7Ì).

distinctive le8âl and Polil iQt statLs.'l he Prot lern Íacu8 rnany úìdi8€'ous

peopìes, howNer, pa iLllaÍly nr kti,r AtÌcrica, is that unlikc subrtaìc

Dational nrinorities in thc W€s! tlìly havc nÒ scl!8ovcÚÌitt8 pÔw€' to

ânìend tlìei.rustomary law. They hJvc tÌìc right tÒ lollow nìdigcnous irw

büt not to môke i.diSe.ous law- Thcy hâvc rhc Íight to livc a(@Ídin8 to

lheir laws, but trot the riSht to Bive thctrsctvcs laws Í\di8$ous lãws aR

(cognized, búl not indiScÍDus law'makeL {Levv 2000d1

Thc irÌevit.bl€ resulr of thr stuntéd con.èPtntr of le8al fhualivn n to

rÍap ìndigenous IFoPles tno a traditnt!àìist Irânrework Snì( tlìcv hdat

no poweÍ to rlemeÌah(:lly am€nd tl(ir traditionãlcusloúìary law, thc)

rÌìust present these laws a5'ruthtntic" This sugl{csls oral llrc sÔlutiÔn

is not to olish le8aÌ plurrìiÍ. but rrthr. ro sllcnglh.r it, bv givürs

ÍÌdi8cúous txoPI6 the ti8htto mãlt irìdig.rìout law, ãs w.llas to íollos

it, rnd 1o cntu.e thât this PÍr€ss oí makÍra nrdiScroÚ law it pul'li'ly

dcüated, aDd rcll(ts iìreviessofaìl members oíthe.omnunity' not iust

sell appointed guaÌdiaís oí'tÌâditiìtrl, This i.dced is what wc nìcftas

üì8ly sc€ in tlìe Ljnit€d States, arnad!, and New Zcahnd

Mâny slalcs ÍcsisÌ 8ÍanlinS indiSenous PoPler lawinakÍr8 luthontÌ'láw'nâljdg a!llìoÌity js ie.lolsìy lrcsewed as tht exclusivP ìu sdiction

ofthe natioo-stâtc. AlloÌljdg ird ì8enols peoPìes to Íoììos cústonarylaw

is not as thrcutcnnìg ro tlìe slate.s rllowinS indiSenous Peoples to mak€

law Büt as St&{ aDd Collicr notc, it ìs rallìer hyP(ritical Íor slat6

to th€n turn ârotrnd and condenÌn irdiseDous PeoPles for the f.d ÌhaÌ

theücustomaly law nliy nol bcLônshtcnt with rodcn nodÌìs ol hutÌan

.ights (spe.d aod collicr 2000)

Ìut anothcr wa, th( Ìctognitiotr ol.uslomaÍy lnw is inìponanl, nol

because Í uPl!nd! atrtlteotic ÌÉditiors, t'ot b(auÍ it imPlies .ccognitiod

ol tìr€ Ìaw nìâkin,r.apadty {)fiodìgenou! pcoplts, xd iusriilcs l hcú 'ìanrlo exelcise Ìhat G['a.ity lrÍrs

^5 Râchcl SicdÚ Putl it cústo!ìàrv iar

should ÌF undeÌsÌod âr aD oPpditiooâi proiccl-atìcÌÌpthg Io wrcsl

powc. trm the entÍãl stat€iot ar ! proi€t oÍ (.t'ltuÉl p.imordialis r

(Sicdü 200Ì).I think a si ilar 5tory cnn be told about tlìe (te of treaÌv riSht\' Many

indig.noús 8roúps demâú thaÌ rhr P.ovisions oÍ {:€ntuÌi€tr)ld treãÌies

lt l€aally (phcld. Somc commenlnloõ take this dêmand as evidene

oÍ ã consúvativ. connDit'Dcnt lo pteseÌvnrg authentic lÌâdices that

(late toorÌ thc tirìc oi contacl. Ì wo(rld argue, hÒwe!€Ì, that treaties aÍe

often siv. a r.ver.d stâtd in i.diSenous .ommunities b€.aus€ they

..e tan8iblL PíDf that itìdiScnots pcoples at rhr lìmê oí 'onÌact

weÍe

í BaÍdeÍì ds Porscssnì8 polilic.lly oÌga.ized socielies caFbìe oí entering

l5l

Makinq 5enrê ôf Libêial Multicultural*m Evaluating Liberal Multi€ultuÍàli!m

inkr ÌntenìatioNl âgrccmells of a nation to{ràtiod basú. lìeilì€s are

siSns of tbe lristorì. poÌili.al .ompcl€n.Ê of úrdiScnous PeoPles, ãDd

iustihcãtion tor rcissÚtìDg rlìat \râtus, Í) thâl indiSeDous PeoPle canreSaÌn.ontrÒl ô!.i thcirdcsljn_vind adapt t() ..w .hallcnScs l hc reveÌe.l

iarus of orrtodiry law and rreaty Ìi8nts is cvidcnce, nol oÍ cuÌhraì.onlervatisn, butolthcnccd to mobilize peopÌe forthcproicct ol indì8enous self ,tovernmerr . a Èroicct thal oìke all nati.ÌìaÌiint n iÌrlìtÌ.nlÌycllluÌe tLansloming.

^nd withnÌ thc Westeln demo..a.ìes, thú ptuiccl

is, by and lar8e, conducted sithnì lhc lra.ìework ol Ìiberal-denÌo(ratjcconstilltionaÌ !alu€\, as th.liberal expccl..ry would predict.

Thc pict!Ìe that enìeu€! frorr tbis disdssion ofihe ìmpà.t of nìdigcnôus riglìrs on ìndìviduaÌ freedonÌ ìs â conÌPlcx one, not least becauÍit ú dúfr.alt ro djsentangìe rh€ Ìhetoric frôlr lhe reiìiç On the ôDc

hand, wd havc runy indigenous ìeadcrs who íronSly aflì.m humanriShts values, although this nìat just be a rhctorical lool to hjde a deePer

.ommúmLrt tô culìuÍaÌ.onservathm. On thc othci hrnd, {e âho have

mâry úrdiscDous ìeaders ìnvoljng a Pw.rful rheloric of tìadiftrnalisoì,aÌthough this Ìnay jrí bt a rhetoricaì tooÌ to junily Proiecls oÍ modeÌnizirìg selÍ Soresnncnt. Wc rÌccd lo look beyond the rhctoric to see whatis acnrilly happening od thc giolrd, iD the way indigc.ots pcoPlcs fue

caÚcisirg iheir Ìi8hit ârd pôwrts, and lhe say political vtrìu.r aft bcingshapcd {ilhìn these .ommünìti€s. A.d hcre theÌe are .autn)u\ 8tuundsfor optnnnm üat llìe idea ol a hünìan riShts bascd nìodeì of ìndiSenous

Sovemanc ú giad(ally taliinS Íoot, bÒtÌÌ within indÌ8enoü5 con munitiesand ac.oss tÌ!. sociely.s a s'hole.r$

^nd as wc will see in ChatteÍ 7,

ir is precisely such a rìodcl thal is being diftused by thc irÌtÚnauoDaì

lmmigíânts

Inìallt let nì€ ìmk at whxt is pÚhaps rÌÌe nìort.ontrovcrsiàl lòrnì olliberal drltlc!lr!ralúm, adopted tì rclation lo 'new' nìinorities foÍDcdthiotrgh inìmigFtion. as we saw nÌ ClÌaPt( 3, a shift har takcn plàcc

within tÌì€ taditional count.ies of ioüigration 1ìo.Ì older modeìs oleÌclusion and assnnilition to neweÌ models of race neutraÌ ãdmi\sions

thcsc.s nrodtlrorn te ilìdiscnosortofndigmoucii'elhi|lhêysÚ0poí,lecHâvennÌl999]lvls

t54

and multi.ull!riÌ inteSratnrn. Hôw hìs thú iilccted inter groulr erlualilvand indiv ual lrcedom?

As w h Í'bsraÌe natiodal groups and indiSeDous Fofler, tlìe mostimnÌediately a ppir eDt .hân8è .or.cús nsues ol the Fco8nition of i.lenrity.IrÌrlìcpasr, itwasoftcrÌconsklcr.d'unpalrìolic'{o.tn^me .an')f(Ìimmìardrts to visìbly oÍ pÌoudly exprcss rhcir elhnic identiry 'Íbday, byconÍa5r, it is consniered norÌal and nahúl (at lcaí wilhnr 1ÍaditionalnÌÌÌigratntrì .ru.hics) tor inìnìi8Ìant\ and thcn C'$ceiìdints lo havc iocrhni( identiry to cherish iti Io extress it tr public spâcc, ând ro havc i(

rcÍìecte.l and arcoonrodate(l in publc úÌstitrúiors. lddÌìgiinl elhnìcilvhas becomc'.ornnlized' lt i5 no$ re..8.izcd that one oi the man)Ìperiìctly legitimat.ways Lo be a Sood '\Ìne.ican (ôr Canàdian, AríraLian,ctc.) is 1o be ã 3ood Grcek AtÌericin or VietÌìamêsc-^Irtri.... lor ÌnÒínrüijgranl gbupt, eth . irlcnlily Ìs no longer a Írurcc Õf shàtÌc, or fear

^nd this ìs reiÌected in ând rcnÌforccd by üuìtjotìturaliín Poli.ics tllat

inposc n duly on pnbÌic trìrtitutìons ljk th€ schools or medir to cnsuÉtlÌrt nnÌìigrant 8ÍruPs i.. lisiblc in th€ú Prc8ÍamÌniÌrs, thàt traditionalstèrcotypnÌg ìs avonied, ard thaÌ the contÌibutionr of innniSrants lonahotul hislory or woÍld.ultu( arc rccoSniTed

Of.ourse, this procers rerìans rncteo. SirÌce 9/11, imnriSÌants iiotrrArab oÍ Mushì counrries have fa.td prcssuÌc to hìde theìr eihni. ãnd

reLiSìout úlertity.IÌì tlÌe Unit€dStates, pcoplc who too visìtrlyor PlbÌicl-videnrily thems.lvcs ns Muslim today arc susp.ctcd by sonìe oÍ heìn8

'u.AnÌerican'. As wc saw in ChnPter 4, two of thc kcy pillas ol lìbei!ÌnìultìcuìtuÌaìiÍr-- the libe.al expedanLy ard thc dcsccurilizalion of eth

ni. rclatìons havc bc.n questiooed in tbe.âse of Munim íDnriSran6But I belìeve thir is án cxccplion (and hopetully â teoPorary onc) to inothe.wisc poweún tÍ€nd to nornÌalize the Presen.e of nndigrart cthnicidentities üÌ publìc space.

For some critics, ìmmiSrant multiLxltlrilism does nor 8o ìre-vond thesc

foÌms of sy!ÌLìolic recognition to âddnss lnderÌying inequaìitics iÌì à.ccsr

to poÌiticaì powcr or economi. ôpportúnitics {e.9. Moodley ì992i 79).

Dclìndeú .e1pô.d üÌãt llre recoSnition of cthÍi. identilies h juÍ onednDcdsion oÍa much broade! multicultuÌalist policy hi dìcwoÌk lhil seets

to cnlÌan.e the a..e$ and Parlicipation of irtrÍúgrants in ÌlÌc ecoDorìIadd political ìife of thc coontry this n Ìefle.tcd in afÊrtÌaLìvc actioDpolicies, tì the crcatior ol nre.hanisms foÌ Politi.ãl .onsullaliüì, a^dìn tlìc commúment to idcntilf and Ìevise institutioôal rulcs üÌal may(ìntentionally or unintentionally) dìsadvanta8e ìmlnigrúts. FÕr cridÌpL,under the üanìewoÌk of rntlticolluriìism, dres!.odcs, ptrblic hoiidays,

155

Màkin9 5€nte oí Liberal Multì.ulturalkm Evaluâtin9 tibcral Multi.ulturalism

râturalizatnÌì rulcs, IanÁuage reguirements, even height nnd eeightr.striLhons, have aU been adapted ro redu.e theìr potentìâÌ lo.rcaLeobstaclcs Íôr ccrtinÌ nnxrigrânt 8rc ps. On this view, müìtì.ultuÌaiismhas sigrifrontly rcduced trÌany of the inherited obstade5, banietr, and5(ignìalizations that disâdvârtnged tnmiSrant gÍrups.

Hcrc agâin, our âbiÌity b r€ínve this disagÌeement ú hanÌeredby thc Ià.k oÍ àny systemati. rross national data on the Ìnpacr of!ìulticuìtüraÌirn policies on th€ jlarus ol inìnìigrant ethnì. gloops. lt is

àlso nÌrde mor€ dificultby lhe enormous variation in the c.onoÌÌi. an,ì

Politi.alstatuJÔIdifferc.tethnic8Ìou|sevenwithinthSonrc nnnÌiSrart BÍoups in the New woÍl{l @untrie5 ol lmnìigr.tionâr. Lìrtte. off than theiÍ native born .ounÌerfarts jn Ì€rms ol incomeor enÌploynìent rates, otheÍr are wo6e off IÌt enthely possiblc thit {henrxlcì of multiculnmì integration is worki.gwell for some ctlìnic gÌoops,and not loÌ.theÃ. W€ dont have the toÌt of 6ne 8Ìained dali occdcd todi5tnÌ8uilh thc differcrtial impa.t ol multi.Íltural ism poìÌci.s ôn variouselhnic groups nì th. sàrìe côurtry.

Studics Írggcst that stãtcs $ith lib€Ìâì muÌtidntuÍaìism policies ìavelow.r lcvcls oÍ inntcran{€ (\4ekÌrn 2006: 3:15), and better oútcomes loitr.rÌi8Ìanr youth (llerry et âì 2006), and rhãr rhe rwo.oonlrics with LlÌe

sirooSest muìÌi.uìturalirm poìicies ^úsÌralìa

and Ciu<ja alsohâvc thclrest tÌu.k Ìe.ord in the economicand polìticaìinlegÍatiôn ofnD'ni8ràntsovcr the past drirty yeab (Xyoli.ka 1998). Bur Lhat Ìnay bt duc ür part tÒ

the fâ.t tìratthe im mÌ8r ation polìcies ol thcse lwocoorrrics foans h€àviìyon selecting skilled immiSÌinls, who aÍive @ilh g.câtcr lev€ls of dÌehrnran .nd sociiì capital n.cdcd to nÍcgratc. Pe.haps huìtiflìtuÍali5mpolicies weÌc not neccssaiy lor thcú succcsfúl intcSrãtnÌì, or weÍe eltna poienlial olrstaclc, by rarkúg tberì ôut as 'different' and '.eedv' (l)as

In orderlo ìeslih. iiDpnctof rultirxltuJìisn poli.ics, we would id€allyìilie to lìnd i'natelaÌcxperldÌcnl'ehcr. two scts ofiÒrniSrants fR)m th€siDe co(nlrr wjlh th( ernc backSou.d cip.rièn.es ând skiÌÌs settÌe indlllúcnl placcs, onc of slÌich lìàs strón! muìtnrìtüral'sm poìicles, rheolhürot. Âs it hâppcns,Irene Bkr€mÍaad ha\ studiedsuch a cise: name\',Vicbìâúc\c nndiSrânt\ nì Ibíon and Torcnto ìhere arc vúttúllf norclrvart diftcrcnc€s in the demoSÌaphi. chãÌacteastìcs ol the VictnanìcscnDDiSràrts $lro cnded !p in lo.onto ÍatheÍ than Boíor they arrlvedwith .otÌpâràlrÌc lcveli of educatbn, wort expeÌience, Ìinguagc llLrcn.t,ind so ón. Yet th€ Victnamer€ in lbìo.tu have inteSrnLe.l nuch bcttrr,itd rÌe rxÌe a.tiveìy paÍticipating in (l.nidia! public lilì. Tlrrr. rrc

156

of cousc m Ìy lFsible explanalions lor tlÌis diÍocn.c oLhrr thxn theprcscD.c ol stonger nìú1lÌ.úilúralisoì polìcies (e I labou. nìarkcts, politÌ.al paít st^rclues, etc), but BÌoemraad systematicaìly caiviscs thcscaltelra(ive explanationi, and coDchrdes rhat multiculhiialìsnì policicsweÌe ind€ed a cìu.iaì part ol the stoÌy. lìrete l)oli.iet encou.gcd andelabled (he vlernamese .onì m unity to padciFte ììore q(icklyind rnorceffc.tivcÌynÌnÌainslreamC.nadiadi.íìlutìons. Acco!dinglo!Ìoc tràid,thc samc patt.rn applics lo Porlugúese imnÌigrants loToronto ãnd Bostonas dctl thcy .rrivcd wilb snìilar dcÌno8raphi. .hir.clcrislics, Lrur th€Poíuglesc irnigrants nr'lbronlo bave inteÈrlted betrer dlc irì pârr tôCã.adiad rìúltì.uLlúralisrn (Bloemliad 2002, 200-5, 2006).

This is iúst onc case slrdy, aìd may nor Ecneralize. Ìt obliouny diffcÌs fúfu thc fccliig irÌ inrch oi.ônli.crtal E(rope, rlìcrc it is hidclyhlieved thàt úulti.alhtralisÍì policics have lììlcd, nnd nìlÌiÌ)ired thenúegràtion otnnnÌìgranls. We dould nred lo look.arelúlly at why nrultidltüralis policics sccnì Lô hav. rir.d so dìll.Í..1|t in Europc conÌparcdto lhc New World. l,irr of the diiÍercn.e nìay Ìie i. the cbaracrcrnti.s ot tlrc immigrants (e.9. ihe relitivc baìince of skLìlcd i.d unslillcditrnnigrànts, ôr of lcgil vúsus illcgal nÌnÌjgiiiion), bút nìucÌÌ of ìt li.sin thc Datur. ôÍ thc 'nìultìcúltúalhÌn lhit was adoplcd. As I noted nìchapteÌ 3, nÌrst drigrarts in nrrcpc wÚc nìiLialÌy s.crì .s tcrrporary rc!idents (e s. suert'wôrk.ls, ìe!ÌIxmry asyluÌlscckcrs), ard hdcc Ìhe Í!calÌed'nrultiolturalisni pÒli.ics adoptcd for thcú wc.e üiitidly dcsiSnedú the expectatnln that they and thrú childrer sould rcturn'homellhis is the ofposìte ÒfNêw WoÌld multicülturalirn poli(ìcs, shich Íroììthc starl were .onnected to idear of i.tegÌation and citizenshif whileEúropein expectations ol retum have gradüaÌly been ahândoned, andúrlticlltui.lisnì poìicjes Ìeised accordnrSl, rhe policies

'n place üÌ

lurcp. haÌc ncvcr lully coíesponded wìlh the soÌts oi n llìcultúúljsdìpoli.jes ì. pÌace in th€ Nes worÌd, with their stronge. €nìpha5ls onirÌ(egÌatio. ind cÌtjTenshitre Ì{heÌe the ìattcÍ toft of muÌti.uìturaÌisÌn

{ aÌ €oo'i) vho Ì{Ìnn'ìênd rDlhe íolnìer bv \ e.ìdúí! oo (â) p

ioo$dÌìri.rnì€tâdd(b)promorineâÍnsêorr i.n.l'dcniin Thhgc'nÚlÚ.dtuúlum'poriochl

.Ìúa!s ôn inr$.,h.ic.oopcÍâr

dì, ).r lori.n1d6isô.d Ì. píomo

Mâkinq Sênsê oÍ Liberal Multiculturalisn

póÌices aft i. place, il ippear5 that dìey càr Posiliveìy a5sist in Ìe{ìucúrg

the.ultural, Polilical, andeconomicinequalilics{.cingìmmì8Íant€ihni.

lv.. rhen these Doìicies are $rc.c$fÌrl h reducìng inegnality, th.loftcd sutlìr ftom a nunìb€r ()ffamiliâr Problems. Ior ex amPle, the burca!.rati..atcSories us€d to identify thc bcneficia.iet oÍ multiculhrralirúpoli.iês ârc olÌcn oveÊincÌrrive oÌ undèFnìclrtrile, or refled the l({n ofadrìinistrativt conv.nience rather dìan thc nccds or asPiratìons ol the

int€ndêd bcncli.i.rics. ihcy may ìunìp dispar.tc Sroops into tìre tanÌeIcgãÌ.atcgorl, dcspile tììen diff€rcnt nctds, or pul 5imila. Sro Ps úúoartili.i.lly distìnct caÌegoÍiet':Ì Thcrc is also lhe Probìem that*ithh thc

icL'lrurâlbn Poìni6 ê 1ìânìíúl (210).Tlì[ornriÌÌ i hiÍd.d

'h

pori.rA or rh. iivc c.útttr. lloÍ J

tb{rlnr (on{ansn

n,nlì.lnd Ând ihcÍe ÔbviouJexprâ r!. rôÍ úì.

1Ôcn.ollagcnnigrúbtÔÌú'nì

È inrq nokd iàcú int! ilÌe si$nÌ3 uÌan,:'ioo'modlrde{rRronsÍ,ãrryt,doalNiÌhrldiousdniionJwiihn,dÈèìhn'.DuthPnúìrti.n(c.s. scp.Ìar'innihÌdorr 1Ì Laí Í.Í Pi.tcíânt rnd cainol.f) rhnl

dÈs úc n(ì5 of, eiÌnìiirry ând rnì3uNììúny d6tinúns.!neó. Ìr rÌD( itÌe Ndh.n

nedl a.d rsptàtionsor iÌmisnnr dnzeÚ n' nind (mp]ur rnd hf otleJsn6 úk r[se 'FÍâdoxeí.Í úr.

r thc iÍr.nsth ot i6 urrìturkí.n poli.is ih!ï r!,

p.lici6, Í@üì n' Fh,nìhm (dcrsmd foi tcnpoÍâry Ìíi1rrarr, ârd pilhn?:'ion (d6cncdfoÌ hisoric Ìii!úLen rio ahour thc imnrci of *fngÍruìttxÌbnìiinÌ poh.n., Íd b dc rc.x.qrÌi.r oÌ thc

ìicics dcsignüi tuÌ innìi3Ê.t.rtr

!4Ìiod the lú:ilnìcri úncÌrìÍetation (ft aìs Bà.nng àìd (vml'ck2 2006)

ciÍrdiar pnt,ric porn_) iÍ3uâhly ncsì(t rhc sp(ú.rq ot 'h

bracr(Itcnry lee4; coünri$ion . ìy{ ìrrju{tes$'Ô'n rtrs;(ynúcNi lee3; Hn'Ì an(Ì tn.fsn 201)4 a 8md cxrplc (tr t't h{èr fdtêrì, r.únd nrÍer.tilr io n,d{enôus f6pì.s, . Ì

r58

das of nÍcDdcd benelì.iaÌies, it is oftcn úÌosc who alr.ady have hiShìevels of hunìaD capital that are ÍÍrst iblc to t.ke advanlage ol t|eseberclts, leavaìg fewer ópporturitics for trlly dnidranbged ìÌenrheÍr oÍthe group. These objections hâve Lrecr raiscd, forexioìPle, nr Ìhe.ontextof ailìrma Ìjle achon póli.ics i. both tÌÌe tJÌìiled Stiles atd Canadâ 22

I .all thcse'rãmiljar'I)robÌcrr b.causc lhcy in Íact lppll kr aìì aÌeas

of Ítrixl policÍ Adnìinistrrtive cat.gorics arc always over or lnn€rnÌlusivc, distortcd by the di.tatls oflrurriucratic.onvcnien.c o, trr reiucÍati. in{tie, and putrlìc bene6tr aÍ, alÍays.apt!rtd disprcPortiooitclyby tÌÍÁe Bho are a!eady rvcu-oft This.ppÌics lo poljcìcs targeted at poor

reighlroudÌoods or reljiôns, or àtg.ouPs Ílìring It om 'social ex.lusnÌf,oÌ at pôpulations'at Íi5k'. so(iaì Pôlicics bascd on clas, ag€,8eoder,nei,jhbourÌrtud, region, oÌ family status àr. all vul.únble 1o lhese Ploblems ìhesc ãr. lhe famiÌiaÌ pthoÌogies of pubììc Policy nÌ a libúaldemocract and hlriculturaÌjsnr ú not erenrú iionì thcrn. But llìcrc isdo cvid€n.e that thcse pilhoìogies are gÍeateÌ for útrhiculturalism tha.foÌ orh€Ì tyt).s oi socìai poli{f, and withn! thc ftDits sct bI tlÌcsc li.ììLrarprcbìems, mtrltiúllltralism plì.ie\ have hrd sÕtre tìodcn Ír.ccssc5 nl..ducin8 inteFgroup incq!alìry

wlìat about thesccônd crilerion olsuc.ersl has iÌnnÌi8rarú nrulticultrúãlism iul!ìlled the libcrâl cxpclad.y,8ivúr8 members r)f trtDrity SrouPsÌnorc lrredoDì Ìo nidlìc thc Ìilì lìÌat the individual is able and wishrs

tÒ haec', or has it inst.ad nnprisoncd PeoPLe i. traditionaÌ roÌcs andprã.ticcs, and sÌrenSth€ncd thc hand olcuÌtural traditionalistso. Ì€liSnNstuÍdanÌenlalists who wish lo iimit libenì fÌeedomt? lÌìis too is a hotlydebated issúe, silce it is widcll ãsúnÌcd that ma.y immiSÍant grcups,

partiLa arly non EuÍopêãn irÌtrigrants, b.ing s ìtlì tlìem iì ìibeÍaì Politicalvalues ríd orÌrural pÍa.tiLrs, ãrd will look lor ways to mâjntain theml

ìnclud'n8 t|ÍÌrgiì appeaì to ideas of nrultìctltúralism. Aswith indiSenoup.opÌes, a.d urlike súbsl.le national groups, noú'l,uropcad iü!ìi8ranl5aÌe widely sèen âs standinS outside (r rt least ot tully inlcgúted nÏo)tlÌe lilreral derro.raric cor sensus

TlÌispercettionof ron EuroPeiD iDmi8rant\aspuÌctoillitJcrallalucsand praclices is ofte hiShly cxaggerated. ln fact, the €vid.rce sugg.sts

tÌút.orÌ !!.opean idrtrigrârìs today, il least ür dìe New Worldcôurtrits

r.sori6, bnr th{ ü( n(rú'3r)

n or thc tnmt lirla, Jknnìin'3 !

tvàluatrng Lrb€ral Multiculturalirm

Makihg s€nre oí Liberâl MultÌ(ulturali5m Evâldatin9 Libcral Multi.ulturalitm

oi imnÌigration, exhibit the sanr LJâsic lendency to irlernalize liberal

deFoüatic valLres that .haract.rizcd previous srv.s oI immiSratn froúFurope lrÌ Canada, foÌ exaúplc, there are no stâtislicôlly siSni6.ant diiteren{Ìs rr politìcaì vaìres bctwccn ron Fluropcân imDì8Ìants who liavc

lived in Camdâ 1or a ìonSperiod and native txt. Canadiars of ÌiurôPean

dcscent (Soroka cL al 2007i |ridcrcs 1997) lhereis nÌ lact a lairìy dccP

consensus on huÌnan riShts and libcral demo.Íati. vilÌr.s aüoss eth.icând racjãl lincs (Hosard ìlassman 2003), is the libcrrl cxtìc.l a..y would

HoweÌer, this Ícnd towards conv.rgcnce in Poììticrl lalocs is a l(Ìrg_

tcrm one It do.s t Ìake pÌac€ ovemiSht, and it doesnÌ l.lc plice withouta nrú881e within innigrani.r)Ín unities themteiv.s, ãs tradìlionalist

l€adc6 and/oÌ polìtical r.dicaÌs battlc agàinsl those $Ì'Ò licl lhe Srnvita_tionâi pull oÍ libcràl dcnÌocratic vaìues. This is an a8e'old PhcnonÌenon,lound ìn cvcry wave ol imnÌiSratioD irom €v€ry corícr ol Lh€ 8ìobcThere weÌ€ snDihÌ stlú88t€5 bètwc.n tradÌtionaìists,ljbelals, and radi.ãts

ainongst hnh CathoÌìc immiSrànts to the Ne{ lvrÌld in lhe Djnet€enth

ccnl!ry or anôrsí f2sle.n lìuÍ)pèx. inlnigÍants út thc iirí Palt of the

Tlìc queÍion fôÍ us is ho6 the [ese.c. todaÌ of libeÌal ÍiulticlltuÌaì*rÌ allccls thjs a8e{nd dynanic. Do€s tlìc.vailabìliry of nìrlticúlturalist

Progr.mnÌes and úìstìtuliortr som€how strcnSìhen rìre h3n(ì oftridiliônalists or radjcal\ optÒscd lo libeÍil vahcs, ãnd slow down the Proccs otinorporaling imnìi8rdnb nÍo a Iiberaì denìoc.atìccons€n5us? Or docs il5tÌengthen the grãvitational Pull olliberal denÌocractT

w€ can.xp..t thatthè diffcrcnt liclion5 withnì nnni&ant 8Íoups willcompete to corlrol the institÌìtiÔns and PÌo8rìdncs csliblished under

nÌulticultüralisn poljcÌes. ^nd

tlìir r.iscs lhe Potèntial thit lhe inhastructuÌe of libcral múlti.utturalisxì will be ca|turcd ard nnused lor ìÌliberal

or undenìocÌatic purPses. Bclorc ex.mining whcÌlÌtr thn has h frctiaten plac, howeveÌ, ìt's itrportanl to .enìembcr that this PÍobl€trÌ is

not unÍìue to Ìnolticulturrlivn. It is a syÍemn l).Ôbletì lhat.rÌset Lonìthevert nru.turc ol ÌÌbeÌaì denncràcy. Iiberal d€no. .y Sives the vote

1o Commünists who want to abolish P.rliimentâry dcÌnoftacy, iust a\

il gives lÍ-"e spec.lì 10 those $ÌnÌ soul.l retuse fÌe€ spcc.h to otheÌs

SÌnÌjlaÍl!, policics irnended to enhan.c locit demo( ra.y ar.always Írbie.tto llìe rúk that thcy will be caPtuÌed by illiberaì fo.ces who wish lo ÍÌlprcss the fÌeedod oi othert. (ìn\idêÌ tht say ihat bcal hosPilal bo.rds

and scb@Ì boards nr Nortb am€icâ hrv. b€en câPtüed by Chrnlja..o.seNatives sÌìo sish to stoP ahortidì or scx e.lucahon

This 'paradox' has b€en a w€ll known leôlúrc o{ lilJcr.Ì dcm..ratìclhcory..d practicc snrce its oÍi8ins in the seventecnth c.ntuÌy.

^\ a

rcsult, thcrc ìs a lo g hiÍort ofdiscu\sú. about how lo pr.rc.t illiberâiand únd.ÌrdÌati. forccs frod abusÍìB the Ìi8hts and poRcrs tlÌãt libehld.úo.râ.1 rxtedds. Th. solÌÌhon, in all oÍ th€se c.ses, is a conìbúìâtionof (a) .ivi. edu.àtiüì and lDlitical socializationi lo lÌc]p dev€lot an.lsürtain a btuadeÍ pìiticaì (:uÌtxre or human Ìights and civil ri8hts lrb€ralirm; (b) mechanirms for idcntiÍtinE ârd p!bliciznÌg â.tual or potentiâl ilJuscs nr.ludütg free.ìoÌn of spee.h; ÍÌeedonÌ oi thc prcss; fÌecdomof iÍìfdmatbn tìolì.iesj and .epoitjng, cons(ltalion, and accountahiìityÍ€qxÍemen$ so as to hÌin8 issues inlo lhe colrl oi publi. opúi{m, an.lto €xpose and marginali?€ iÌìiberal Ìenilencies, and 1c) lc8al ard .onstitutional sâfeguaÍds that empoweÌ ihc slale to prcÍert or reÌnedt dìeserbuses. lhese are the sorts oÍ slralegies úscd in aÌl W.stern denìocÍa.iesto Srapple with tbe probÌcm ol lhe illiberal and lndenìocÌati. abuse ollibèral-dedrcrati. rìghts, rrìd úey appìy as Í€Ìl Ìo th€ ca5c oI xruÌti.ul

,\Ìe thete itraÌegies woÌting? I believe rlÌcy irc. Thc dcvckÌrment oia hüman rights (uìhre, comlrjned wilh Íobrí úcchrrirüs oÍ publc€xl)oqrre lnd Ìe8al safegua.ds, hivc eDÍÍcd uÌat thc interpÌ€tation ifdinplementation of immjgrant múltic(llúr.lisrì poìi.it5 ÍemaÌn wilhloÌìbefa1 chinneh.rr 'rhis is iÍúe boÌh al thc lcvcl of formal Ìc8isìation, ind.t the leÌel ol everyday polìry inÌplcnìc.tatiod.

llw.look lì61 .( Iorn.l ìiws ard ft8üãtnnìs, it is dear tlÌat mulliclltú.lisnì Polici.s arc .odDittcd to upholdúr8 Iiberal value5 lnnrigra.tünÌlrianlturalisrì policicsâÌc nìt.ndcd to cxpand ratheÍ thin resirid nÌdividtrâÌ choice: tlì.y rcducc th. costs or stigmar iìdjvidaah pr.vìounyfaced in erpÍessin8 rhcìr €thric identjry but do not pÌovidc any 1.8ìlnrìndate or I.8.1jÌòtifr.ntioÌ! for abndSjng or vi.nafing indivì<luilriEh15.

!r âlô{09 r.riri.ú 'l,iinrior oJ

n rn cbnÌt!.Í r[n s.nìc .ons.'!àLiÌc ^lunnÌr

ouStrr!9ì Á nÍâriod Á.r 1ô cmal. tÍddeidÊd ìn píp.râr in úì. mú

o1Íedom rn.l cquârny m mpdnr rr. .v!4 r sh.urd r'ìthaú! iÌìrrh .faled l+aÌ 5l)âú Ío! trivd.

10 illihtnr oprtrc lKv rlnk'20{sd).

:.)

j

il

t6l

Makinq Sútêof Liberal Mulli.ulruralkm

No.o ntÍt for c{ampìe, har Prolid.d immigrântgroúps with an.r.nìPti(Ìr fÌoni l.ws that prohibit lolccd maÍiagcs, Iemaìe dnoidcctorìies,honour-kilhÌgs, or the use of vìolcnl lorms ofdisciPline against .hildren,r " rl'rrt r lroq rrd l r'd iL rr P'di lre n SÌ b

]f we loon it the realitics on th€ 8Íour.l, however, we kdow ürat

ììlib€raÌ prâcliccs do.ontúìue ni sooÌe ìmmiSrant lamilie5 (as thcy do i'sonìe non id!ìigr.nt familiet, ohc. with the tr.it knohledSe of other

nìeììbeÌs of thc .omdNniry ^rd

wc kno$ thdi thc slaLf his somctiÌncs

pÍiJven unàblc o1 unniÌìin! to dctcnrl vuln€rablc individuaì\ ÍronL thcsc

vi.nrti{Ììs ol thci. rightr and frccdoDÌs. lndeed, tr virlually aìì Wêstcrr

denD.raci$, Ìhcre hare Ìre.D hiSh pioileQs.rwhÚe rh e itate hâr húned

a blind ey. to tbe oistÍeatrr$t oi itÌdir(luâh withirÌ some in'ni8rânL

Sroups, iSnornÌg reporh oÍ abusc, or rellsing to núútcne and/d Prosc_

Criti.s often asÍ'rìe that mulftultuiilism ú soúchôw lcsponsibìe forthese failurcs. lut.s I iüÍ nìentioncd, câses of rtatc iiìiute to Protcclindividuals fron lìim at the hands ol their.o'cthni.s iìave been found

in all westen dcnìo.racics, whetÌÌer ôr nol they hãvc lnrllicuÌhral'rmpoli.i€s I his problcm hns been observcd in coúntries that have strongìv

embra.ed mL ti.uìtúalism, such a\ Câ.ada (azmi 1999; ktnìe 1999)

io countde5 that arc úodelat€ Ìn thêir corÌmitmentto trìulticulturilisr,su.h ns Brúain or tlìc Nciherlnndt (ì'hilliPs.nd l)ustin 2004; Prins aldSàharso 2006), in cou.hjcswith only weak úullicuìt!Íaìiim polìcics, nrch

âs Noí{ay 0vikan 2002), and irÌ countÌies thâl ile .esolutely óPposcd lonulticolturaÌisìÌ, such as FraDce (l)embôuÍ 20Oi).

Under these .irotrta.ccs, disentangling tlÌe imPact (Í ÍnultidlturiìisrÌ policies h noteasy. Do rnúllic!ìturaÌisnÌ polìcicswoúen the ProbìcnÌ,cithe. by cncouÌa8ing nnmiSrants to maintrin rhcir 'tr.diú)ní èven

shú urcy aie illiberal, ortìy dis.olraging stâtc ôfiicials {rom intervènúgin tbe nanÌc of lesl)ed f(r divcdit/ and tol(ancc'? Or do mültiLalturahÌn poÌicles rcduce the ProblcnÌ, eith€Ì by str.ngllìerÌin8 the Srav_itatbnãl prll ol libernì deÌn{rra.t or by PÌovìdürg strlc oúciah withmoÍe infonncd and elÍectÌve SunlehÌcs lor reco$ni7üt8 a.d rcspordinglo potential prolJlcms?

Âs always, wcàrc lìatìpercd Lry thealdost comPlete absoncc ol aDy sys

temâticstudi.s ol0Ìc issue ìt is .lear thâ t trltticulturaliú PoÌicics in lhew€5t do notfotrnally or pubìicll útìdorc illibeÍaì Practi.cs, ard tìÌat any

a ttemlts by trãditionalists to use the ofiicial ruìe5 and instìtutntr ol nNlliculturaìisnì to 8anÌ públic acceptan.È ot ilLibenl lÍactices hàvc lailcdwe Gn inìa8ií. scenfuìos undeÌ {hich lradiÌionaìists withnì varìous

Evalúâting tibcÍrl Multi.ultu.âliim

rmnìiSrant gro(ps nright rÌy t() .afrtire control ovrr thc inh2stllclur oIof6cjal mullì.ulturalisfi in ordcÌ t. delend thcse practi.cs. Íor eraorplc,one co!ld inragiÌìc úÌil lraditioralists f.onì certaln Eâst African nìnìi8r.nLgr.ups sitling on hospital advisoÍv boards Diglìt dcniâod that iìnìatc{enital m!1ìlatìon bc pÚÌnittcd nÌ dìe hospilal, or thàt tÌadÍiooalìslsfroo Sootlì Asian groups sittnÌ8 on police advúoÌyLroa.ds mighr dcmnrdÌhiÌ tlÌ. policc nôt ú\.stì8ate or prosecrÌc cas.s of family violcncc àrdÍorc.rl nraÍiagcs, or that tÌadit(rnilists lÌorì tlìc Middl€ LãÍ sitLing oneducation advisory borr.ls rniSht demand rhal thc s(Ìrools teach studc.tsto condonc hoDou.kilÌiDgs. However, if s!ch attenìpts have beeo rìadc,Lhey havr bec. rntiruly urìsuccesslLri. So ifu as I ãnì aware, no ag...tLroard, Òr trôgÌãmme êstablished or lundcd uí.Ie. ÌnlrlricuÌruralisnì pôli-.ics i! any Westem democrary |as endots.d a.y ol these practi.cs ra lltrãditnrìaìish hoFd to Sain contÌol ôv.r tlìe ìn\titutiors and hurdinSprogÌânÌnes ceated undeÌ rìuÌÌi.(llrn]nrÌ ltlì.ie5, drey lÌôvc more orle$ cnúcly failc.i.

^rd this is $hatone Íolld cxpcct givcn the irlen(ionJ

ol thc poli.). ^s

we saw in Cnapt€r 4, lhc philosophy underlyiig th.poliq i. a phiìosophyol ìruman ÌighÌs and.ivil rìghts liberiìisnÌ, ã.d thepolic_\'is o.l) intended to sripporl oryanìzrtnÌìs and actÌvilics Rhich niììadvance thit agerda.75

Ìndeed, innÌigrant grolps arc âwarc that any attenÌpts to Bãnì tubljcsanction IoÌ illibcÍal pracriccs ãr€ doonìed to lìÌluÍc ror €xaÌnple, DoSouth Asiin cthnic lcadcrs h lrìtain have asked that lorc.d a an6edmfuriaScs bc Ìc8ally r.cogrizrd (l,hilìips aDd DlstirÌ200,1), rnd no leadesot thc rclcvãnt n! ìigÌì t 8rÌrts in Canida h.vc askcd thar cÌtoridccto ies tì. lè8àlìy prrnìitted (Gov€rnnÌent ol Ca dada 1 995, Oì t tì(ì 1996).It ú trndeBtd)d and a..:efted that inrnÌigrint úulticuÌrüralisìÌ, is i govenìnent poìi., opeÍates withiD thc lrarì.lvork dfthe libeÍil dcmocrâti.cÕnstitutnrial oÍÌeÌi and there is no rcaihtic prospèct {)f Sainiog prblicrcccPtan.È for illibeÌal pÌa.tnq

Th€re Ìi, howeveÌ, a more ìndircct worry ãbout rhe ünpa.t ofmuìticultuÌaÌism nanÌeÌt tlÌal tlìc'c0ìof cÍeated by nìulu.(ltorálìsÍìwill paraÌyse lhe íate of1ìcials who are chaÍ8ed with tro!Ìothg liberãÌvalues and upholding iidividual ri8hti. 1he teachers, doctôs, k)cìal

hÀ!.orcrtrdd iÌ,.n Ìhe re$i ivc fr r{.udr ts eúìd,(r:,n iì1r 2üì.r: 13), and dra'iodìnì3 n' BÍibnÌ r ÍNìülrìhtrilín poìi.i6 .ondon.d rhne íâ rÈr.

15 Thri hclps cx|lai. úLcnÍrdknoÍ núrtured th. dNclo0ncnl oÍ l

i' ihc untrcd sral6 (BlocnÍrâd 1rÌt

...1

Màkinq Sens€ of tiberal Multi(lturalism

servi.e ptuvideÌs, {:hild w€llaÌe onìcìah, tDÌice, and prosec!lors who are.ollronlcd with cvidcd.c ofillibcral practices may türn a blind eye, rarher(han risk bcnrg â..used ofbeing ethno.enticor labelled a ncnt. Multi.uÌluraÌistu poÌicics drây ìíix. that the ãc.ommodahon of div€.sity operate5withb libcral-deúo.ràtic.o.straints, but the effect of the5e policjes o!lhc 8rôu íl úay b. to en.ourâ8e ãn uncriticãì cültuaì reÌitìvism, inwhi.h Pül)ÌÌ. of6ciaìs pÍesurÌ e dìa lìey íÌouìdr't ìfferf€ r e wì lh a group's

'eÌtuÍe' oÍ 'traditions' (Wikan 2002)A. alt Íìativc vicu however, it that rìre best r?Í to 5úppoiÌ plbli.

ofh.iâls.hárg.dwith I)Írnoting ìibenlvahres and upìroÌdnr8ìrÌdìvidoaÌrìglìts is pr(iscly by providintj them with cìeaÍ SunlelÌnes developed incoopcration wìtb mìnoÍity llÍruts theDselves, as part ofa l ger proces olhulti.arÌtural consültations and refornÌs. Perhaps il is whire thìs proccss

ofmuìti.ultDral refoÍm har nol taken place tlìat dembÚs olcthDic groúpsar€ least li keìy to .oorr ate with 5lalc ofnciah, and wlìÚc statc ofhcials ar.nìost paralys€d Ìry feaA of &Ìin8 nrappropriitel)

So far as Ì know, no one has sFtematic2ll_v íldied lhcsc altcúÌãtch).pthe\er âbout the elfects oi nnrlìicútruralism on rhc pcdisrÈdce ofiììiberal values and pFc(ices, or thc williÍgncs of vuhcrablc ncrnlreBof immiSrant 8!oúps 1o seekprclc.tior from the state, ôr the willinSn€ssof 5tate oficìals to providc that prot€.tion.'Ihc litrle evidene we doh.ve, cxanÌirÌnÌg thc rcsporiscs tìy do.toÌr and Í{ial wo.ke6 to case5 ofcÌriìd .bose or spouel ibrsc in seveÌaÌ Westem LounÍies, ruSSests thatthe Prcscr.c o. abscncc oioficial muìhcuìtuÍaìitm policies may actu.llynake lìttle dillcrcnce onc riyorthèotheÍ in teÍmt of of6ciak' willingnesslo inlcNcne (Púri 2005; Willianìs and Soydan 2005) lh€Ìe h certaìnltno cvid.ncc llìat thc prcscÌrce ofoiìciaÌ muÌticuìtuÌalism poÌicies niakcs

Thc rcality is that aÌì Wcstern states are strlgglirÌg with thc issu. ofhov b.st to deal wìth dìe chaììenge of prot€cting elnerablc ÌnenÌbcsof nnrnigrant .onnnunities Countdes are expeii!ÌenúÌg with a range ofappÌoa.hes, involving various combirÌâtions ol .dúca tion ãnd deterren.e,.bsed-door consuÌtations aDd high prôfrle public cadpâigns and prose-

cutionr 'lheÍe aÌe no easy answcd to thèse.oúplex pÍnnenÌs, but it ìs

.lear that multicuÌru.alisnÌ ìs ncith.r the cause Òf thesc p(ülemr, whichexìst in counfuieswitho!l DÌulti.ülturalism policies, no. a mira.l..uF lor

ln this respect üc qúcstion Òf how to deal with iìliberal cuìtunl traditiorr ìs sìnÌilar (o thc qu.stnrÌ of how to deaÌ sith poììtical radicaìism within imnÌigrant coÍhurities. Some cntn:s have saìd tlÌât dre

Evaluãtin9 Liberal Molli.uhuratirm

existencc of 'home-ljrown' l Úrorist elìs i. courtries wilh Írulti.utluÍil-istì Ìnti.ies shows tlÌrt these policics have tìilcd to serye ihc goals otlibeÌal demo.rati( citizenizariorÌ. Ìut of.outre honìe*Ìown rerrcrxr cellshavc been Ìdcdtih.d in a sidc rargc of westcd .ount esi sonìe $,ìrhstronS ìn!11ì.últúralism policics (Câ.ada, A(íialia), Írnìe with mo.resttÌulticültlrâlisdì poìicies (Unitcd Stares, Unìred Kingdom), some witìrweãk nr!lli.uhrralism t)olicics (CÈrmâny, Spanr, and som. id.oìogicalyofposed lo nuìti{lturalislr (IÍaDce) Iliere h.ô evidencc thdr mullior!turalìsnr policics c.xa.enraÈ lhis problenì, .lrh ough nor do rhry Buaranlccthât the pioblcÌn won't aÌise.

Cases ol illilJcÍal eltural lúditions ând politiraÌ ndicalistrÌ wirhì!immi8rant Laxnunties caplLf. rhe headtir$, for nììdelsrandabìe rcasoDs,sirìcc they.halleDse tlÌcdostbasjclrlrìan rights prnrciplesoÍWcÍern soclctiès. But th€se pÌotrlcn* shouldn't bliidu5 ro rhc broàdeÍ Ícnds.Wilhnr tlÌe tÍadiiion.l coú.tricsof immigrarion, the tihcral Èxpectancy isstilì hoìdiig nrinmigrants, as thè gÍavitational pull of tÌberal.lcÌnoclacyope.alcs over tinìe. l,ocÌ<cts of illiberal traditionaìisnÌ and ndicalisrjexist nÌ all W€stern dcnìocracier, bul lÌìcre s no evidcn.e tbaÌ ÌnulliorlturaÌnm policies cxac.rbate rhis prob[m, and sorìc .vidence ttutmrlticülturaìisnì Ìnay nÌ fa.r ol)erale ro strcngthen lhe gravirational pulÌôi liÌreral demeratic nrtitutbns, Iry cn.óuraging and e.abliog nrmigrant\ io pirticipãt. núre.omÍortâbly and more eúc.tively wil h üj them.

It should bc clèaÍ, I ho|'e, that wccinnot5iopl)r dcclare multÌcútturaÌismto be cith.r a 'succesí or a 'lìiÌure' in rhe wcst.rn demoüacies. For oncthin& wc la.k the sysrenìati. cvidcnce thil woüld xuow ús to distinguiehthe specúc effects ol multìcúlturalirm policics frcm other tì.to4 tlìaliníuen.. the staius oi e{ÌÌnic nÌnÌoÌtìes. And even

'Í we had that evi

dcdcc, it i\ unlikcly that it wouìd add !p to a si!8ìe ov.Ìall judgemcnlôf str.ftss or laÌlúr.. Ther. are nanv difÍcrcnr types of ÍrultiaìrúralisÌÌ!,rÌi.ies, aDd ma.y diffêrenr cdreria lor cvatuating thcdr, ând tÌìe trà.krccord in.ludes both suc.erses and disJppoinrnìerts.

ÌlavÌn8 said that, we have enough.Ìp€i€n.e s,ilh ruÌricutturalisn inpra.tice to draw somc prcvúional coD.lusions, .nd dispet sonÌc cômnún misirÍcrpretârions. Fúst, ud host imporlandt {e havc stnnScvidence lhat libcraÌ muìticuìtriralìsnì n.ÌÌÌsisr€nl with the pici!.rtbnand domeÍicàtion of edÌn j. poliliÕ. Where ìiberal rÌuÌtnuìtumtisdr is in

165

Maling 5en5e ôf Libêral Multì.ulturalism tvaluating LiberaÍ Mulli.uku.atkm

trlacc nr the WeÍ, ethnic politic! hai be(rnc noÍnìal' PolitÌcs, oPeìatnrswithnr pc..elirl and legal .hannels, i. a wãy uìat docsn'l threaren ornìpin ihc basic Íun.Ìjoning of the statei ú tcrtr ol pe.ce, tr!\PeÍittthe ruI. ôf law or iemocmii. stabiìitt This by itscLl can bc seen ar

a najor ic.odìplishnìenl, Sjven the way that ètlÌric politics ii manyprrts of ttÌ€ Nôrld has dcíabìlized ind torn apan Íàtcs, and iilÌibi(eddemmntizahor ând dc{lopmcnl. As I saidearli€r, this fâ.t alo.c No!ldex!Ìain wlÌy e úrany IOs hive expressed ân int€Ìest i. diilusing modehof ìibeÍal nÌulticultualis.i.

Second, and motu t..tàtivcÌy, wc have sonìe evnhnce that libèràl úú1tì.uìturalism i5 not ìusi conìpatiblc wjlh the b.sic tu.dionnrs of à liberaldenÌdratjc staÌe, but achãlly trclF tô dccpe! lìberaÌizatbn and dedo.ratizatìon. lt can .halì€ng€ inherit.d .thnic and raciaì hierarchies, andrcdúcc cúlLúral stisìnrtization, poìitical nìârÂinalizàLioD, and e.onomicdisadvantases.

^n.ì it.ar.lÒ tlÌis li a My tlìit enhances theÕPporruritics

for efÍective democrxti. pr.ticipation and ìndivìrìual chon:e fú nÌ.dbcrs

Itt important not ro oveótate rhis poidi. Thc cvidence for the5e b€n-cfrts is limiled, a.d tlÌe ob5ened benefitt àrc oftcn nìodesl. ln many.àscs, si8.iÉcant inequ.liti€s remajni as one would capcct 8i{cn rhe loDS

duration of cth.ic and ra(iãl tÌleEr.hies in the Wcst, a.d how deplythey havè btcorÌc cntrenchcd ìÌÌ soci€ry even after expli.itly racialhiideoìogies ar€ offr.ially disavowcd. These i neqüãì iti es .ar't tìe revarscd byl€gúlative 6at ovcÍright, andrntrch rcrì.ins lo be done t{r extend equaÌitytoallcitizens. Similarl, tmlticultÌúalism has Dot Proü(led a Ìnúacìe cur€

ior the challenSes raited by illil)eral traditions o1 Poìiticai ÍadiclitmÌvÍorcovcr there ú noguaÌantce that tho infrrstructure olm!lti.ulturalismwill .ol tre €ftú€d by illìberaÌ foÌces intlnt on ú!ili.8.ivil liberties.nd lndlvidual autonomy, or on.reating..w iornb oI hier.rchy and

Thc best we caD say, thereÍore, is that the tre d towaÌds ntullicallúraln has, id at lcií sorÌe cases, achieve(l some pÒsitivc cÍc.ts, crhibiringúe saüe pattcns oI Òodesl ichi€vements that dìãrâ.terize most arcas

of social polict súLrjcct to tiìe sa nìe tetrdencÌes of Ix itical narÌrulrtio.and buÌcau.rdtic ossiicilion. Thh is hardly Srounds for .omPlãccncyoÌ .eìebràtion, bút it is Sroonds lò1 cautious optim'vÌì, aDd there is no

Ercund for thinlìj.8 that túrrhÚ progre$ Ìeq! ires abolislì ins oÍ reÍèatnìgfÌon the soÌts ôf rulìidrlturalisnÌ policjcs cuÌrently ìn pìace Whetherwe are Ì@king at ladÍjua8c Ìights àr.l regional autonody for substâte

n.(ional groupr, land danns and sclf-govenxncnt riSlìls tor indigrnous

,i.

pcopks, oÍ multi nntuía I accomrìodations ior ì Ìn mi8Ìant 8Ìoü ps, we reedto build o. these [,oli.i€s, (!pdatüig, cxtendinS and lipplcrìcntnrg themsith turtjìer poÌi.ies thât addr.ss thc rcrìrinÍìg foÌnì5 ol nÌequatir', andthat pÍ{)vüe safeSuirds aginÌst ìllibcraÌ pÍessures

ìhere is obviolslt ìnrch rìor.' that .ouÌ.1 be sâld ibort thr eff(t\ olmulticulturaLÌsm nr pÌacticc, .n.ì nxÍe armchair spccrhrions thar .eellto he Ìeslci Sonìc of thcJc claúns about the (psilllc or ne8ativ€) efÍ.clsof multiculn{alhnr arc \Ìry difn.ult to m€asure, iod tlìcrc is larSe rcomfoÌ re.son.blc dhagrccnìcnt ni the absence of r€liablc cvidLrc..

HowevÚ, Ior the purposes ()f this book, the Lct ponrt is tìrat varìo(sac(orsnrlhcnÌt.rrrtionàlcomnrunil)'l]cl,.r'tlìatÌibcrìlnÌul:uìr!ralisriis a su.c.ss h pra.ti.e.

^i any rate, Ìt is $idrly bcìi.ved dìãr rher. arc

scvcràl €xanplcs of multicuÌÌ!ral 'bcst practi.cs' nÌ relaÌion to idnì-Srants, nationâÌ minoÌìti€s, ând indigc.ouJ peopl€s that hav. nìanrg.dto Ìeconcilc llìc acconnnodatio. of €thDocuì(rral diverity with peace,derìocracy, hunú. .ights, and pÌo5lerlry this optnDisti. view may notbc fÌ ly.onhrhed by th€ avaiìable €viri.ncc, btri nôr is it conrradicl.d b!tliet eviden.e It is a Ìeasonible inlerpr.tatior ofthê tlestem expúicnc.lrnd helpstoexplain thee,lòrts to globalizc IibeÌaì multicullulalis!ì whiclìwe will discuss in l'art lU.