SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu,
Assessment report
May 2013
1. Introduction
SIF has been operating in Ijara district, Garissa county since 2012. As the organization intends to
expand its operations and in order to address the issues that are relevant to people’s livelihoods,
there was need to conduct an assessment that would provide information for proposal development
and lay baseline for future programs.
SIF then carried out a field assessment between the 22nd of April and the 8th of May 2013 in Ijara
district, south of Garissa County, Tana River and Tana Delta districts of Tana River County and Lamu
County.
The general objective of the assessment was to get a comprehensive understanding of the local
development dynamics, challenges and perspectives in the sub region in order to propose relevant
programs towards livelihoods resilience building and livelihoods diversification as well as natural
resources management and disaster risk reduction. A specific objective was to assess the WASH
situation specifically in order to propose WASH programming.
This report presents in a first part, the findings of the assessment and in a second part,
recommendations and potential programmatic areas in which SIF could involve itself.
2. Context
This south-east part of Kenya comprising the south of Garissa
county, Tana River County and Lamu county is classified in the
Arid Lands of Kenya (except for Lamu) but has not received much
donor attention compared to other parts such as Turkana,
Marsabit, Wajir and the overused term of Mandera triangle yet,
the issues at stake are the same: recurrent droughts within the
overall climate change context, the survival of the pastoralist
livelihood in the context of increased human and livestock
demographic pressure and environmental degradation; access to
safe drinking water and basic sanitation in the settlements. Ijara
district finds itself furthermore marginalized for being far from its
regional administrative centre Garissa, and for bordering Somalia
where on the other side we find Al-Shabaab’s stronghold, theatre
of the Kenya forces military operations.
Fig.1 Arid and Semi arid lands of Kenya
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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To these general issues we can add more specific ones to this sub region such as floods along Tana
River causing temporal displacement of people and damages to infrastructures more or less on a
yearly basis; conflicts between communities from different ethnic backgrounds leading at times -
most often during electoral periods - to deadly clashes such as the ones which happened in Tana
Delta between late 2012 and early 2013; the economic development of Tana Delta through large
scale commercial irrigation and the future implementation of Lamu port. This last issue may change
greatly the physical, economic and social landscape in the region for the next decade.
3. Approach and methodology
The team was composed of the program coordinator for Kenya/Somalia, the program manager for
Ijara, one food security enumerator and one hygiene
promoter. The approach for the assessment has been
more of qualitative information collection rather than
quantitative data collection in order to get an holistic
understanding of the context, challenges and issues at
stakes whether at the district level whether at the
community level. Guidelines had been elaborated
prior to the assessment in order to have a checklist of
the information to be collected.
Focus group discussions have been conducted at
community level1. Key Informant Interviews have also
been conducted 2 among GoK and humanitarian
stakeholders as well as community stakeholders or
simple community members. Ad hoc site visits were
also made 3 . Three market surveys have been
conducted in Hola, Garsen and Masalani and 10 HH
have been interviewed in order to get data on source
of income, debts and expenditures patterns as well as
hygiene and sanitation practices. Fig. 2 Garsen regional livestock market place
1 Kilelengwani, Tana Delta with agropastoralist Orma Community; Boni Junction, Ijara with Farmers/Hunters &
Gatherers Boni community; Hulugho, Ijara with pastoralist Abdallah community 2 District Commissioner of Tana Delta; District Agricultural Officer Tana Delta; Kenya Red Cross Society (KRCS)
Tana Delta Officer; Lamu Drought Management Officer (DMO); County Secretary for Lamu; Former chief of Koreni, Lamu - Abdallah community; Businessman in Koreni; Wasanya Elder, Koreni, Lamu; Kamba farmer in Koreni; Secours Islamique France (SIF) Hygiene promoter in Masalani Ijara; Pastoralists in Rahma, Ijara; Farmer in Kilindini, Tana River Farming Pokomo community; German Agro Action (GAA) Program manager, Hola, Tana Delta; Tana River County DMO; Chief of Wachu location and assistant chiefs of Kurawa and Oda sublocations, Chief of Hubbi location, Hulugho division; Elder from Ilkambere location, Hulugho division; Elder from Sarira location Hulugho division 3 Garsen, Masalani and Hola Market places; Kilelengwani and Charra destroyed houses; Farming Self help
Group in Hola producing fodder supported by VetAid ; flooded farms on Tana River, Kipendi, Wenje; Boni farms in Boni Junction, Ijara.
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4. Findings
A. Arid Lands of Tana River and Ijara the emptied spaces
vs Tana Delta and Lamu the attraction pole
The pastoral areas of Tana River and Ijara dry lands have become more and more unreliable for
livestock keeping. This is mainly due to the slow but surely depletion of its rangelands caused by a
combination of factors such as erratic rainfalls patterns in one hand and overgrazing livestock
population in the other hand. The livestock populations of Tana River and Ijara have been depending
on Tana Delta and Lamu wet rangelands respectively during the dry season and this dependency has
been increasing over the time. As by now, for example, the herds from Ijara are spending more time
in Lamu, counting for 8 months of the year, than in Ijara with 4 months of the year spent there only.
Jan Feb March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct Nov. Dec.
Lamu Ijara Lamu
Fig. 3 Somalis Abdallah’s Livestock migration seasonal calendar
Tana Delta and Lamu have seen their population increasing and more land been put into use with
new settlements of small scale farming from expanding local communities (Bajunis, Swahilis), other
farmers communities in kenya (Kikuyus, Luos, Kambas) or pastoralists communities (Ormas,
Abdallahs) settling down there permanently. The Commercial farming in Tana Delta with TARDA4
irrigated rice schemes5 has also put large portions of formerly grazing land into use. Even if further
development of Tana Delta with implementation of Jatropha plantations for biofuel and sugarcane
plantations is yet to happen as the project is at a pilot stage, large portions of land have been
allocated and have therefore reduced the access to land so, the traditional grazing land has shrunk.
In Lamu also, grazing areas are being demarcated, fenced and claimed as private ranches more or
less legally in the context of the prospect of the development of Lamu port. The future Lamu port
represents a huge force of attraction and the human migration to Lamu is already a phenomenon
putting the county under pressure as “everyone coming in needs a piece of land” to settle on and/or
to cultivate. According to the Drought Management Officer of Lamu, the development of Lamu, if no
proper planning of Lamu port is done, will be more of a threat than an opportunity: it will become
unsustainable.
As the arid lands of Tana River and Ijara can hardly support its livestock population and the
traditional dry season grazing areas of Tana Delta and Lamu are shrinking over time, the pressure felt
in Tana River and Ijara by its own livestock and livestock from the North of Garissa County is being
transferred as a ripple effect down southwards to Lamu and Tana Delta. This has resulted into a
drastic reduction of nomadic movements in terms of geographical scope and led into pastoralists
versus farmers conflicts. The main cause of conflict is land occupation and access to resources –water
and pasture- but this has also been instrumentalized in Tana Delta by local political leaders who, in
order to win elections planned to wipe out communities other than theirs during election time to
4 Tana & Athi River Development Authority is a parastatal institution.
5 2000 Ha of irrigated rice scheme
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ensure that their voter’s base remains the most numerous to propel them to victory. Interviewed
persons reported that “people fight everyday: livestock tramples on the farms and animals are being
slashed”. However, in Lamu and Ijara, this kind of incidents are still under control as mechanisms are
in place to prevent and solve the conflicts: young herders are being instructed by elders not to bring
animals near the farms; when an incident happens, compensation follows; in Koreni, Lamu where
several communities live together, elders from different communities happen to meet at their own
initiative as a committee to discuss the problems in the area.
The conflict issue is not limited to pastoralists versus farmers. Wildlife vs farmers is another recurrent
issue in Tana Delta and Lamu. In Tana River arid lands, the pastoralists Ormas and Wardeis cannot
cross to Garissa county for grazing as a consequence of a past conflict between them and Somalis in
the 60’s but Somali livestock can migrate into Tana river Grazing land during adverse conditions .
Therefore the livestock’s movements of Tana River county are limited to a small region with little
exchange with other regions.
The neighboring war torn Somalia is also affecting the security along the border with consequences
on livelihoods and trade: livestock movements across the border to Santaro, in lower Juba, are
limited to times of drought as pastoralists are being heavily taxed (1 head for 30 animals) by Al
Shabaabs for Jihad and Zakat; movements of persons are also limited as they can be mistaken for
parties involved in the conflict; rainfed farming has become extinct, clearing of farms has stopped as
burning of stumps and bushes called the attention of KDF6 and led to air strikes according to
interviewed persons, farms have since then been invaded by bush; hunting & gathering is a highly
suspicious activity; traders have left the area as the conditions did not allow business to prosper, the
livestock market closed down in 1992. Therefore the local economy has been brought down: in
Hulugho, Ijara district there is only one truck for the whole town7 and the economy is not able to
create employment. According to elders in Hulugho, since 1992, the town has suffered banditry
attacks more than 10 times; since 2004, about 30% of the town population has migrated to Dadaab
refugee camp and since 2008, the informal trade between Kenya and Somalia has been totally halted
due to the presence of Kenyan Forces. Today, about 85% of the population relies on food aid which
was last received 7 months ago.
The insecurity in Somalia has also affected the fishermen of Lamu, because of fishing restrictions due
to insecurity in Somali waters. Kenyan fishermen are idle while Somali fishermen are active and
Kenyan traders buy fish in Kiunga from the last ones based in Raskamboni.
Lastly, the indigenous minority and marginallized people of Lamu wetlands and Ijara coastal forest,
the Wasanyas and Boni traditionally hunters & gatherers may be the communities most affected by
the changes in the region. The Wetlands and Boni forest are shrinking, with consequently less
wildlife; moreover hunting became illegal and controlled by the (KWS) Kenyan Wildlife Services. As
hunting & gathering becomes an obsolete livelihood, they are trying to adopt other livelihoods such
as farming and livestock keeping without much success so far. According to Lamu DMO, “they will
become extinct if not given special attention; they need to know their rights and they need special
protection”.
6 Kenya Defense Forces
7 Approximately 1200 HH in town, 4000 HH in the location
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CLIMATE CHANGE + Livestock owned by pastoralists from Ijara spends more time of the year in Lamu coastal rangelands than Ijara arid lands: 8 months in Lamu 4 months in Ijara
DEMOGRAPHIC PRESSURE
+ DEVELOPMENT OF LAMU PORT Risk of unsustainable development:
more threats than opportunities
The development of Lamu port coupled with demographic pressure
is affecting the ecosystem accelerating the effects of
climate change
more frequent droughts >> >more aridlands less wetlands >> rangeland degradation >> pastoralist livelihood becomes unreliable in aridlands > more pressure on wetlands
Population growth >>> More Land occupation: ranches,
farms, settlements >> Land disputes & land grabbing Conflicts Human vs wildlife
Increased exploitation of resources: timber from Boni forest, pasture, water
Economic prospects >> >> Migration Land allocation for infrastructures
and future town centres
Opacity around the development plan>>
>> lack of legal framework
Increased pressure on natural resources: grazing land turned into farming land >> reduction of nomadic
movements > livestock stepping on farms > Conflicts Pastoralists vs Farmers
Hunting & gathering becomes obsolete > Marginalization of
Indigenous people Boni & Wasanyas by other communities
economically or politically stronger
Fig.2 Infography on Lamu County development’s issues at stake
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B. Pastoralism, Riverine farming and other livelihoods’ framework
Pastoralism and farming are the main livelihoods in the sub region with a regional economy
organized around them. Fishing, hunting & gathering, honey harvesting being part of it, are two
livelihoods on a lower scale. Casual work cannot be underestimated as a tangible contribution to the
households’ economy in some communities. Rainfed farming outside the wetlands of Tana Delta and
lamu is disappearing. Solidarity mechanisms play an important part in the survival of the poorest
members of the Somali communities. Firewood collection is another backup of the household
economy in pastoral areas.
Pastoralism
Pastoralism as a livelihood, is becoming overstretched geographically and economically. The herds –
cattle and shoats - are in constant further search of pasture reaching areas as far as Tana River for
Livestock from Hulugho near the Somalia border for example. The Livestock population from Ijara
spends the most time of the year in Lamu County, to the point that part of the Abdallah community
has permanently settled there for the past 10 years and still relies on Ijara for government veterinary
services. For the household economy, pastoralism is also overstretching it as families have adopted a
sedentary pattern of life in townships and do not remain anymore around the flocks. This has
consequences on the milk availability at homestead level, “some homes here in Rahma have no milk
to cook tea”, and cash availability as there is no stock around to be sold when need of cash arises.
Households then contract debts until some cash is brought back after selling stock on one of the two
regional markets.
Garsen in Tana Delta and Garissa are the two livestock markets. There is a possibility that another
livestock market would open in Witu, Lamu county. Hulugho, near the Somalia border used to be
another one but was closed down in 1992, after the civil war erupted. Garsen market is controlled by
a cartel of brokers, meaning that the livestock keepers cannot deal directly with the buyers, both
need to give a commission to the brokers who run the market. These brokers act as gate keepers and
limit other actors to enter the market where offer and demand could be balanced; therefore the
market is not open as it should be. The bigger portion of animals is taken to be slaughtered in
Mombasa. Garsen market attracts the great majority of the stock from Tana River, Tana Delta and
Lamu and also a good part of Ijara Livestock. Some livestock owners from Ijara prefer to rely on the
more remote Garissa market in order to avoid double taxation for coming from a different county
than Garsen, Tana Delta. There is a smaller market Bangale in the North East of Tana River also and
small stock is also sold in Mokowe near Lamu town, for Lamu town and Mombasa market. Livestock
owners usually inform themselves about the prices through mobile phones.
Livestock diseases are naturally more prevalent in wetlands than in arid lands where the climate is
more humid and livestock population is more dense. Main diseases are Trypanosomias – main vector
being tsetse fly with the highest prevalence in and around Boni forest – Foot & Mouth, CBPP
(Contagious Bovine Pleural Pneumonia) and Anthrax. Ectoparasites – ticks- are also prevalent among
flocks. Vet drugs are available in local shops, but according to SIF’s veterinary doctor, the dosages
used are not correct – the livestock keepers tend to use a smaller dose in order to save on costs- and
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have created drug resistance. Drug resistance is as much a problem as pasture depletion according to
SIF’s vet doctor. However, when there is an outbreak of disease, livestock keepers can rely on GoK
veterinary services through the DVO (District Veterinary Office)
Fig.4 Livestock seasonal migration patterns in the subregion of Lamu, Tana Delta, Tana River and Ijara
Dry season movement
Rain season movement Episodic movement
Market place
Endemic tsetse fly area
Tana River pastoralists face another challenge when it comes to breeding. Pastoralists from the
North Eastern province have access to a gene pool from places as far as Moyale, Isiolo and even
Ethiopia and Somalia. In Tana river, due to past conflicts between Ormas/Wardes and Somalis, the
first cannot cross the Tana River to bring their animals to the market, to graze or to breed. Livestocks
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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movements and also breeding is limited to a small region – The west of Tana River Kitui - Mwingi
parts of the larger Ukambani not being a pastoral area. Therefore the stock is weakening; the
productivity is decreasing due to limited and not renewed gene pool in the region.
Lack of water, lack of pasture, disease prevalence, conflicts with farmers, weakening breed are
reported as the main problems by pastoralists and as a consequence of these, decreased livestock
productivity which impacts on the households economy. High level of illiteracy is another huge
constraint reported by stakeholders in the livestock sector.
Pastoralism dropping out is a real trend accentuated during drought times with no reversing
mechanism meaning that once this livelihood is lost, the household will have a very low probability to
get a living through it again.
Fig.5 Orma agropastoralist homesteads, Tana delta
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Farming
Farming is practiced by farmers in the strict sense and agropastoralists mainly in the coastal margin:
Tana Delta and Lamu with rainfed agriculture and also along Tana river banks with the practice of
flood recession agriculture mainly, meaning planting occurs when the floods subside from the farms.
Irrigation with engine pumps is rare, and the past attempts of implementation of this technology
were not deemed successful. Rainfed farming towards the arid lands has been compromised by
erratic rainfall patterns which cannot anymore sustain the development and growth of the crops at
their early stages.
The land tenure is about 1,5 acres per household. The number one limiting factor for farming in the
sub region being land preparation, it is hard for a household to manage to plough more than one
acre and a half manually on their own. Some farmers resort to hire a tractor for ploughing services
which costs about 2.500 Ksh/acre and save them a lot of labor force. Oxen ploughs are not very
common. The greatest majority of farmers do not have title deeds for the land they plough.
The main crops are maize and pulses – green grams for Tana Delta/Lamu and beans further North in
Tana River. Mango tree culture plays an important role in the local economy8 generating good
revenues and moreover this crop is not very demanding in terms of cultural operations with the
harvest being the main operation. Cassava plays also an important role not at the economic level but
in terms of food security as Cassava is a biannual crop which tuber root can be harvested at any time
and therefore does not follow a seasonal pattern. Cassava is then a fallback for the hunger season or
hunger gap which occurs before the long rains season harvest: May-June-July. Apart from mangoes,
the main cash crops are banana, tomato, onions, kales or sukuma wiki , cowpea or kunde, Capsicum
(sweet or chili pepper, pili pili) and water melon. Rice is practiced on minor and commercial
irrigations schemes in Tana Delta9 and also on some small scales farms along Tana River. Cashewnut
is another tree culture which generates revenues but on a much lower scale than mango. Finally
Sesame, groundnut and sweet potato can also be cultivated but are the less common of the above
crops, cotton has been mentioned but is marginal.
Fig. 6 Main crops seasonal calendar Tana River
8 KAPPAP – Kenya Agricultural Productivity and Agribusiness Program is a GoK/World Bank program with a
industrial plant for mango transformation into dried mango chips aiming at improving Mango value chain. 9 Hewani scheme for small scale farmers is the main one with 100 acres, 1 acre/farmer. El Nino in 97 damaged
part of the irrigation infrastructures put in place in the early 90’s in Tana Delta.
Land prep Irrigation Pest/disease ctrl Transplanting Flowering Planting Weeding Harvest Clearing
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Cereals/pulses Long rains season Short rains season Irrigated rice
Kales/WatermelonTomatoes Optional
CapsicumMangoes
July SeptemberAugustMay DecemberOctober NovemberAprilJanuary February MarchCrop
June
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Fig. 7 Some of the farming commodities markets and flows – local, regional, national or own consumption -
in Tana Delta
BANANA
MANGO
WATERMELON
CASH CROPS
TOMATO/PEPPER
GREEN GRAMS
COWPEAS
BEANS
MAIZE
KASSAVA
SWEET POTATO
CASHEW NUTS
Equatoria nuts ets.
Garsen
RICE
TARDA
NATIONAL MRKT
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Fertilization is not much practiced as the soils –heavy clay to loamy soils- are fertile enough and not
yet exhausted in the sub region. Farmers reuse their own seeds for the planting season generally and
it is hard to find certified seeds on the market except for horticultural seeds. Although pests and
disease control is mentioned in the above calendar, the great majority of small scale farmers have no
resources to apply pesticides on their crops when pests or diseases occur.
There are a few farming groups, but they exist mostly because support is given to them in terms of
capacity building, training or farms inputs, rather than for the purpose of commercializing their
products together or buying inputs together as it is generally the purpose of most of the farmers
organizations (cooperatives, associations) worldwide.
Fig. 8 First row: successful Kamba farmer in Lamu - second row and third row left: pokomo farm properly
tilled and with intercropping practice, partially flooded along Tana River - third row right, not very promising
harvest on this Boni farm in Boni forest.
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Floods on the farms constitute a threat as they can damage crops when they are too heavy or delay
planting time; but this phenomenon is part of the farming livelihood. Floods allow the soil to fill up
with maximum moisture content for the crop to get the best start and also, the silt deposited on the
soil acts as a booster fertilizer for the new crop. However this year, floods seemed to have been in
excess due to above average rainfall in the highlands of kenya and also because the excess waters in
the dams of Kindaruma, Seven folks and Massinga were released in huge quantities into Tana River.
The displacements of populations following floods around Tana river and in Tana Delta do not usually
constitute a humanitarian crisis as the floods are anticipated every year. The migration that follows,
even though it represents a challenge, is also anticipated; the households come and settle in camps
reusing the same tarpaulin distributed a few years before to them. The floods last up to 2 to 4 weeks,
then the situation goes back to normal after the water recesses.
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Wealth group matrix
The following table presents the three main livelihood categories – farmers, agropastoralists,
pastoralists – versus the levels of wealth encountered in their communities.
Category Poor 30 – 50 % Middle 40 – 55 % Better off 5 – 10 % Coping
mechanisms
Farmers
< 1.5 acre - Reuses the seeds from
the previous campaign - Mainly cultivates food
crops (1 cereal – 1 pulse + cassava)
- Casual work in other farms to meet the HH food needs part of the year
- Limited tools (Panga – Jembe)
Very vulnerable < 1 acre
1.5 – 2 acres - Works on the farm
only - Reuses seeds - Able to hire tractor
or oxen-plough to plough part of the farm
- Cultivates food and cash crops
- Has skills and practice intercropping with various crops (Cereals – Pulses – oils)
> 2 acres - Cultivates food and cash crops - Owns livestock - Hires a tractor for ploughing - Hires casual workers for weeding and harvest - Able to buy and apply pest & disease control chemicals - Buys certified seeds - Able to get extension services
- Casual work on other farms, in urban centres or for commercial farms - Fishing in rivers and ponds - Hunting - Handcraft making Abnormal coping mechanisms - Consumes the
seeds for next campaign planting
Agropastoralists
< 1 acre < 3 heads of cattle < 10 shoats - Milk is for HH
consumption only - Food crops mainly (1
cereal + Cassava)
Very vulnerable No livestock
1 acre 3 – 10 heads of cattle 10 – 30 shoats - Sells milk on daily basis - Sells heads on the regional market - Food crops (cereals, pulses, Cassava)
>1 acre 20 – 40 heads of cattle 30 – 40 shoats - Produces cash crops
with food crops - Sells heads on the
regional market - Sells milk on daily
basis
- Casual work, migration to urban centres
- Fishing and hunting
Abnormal coping mechanisms - Repeated sale of
stock
Pastoralists
< 10 heads of cattle < 30 shoats - Sells heads on the
local market - Milk is for HH
consumption only Very vulnerable < 5 cattle < 20 shoats
10 – 30 heads of cattle < 80 shoats - Sells heads on the
regional market - Sells milk on the
local market
> 50 heads of cattle > 80 shoats - Sells heads on the regional market - Sells milk on the local market - Owns a donkey cart - Able to regularly
access GoK veterinary services
- Firewood sale - Contracts debts - Begging for Zakat Abnormal coping mechanisms - Migration to
Dadaab refugee camp
- Repeated sale of stock
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Other livelihoods and household economy
Most communities and their members depend on more than one livelihood. The table following
presents the main secondary livelihoods practiced in Tana river, Ijara, Tana Delta and Lamu.
Livelihood Types of populations involved into
Honey harvest & sale - although bee populations have reduced and with droughts, honey production has decreased
All communities except urban: pastoralists, farmers, agropastoralists, hunters & gatherers
Donkey cart transport services for construction materials, water and firewood mostly
Urban and pastoralists communities mostly due to the long distances between settlements and township centres
Motorbike - taxi services Urban, farming communities, Boni & Wasanyas, communities where population density is high and there is demand for rapid transport; performed by youth mainly
Firewood collection & sale (with or without a cart)
Pastoralist communities mainly
Poultry keeping at household level All communities ; undertaken by women mainly
Charcoal burning & sale Tana Delta /Lamu farming and agropastoralists communities
Casual labor for companies TARDA, KENSALT (Salt farms in Malindi)
Tana Delta /Lamu farming and agropastoralists communities
Casual labor on farms for better off farmers Farming communities, Boni & Wasanyas; youth mainly
Casual labor in urban centres All communities; youth mainly
Fishing in rivers and pounds for own consumption and/or sale
Farming communities in Tana River, Communities in Lamu and Tana Delta
Hunting Hunters & gatherers (Boni & Wasanyas), pastoralists communities around Boni forest, communities in Lamu. Gathering practice (fruits, roots) is fading away.
Timber and pole cutting & sale Farming communities along Tana river, Communities in Tana Delta, Lamu and Boni Forest.
Sand for construction excavation & sale Farming communities along Tana river
Boat fishing Coastal communities
Handcraft making: vegetable mats, wooden stools, etc…
Hunters & gatherers communities (Boni & Wasanyas), Pokomo communities along Tana river; performed by women mainly
Fig.9: Secondary livelihoods and types of populations involved.
There are several reasons for undertaking an activity other than farming or pastoralism. Both farming
and pastoralism can be unreliable (crop failure, floods, drought), and diversification of livelihoods is a
way to mitigate the risks or cope with losses from the main livelihood. Many times, farming or
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pastoralism alone cannot support the household throughout the year10. Another reason is that all
communities and their members, even hunters & gatherers are now involved in a monetary economy
where cash needs are ever rising: these secondary livelihoods provide more of a source of income
than a source of food (except hunting and fishing meant for food consumption mostly) for the
households. Finally, youth tend to engage themselves in other opportunities than the traditional
ones followed by their parents: migration to urban centres for casual employment, casual
employment on farms, driving a motorbike.
It is extremely difficult for an outsider to estimate the weight of hunting as a livelihood among Boni &
Wasanyas communities traditionally hunters & gatherers. According to the DMO of Lamu, farming in
these communities still remains a window, they continue to pursue hunting as their main activity.
However, hunting is viewed as poaching, and therefore deemed illegal and punishable by the law
(payment of fines, prison serving). Boni & Wasanyas will deny in front of any outsider being involved
in such activity. Finally, in view of the development trend in Lamu and Boni forest and the
subsequent exploitation of its resources, hunting & gathering may not take these communities
another decade; they need to start to adopt alternative livelihoods in order to survive.
It is also difficult to weigh the importance of casual labor in the households’ economy but formal or
informal employment opportunities have always been mentioned as a fall back or as part of income
generation except in Hulugho near Somalia border where the local economy was described as too
small to create other job opportunities than herding livestock. This trend is surely going to be
accentuated in the perspective of the economic investments in and development of Tana delta and
Lamu port.
Fig. 10 Timber, Mango and Sand on the banks Tana River
According to the survey’s results realized at household level, we saw that casual labor is a constant in
income generation, half of the respondents declared to be involved in it. Naturally, farming and
livestock keeping were declared to be the main activities, followed by poultry keeping, honey
harvesting, motorbike operation, mat making, petty trade and local business. 1 to 2 members of a
10
As an example, a farmer with one acre can harvest 2 bags of maize/season, 4 bags/year; This makes 360 Kg of maize produced in a year for the HH food needs. The average HH comprises 6 members and one member consume in average 10 Kg of Maize in a month. This makes the HH maize needs to be at 720 Kg/year, meaning the maize harvest can cover the household’s needs only up to 6 months in a year.
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household contribute to income generation and 2 to 3 contribute to food production. The average
monthly income respondents declared varies between 5,000 Ksh and 8000 Ksh which seems to
account for only 1 out of the 2 HH members involved in income generation and not the income
generated by the whole HH as expenditure patterns are above incomes patterns: on average a
household spends 11,000 Ksh in a month11. Sugar is the main post of expenditure with 2 to 3,000 Ksh
spent. Majority of the respondents have debts (from 500 up to 12,000 Ksh).
The household economy as for many other parts in Kenya is divided between the husband and wife
where both generate income from different sources and both have different responsibilities when it
comes to expenditures. As an example, in pastoral communities, the HH male head generates income
from the sales of stock and the female head of the household generates income from the sales of
milk. For the expenditures, the HH male head will be in charge in paying school fees and clothing as
well as medical expenses when the HH female head will cover food expenses.
C. Markets and local economies
Except for the parts of Ijara and Lamu along the Somalia border which are economically marginalized
due to insecurity and a poor road network mainly, the livelihoods in the sub region seem to be quite
well integrated in the regional and national markets landscape: livestock is marketed up to
Mombasa, cash crops are being bought by buyers from Nairobi, Mombasa or Ukambani.
Following are the findings of the market survey
conducted in the main markets: Hola in Tana
River, Garsen in Tana Delta, Masalani in Ijara. The
prices fluctuate between the different market
places and along the year depending on the
availability of commodities at local level and the
passability of the roads. However, the prices
between the different market places stay more or
less under the same bracket and the shops and
stalls are well supplied.
Fig.11 Masalani market place
In Tana Delta, the local markets are experiencing a downturn due to the clashes between July 2012
and January 2013 and consequent displacements of people. The trade has been disrupted and, as
people have lost their livelihood, their purchasing power has drastically reduced.
11
Excluding in some surveys clothes and health expenditures which were given as a lump sum and not on a monthly basis.
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
17
Commodity Unit Price in KSH
Hola Garsen Masalani
Farming
commodities
Maize Kg 20 40 Not Available
Beans Kg 70 60 75
Tomato Kg 115 120 130
Onion Kg 80 100 75
Hot pepper Kg 80 150 120
Sukuma Wiki Bundle 15 35 20
Mango Pc 20 10 N/A
Banana Pc 5 10 5
Livestock
commodities
Sheep Head 2,500 3,500 4,000
Goat Head 3,500 4,000 - 4,500 5,500
Cattle Head 25,000 22,000 28,000
Cattle lamb Head 10,000 10,000 13,000
Milk Bottle 1.5 L 40 25 50
Ghee Bottle 1.5 L 350 220 400
Sour milk Bottle 1.5 L 30 20 N/A
Skin Pc 80 70 50
Hide Pc 300 400 130
Natural resources
Firewood - 5 (pc) 100 (bundle) 400 (bundle)
Charcoal Sack 250 400 300
Honey Bottle 1.5 L 400 300 500
Labor Daily wage Day 100 200 – 250 400
D. The Tana Delta clashes humanitarian recovery situation
Tana Delta has a long history of clashes between Orma and Pokomo communities, the first one
consisting of pastoralist communities and the second being farmers communities. They are
neighbors, trade with each other in times of peace and in some locations like Charra, Tarrassa
division they live in the same settlement, each sub-community side by side separated by a weather
road. Their kids go to the same schools, they only do not happen to intermarry. The conflict between
the two is often referred as “conflict over natural resource use” but the main conflict drive is pure
land occupation in the context of the growing demography and incidental destruction of livelihoods.
The typical root case of decades lasting conflicts is when a head of cattle from an Orma herd steps in
a Pokomo farm and partially destroys the crops. The animal is then slashed on the legs with a panga
(machete) by the farmer which creates another loss on the pastoralist’s side. Both parties are
contemplating their loss and none is compensating the other as it usually happens when such
incidents occur between farmers and pastoralists. This creates ground for animosity and the
resentment is fed by further incidents until they take another twist: from voluntary livelihood
destruction, one of the part in conflict goes up to murder of some individuals involved in the
incidents. This creates a cold war12 between communities. What seems to bring the cold war to an
open conflict is election time. Tana Delta clashes occur before each general election and stop as soon
as the elections are over. Local leaders from one community exploit the animosity between the two
12
Expression used during a FGD in Kilelengwani
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
18
communities and plan attacks on the other community in order to displace its members from the
area and remain with the voter base from their own community.
The last wave of clashes occurred between July 2012 and January 2013 (general elections were held
in March 2013): 183 people were killed, 33,417 people displaced13, 34,470 people affected by the
conflict14 more than 700 houses were burnt15, other properties and community assets were also
destroyed and stolen: granaries, crops, small stocks (sheep & goats), cattle, waterpumps, irrigation
structures and equipments. Houses were looted: ironsheets, doors, door frames were removed and
taken away. All schools closed in Tana Delta by January 2013 following the insecurity after 2 school
children were killed on their way to school. Kilelengwani16, Charra - Wachu-Oda17 and Shirikisho
locations were the most affected by the clashes; those are the areas were the people are now
returning to after staying in IDP camps. To add on the clashes, 2,100 Households were affected by
floods in Tana Delta18 by end of April, some of the same communities affected by the clashes were
also affected by the floods.
In some locations like Kurawa, the chiefs anticipated the clashes, called for public barazas19 and
successfully prevented the conflict to spread to their area. According to area chiefs in Charra
location, the MRC (Mombasa Republican Council), major player in the secessionist movement from
Kenyan Coast, played an active role in the clashes: both parts Ormas and Pokomos hired MRC
members at some point to go and fight the other community.
The KRCS has responded to the emergency setting up IDP camps, providing medical services and food
rations in the camps and towards the IDPS integrated among the host communities. Since April, in
order to encourage return of the displaced people to their original location, the KRCS has been
supporting them in the reconstruction of their house with iron sheet and timber. Team & Team
international is working on the rehabilitation of damaged hand pumps. The GoK deployed security
forces and a put curfew for 6 pm to 6 am in Tana Delta. Now the returnees need to rebuild their lives,
starting with their homes and restart their livelihoods, after missing the first farming campaign of
2013 (planting takes time in April). By the end of April, 70% of the IDPS had returned to their original
village according to Tana Delta DC but the situation is yet to be back to normal: the business is still on
hold, no farming is going on, the movements and trade are still limited by fear of insecurity, the
teachers have not returned to their classroom.
13
According to OCHA, April 2013 14
According to KRCS 15
According to KRCS – 800 according to KIRA (Kenya InterAgency Rapid assessemnt) 16
Kilelengwani and Riketa in Konemansa sublocation were the 2 villages afftected – Orma communities 17
Chamwamanamuma (Pokomo), Nduru (mixed), Semikaro (Pokomo), Kikomo (Orma), Odole (Orma), Mwanja (Orma), Darga (Orma), Chimikisho (Pokomo) 18
According to KRCS 19
A baraza is a meeting on the public place where the whole population is invited to attend
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
19
Fig. 12 Homesteads destroyed and IDP camp of floods affected people (down right)
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
20
E. The indigenous minority people of Lamu and Boni Forest the Boni and
Wasanyas at risk
The Bonis also called Awer and Wasanyas also called Sanye may constitute the most vulnerable
group in the sub region. Half a century ago they used to be around 25,000 and today their population
has reduced to 4,00020. Bonis live in and around Boni forest between Lamu County and Ijara district
of Garissa county and Wasanyas live in Lamu County21. They are categorized in the same group, but
they appear to share only the same ancestral livelihood of hunting & gathering as they do not speak
the same language and do not seem to have the same ethnic affiliation.
Marginalization, discrimination and stigmatization are at the root of the problem. The GoK counts 42
tribes in kenya, however, hunters & gatherers such as Ogiek, Bonis & Wasanyas are considered as
“others” in the last census. The term Boni itself means “primitive” in Somali language and there are
openly called in that derogatory manner by other communities in cosmopolitan town centres of
Lamu. They do not have area chiefs22 to represent them as well as the GoK at their location level.
Bonis can resort to the police when needs arise as they mentioned it, but for the Wasanyas, the
situation is different. According to a Wasanya elder, they are usually harassed by the police and
when a problem arises in the public space, they are often pointed out to endorse the role of
scapegoats. As another example of the discrimination they face, the same elder mentioned that his 3
sons are educated up to secondary level but
none of them is employed; for both Bonis and
Wasanyas, the only job opportunity they can
get is casual work on the neighboring farms
and if the Bonis declared to be paid fairly (300
Ksh/day), the wage Wasanyas get is far below
the minimum wage with 100 Ksh/day23. To
date the Wasanyas do not have any of its
community member formally employed nor
have any representation in the political arena
even at the local level.
Fig.13 Boni Forest around Boni Junction settlement
These two communities are witnessing land grabbing with fake surveyors coming around and setting
up beacons then claiming and fencing the land as theirs. They fear to be expelled from their farms at
any time especially for the Wasanyas in Lamu24. They also witness as outsiders exploit the forest for
charcoal burning or timber. Bonis declared that they play an essential role in protecting Boni forest
and preventing intruders to enter it but this role is not recognized by the GoK. They do not access
information about their constitutional rights or about the issues at stake in the region such as Lamu
20
Organisation for the Development of Lamu Communities (ODLC) 21
Boni settlements: Milimano, Basuba, Mangai, Boni Junction, Pandanguo – Wasanya settlements: Dai, Mamarani, Batikalale, Maakanda. One settlement comprises around 50 households. 22
The Area Chief is the representative of the executive power of the GoK at the location level 23
Minimum wage is usually 250 Ksh 24
Wasanya elder interviewed in Lamu : « A rich person can shoot you and you will just die like an animal »
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
21
port development. Bonis stated that the support declared to have been given to them was actually
not delivered: ALRMP (Arid Land Resource Management Program – GoK/World Bank) housing
project, sponsoring the education of 7 children never happened; NGO’s come and organize fake
seminars were the only real activity undertaken is thumb printing the attendance list.
The unsustainability of their livelihood is another root of the problem as hunting constitutes an illegal
activity and community members get beaten for petty reasons such as hunting birds. They tend to
practice shifting agriculture more or less successfully, the support programs in this regard have
brought limited results (KRCS failed to implement a farming support program in the past); on the
farms visited the only crops present were maize and cassava planted in a random manner. The
poverty levels they encounter themselves in, do not seem to give them the capacity to invest into
such activity like farming as they are in constant search of an income to meet their basic needs.
Therefore, as they plough other people’s farm they cannot liberate time to plough theirs and get
trapped in this poverty cycle one season after the other. Honey harvest and handcraft making as
secondary livelihoods have limited impact on the households’ economy. The whole population is
targeted by KRCS food distributions.
Fig. 14 Homesteads in poor (first and second left) and better off (right) condition, Boni junction
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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F. Water & Sanitation in brief
The main focus about Water & Sanitation was given to Ijara district, in Garissa county. In Tana river
and Lamu, attention has been given to address the matter even though the situation is far from being
perfect: people are generally using pit latrines, have access to shallow wells with hand pumps even
piped water from boreholes in some places in Lamu county. However, access to water in Lamu
islands is a huge concern. The population growth coupled with the reduction of rainfalls on Lamu
coast with consequent drying up of streams, wells and salinization of the water in the wells has
overstretched the water availability: a jerrican of potable water in Lamu town is sold at 50 Ksh when
in the main land it is sold at 5 Ksh. On top of the economic burden on the households, instead of
looking for their livelihoods they spend overtime looking for water.
In most parts of Ijara district, in the pastoral areas as well as in the townships, the only water
available is from dams and water pans, there are no wells, no boreholes. Water pans get
contaminated as soon as the running water fills in (the running waters carry silt and all kind of solid
particles left on the ground on its way to the water pan, feces being part of them). Water pans also
get contaminated at fetching water time or when some people bath in them, demonstrating poor
hygiene practices.
According to SIF’s hygiene promoter, ¾ of Ijara population defecate in the open. People do not dig pit
latrines as most of them recently settled in urban centres and are yet to adopt urban life habits ie.
defecating in a pit latrine. In Rahma village with 120 HH, there is not a single pit latrine. There are still
open resistances, verbally expressed, against the idea of defecating in a hole. According the
community members, in Hulugho there is still a lot of land around the township where to defecate.
There is also an embarrassment about entering the pit latrine in the view of other people according
to SIF’s hygiene promoter: when people go and defecate in the open they can pretend they are going
for other errands such as firewood collection.
However, when it comes to knowledge about factors and vectors of transmission of such diseases
like malaria and diarrhea, people are able to respond correctly. SIF’s hygiene training in Ijara district
has helped in this regard and people have changed or adopted new hygiene practices: to use a jug to
fetch water, to wash hands with soap, to boil water, to bath more frequently between others.
In public institutions such as primary and secondary schools, the WASH situation is not any better.
When there should be 1 toilet
for 25 girls and 1 toilet + urinal
for 50 boys according to
UNICEF standards, as an
example, in Hulugho Girls
secondary, there are 2 latrines
for almost 300 girls. The table
below presents the number of
toilets versus the school
enrollment in Ijara district for
the most attended schools.
School Enrollment
Number of toilets
Handwashing facilities
Boys Girls
Rahma Primary 72 69 3 -
Korissa Primary 237 119 3 -
Ijara Primary 311 194 13 -
Ijara Girls Primary 0 280 7 2
Gumarey Primary 217 93 9 -
Khalankhal Derow Primary 72 63 4 -
Ruqa Primary 70 62 4 -
Hajji Girls Secondary 0 312 12 -
Hulugho Girls Secondary 0 289 2 -
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G. Humanitarian actors WWW matrix
Where Who What
Tana River County
GAA – German Agro Action
AAH – Action Against Hunger
Team & Team
Samaritan purse
KRCS
International Medical Corps
Food security / WASH
Food security
WASH
Food security/Relief
Relief
Healh
Ijara, Garissa county
SIF – Secours Islamique France
World Vision
KRCS
Food security / Livelihood
support / WASH
Activity on hold
Relief
Lamu County KRCS Relief
The main comment we can make about the humanitarian actors in the sub region is that there is a
gap between Tana river arid lands and Ijara district. Tana river has received quite some attention
when it comes to WASH, food security and livelihood support but Ijara is yet to receive support from
the donor community yet the living conditions and livelihoods are similar as well as the humanitarian
and development issues at stake.
H. Program recommendations
In order of priorities:
Priority 1
Geographical and social scope
Tana Delta Communities affected by clashes and floods
Potential donor French Embassy, SIF Key words Recovery, Buidling resilience, Conflict mitigation, Protection Sector 1 Livelihoods Subsector Farming support Seeds and tools distribution Subsector Livestock Small stock restocking for vulnerable female heads of households Sector 2 Relief Food distribution, NFI distribution (kitchen equipment, beddings)
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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Priority 2
Geographical and social scope
Ijara Boni forest – Lamu Bonis and Wasanyas communities
Potential donor SIF
Key words Buidling resilience, livelihoods diversification, Protection, advocacy, Human rights
Sector 1 Livelihoods Sub sector Livelihoods diversification – Income generation - Basic poultry production at household level: distribution of chicks, poultry basic shelter
construction, training - Improved honey production with groups Subsector Pastoralism support Distribution of small stock at household level Subsector Farming support - Pilot projects such as distribution of seeds of short maturation sorghum variety, training on
sorghum transplanting methods Sector 2 Advocacy – Protection - SIF study from the HQ advocacy department
Priority 3
Geographical and social scope
Ijara district – public schools Primary and Secondary school children
Potential donor UNICEF Key words Hygiene, sanitation Sector WASH Sub sector Sanitation UNICEF standards blocks pit latrines & urinals for boys, and blocks pit latrines for girls Hand washing facilities Subsector Hygiene CHAST training Subsector Access to water Roof water harvesting facilities in Schools: Concrete water storage tanks connected to the gutters of the schools’ roofs
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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I. Conclusion
There is a lot to be done when it comes to addressing humanitarian needs of Bonis & Wasanyas
communities, Tana Delta’s communities affected by clashes and floods, pastoralist communities.
Many challenges are to be met: convincing donors to shift some of their attention from Mandera
triangle down southwards; implementing programs along Somalia border with the overall insecurity
constraints, being effective in implementing quality programs in order to be perceived as a solid
actor by the donor community in the Horn of Africa.
25 Monitoring Rangeland Health: A Guide for Pastoralist Communities and Other Land Managers in Eastern
Africa Version II By Corinna Riginos and Jeffrey Herrick
Priority 4
Geographical and social Scope
Tana River – Ijara Pastoralists and farmers
Potential donor OFDA/USAID – in consortium with GAA Keywords Buidling resilience, strengthening livelihoods, Disaster Risk Reduction Sector 1 Livelihoods Sub sector Animal health Adhoc vaccination and treatment at diseases outbreak times. Vaccination and treatment infrastructures : Crushes in pastoral areas Subsector Pastoralism livelihood support - Pastoralist Field School (PFS) with a focus on two issues :
1- Rangeland management and fodder production
Rangeland demarcation and rangeland monitoring for dry season grazing using the “monitoring rangeland health” guide, C. Riginos, J. Herrick25
Small fenced perimeters around urban centres to keep small milking stock and produce fodder during rains.
2- Breeding management and improvement for Tana River stock. Exchange visits between PFS from Tana River and Ijara.
- Market yards in urban settlements - Pilot on livestock products hides and skins value chain with Garissa market Subsector Farming livelihood support - Collective marketing trough farmers’ associations (training) - Donkey carts for improved access to market (support to farmers associations) - Seed capital and seeds multiplication (Seed banks) for women group - Kitchen gardens and Greenhouses pilot projects - Treadle pump irrigation projects (support to farmers associations) - Oxen ploughs for expanding land tillage Subsector Conflict prevention mitigation Community dialogue between Pokomos riverine farming communities and pastoralists Abdallahs communities; between Ormas/Wardeis pastoralist communities and pastoralist Abdallahs. Sector 2 WASH Subsector Sanitation Building of VIP pit latrines at household levels in urban centres with community participation: the household dig the pit latrine, SIF builds the foundation, the slab and the superstructure. Subsector Hygiene promotion CLTS, PHAST methods at community level with gender emphasis: Mothers speak to mothers
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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Acronyms list
AHH Action Against Hunger
ALRMP Arid Land Resource Management Program
CHAST Children Hygiene and Sanitation Training
CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation
DC District Commissioner
DMO Drought Management Officer
DVO District Veterinary Office
GAA German Agro Action
GoK Government of Kenya
HH Household
IDP Internally Displaced People
KWS Kenya Wildlife Services
KDF Kenya Defense Forces
KRCS Kenya Red Cross Society
Ksh Kenyan Shilling
MRC Mombasa Republican Council
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian affairs
PHAST Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation
PFS Pastoralist Field School
SIF Secours Islamique France
TARDA Tana & Athi River Development Authority
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene
SIF - Tana River, Tana Delta, Ijara, Lamu Assessment report – May 2013
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Contents
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Context ............................................................................................................................................ 1
3. Approach and methodology ............................................................................................................ 2
4. Findings............................................................................................................................................ 3
A. Arid Lands of Tana River and Ijara the emptied spaces ............................................................... 3
vs Tana Delta and Lamu the attraction pole ....................................................................................... 3
B. Pastoralism, Riverine farming and other livelihoods’ framework ............................................... 6
Pastoralism ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Farming ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Wealth group matrix ..................................................................................................................... 13
Other livelihoods and household economy .................................................................................. 14
C. Markets and local economies .................................................................................................... 16
D. The Tana Delta clashes humanitarian recovery situation ......................................................... 17
E. The indigenous minority people of Lamu and Boni Forest the Boni and Wasanyas at risk ...... 20
F. Water & Sanitation in brief ....................................................................................................... 22
G. Humanitarian actors WWW matrix ........................................................................................... 23
H. Program recommendations ...................................................................................................... 23
I. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 25
Acronyms list ................................................................................................................................. 26