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Reasoningskills

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n e w y o R k

Reasoning

skillssuccessin 20 minutes

a Day

3rd Edition


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Copyright 2010 LearningExpress, LLC.

All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.

Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Reasoning skills success in 20 minutes a day.3rd ed.

p. cm.

ISBN 978-1-57685-726-7

1. Reasoning (Psychology) I. LearningExpress (Oranization) II Title: Reasoning skills success in twenty minutes

a day.

BF442.R44 2010153.4'3dc22

2009030907

Printed in the United States o America

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Edition

ISBN-13 978-1-57685-720-5

For more inormation or to place an order, contact LearningExpress at:

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contRibutoRs ix

How to use tHis book xi

PRetest 1

lesson 1 cRitical tHinking anD Reasoning skills 15

What Are Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills?

Denition: The Dierence between Reason and Emotion

Justiying Your DecisionWhy Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills Are Important

In Short

lesson 2 PRoblem-solving stRategies 21

Denition: What Is a Problem?

Identiying the Problem

Breaking the Problem into Its Parts

Prioritizing Issues

Relevance o Issues

In Short

lesson 3 tHinking vs. knowing 27

Denition: Fact vs. Opinion

Why the Dierence between Fact and Opinion Is Important

Tentative Truths

Fact vs. Opinion in Critical Reasoning

In Short

c

v


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v

contents

lesson 4 wHo makes tHe claim? 33

Denition: What is Credibility?

How to Determine Credibility

Recognizing Bias

Special Case: Eyeswitness CredibilityIn Short

lesson 5 PaRtial claims anD Hal-tRutHs 41

The Trouble with Incomplete Claims

Test and Studies

Averages

In Short

lesson 6 wHats in a woRD? 47

Euphemisms and Dysphemisms

Biased QuestionsIn Short

lesson 7 woRking witH aRguments 53

Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

Indentiying the Overall Conclusion

In Short

lesson 8 evaluating eviDence 61

Types o Evidence

Is the Evidence Credible?Is the Evidence Reasonable?

In Short

lesson 9 Recognizing a gooD aRgument 67

Clear and Complete

Free o Excessive Subtle Persuasion

Credible and Reasonable Premises

Sucient and Substantive Premises

Considering the Other Side

In Short

lesson 10 Putting it all togetHeR 73

Lesson 1: Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills

Lesson 2: Problem-Solving Strategies

Lesson 3: Thinking vs. Knowing

Lesson 4: Who Makes the Claim?

Lesson 5: Partial Claims and Hal-Truths


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contents

Lesson 6: Whats in a Word?

Lesson 7: Working with Arguments

Lesson 8: Evaluating Evidence

Lesson 9: Recognizing a Good Argument

lesson 11 logical allacies: aPPeals to emotion 77

Scare Tactics

Flattery

Peer Pressure

Pity

In Short

lesson 12 logical allacies: tHe imPostoRs 83

No In-Betweens

Slippery Slope

Circular ReasoningTwo Wrongs Make a Right

In Short

lesson 13 logical allacies: DistRacteRs anD DistoRteRs 89

Ad Hominem

Red Herring

Straw Man

In Short

lesson 14 wHy DiD it HaPPen? 97

RelevanceTestability

Circularity

Compatibility with Existing Knowledge

In Short

lesson 15 inDuctive Reasoning: PaRt i 105

The Science o Inductive Reasoning

Elementary, My Dear Watson

In Short

lesson 16 JumPing to conclusions 107

Hasty Generalizations

Biased Generalizations

Non Sequitur

In Short

v


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v

contents

lesson 17 inDuctive Reasoning: PaRt ii 113

Determining Cause

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

The Chicken or the Egg?

In Short

lesson 18 numbeRs neveR lie 121

First Things First: Consider the Source

The Importance o Sample Size

Representative, Random, and Biased Samples

Comparing Apples and Oranges

In Short

lesson 19 PRoblem solving RevisiteD 129

Common Sense

Evaluating EvidenceDrawing Conclusions rom Evidence

In Short

lesson 20 Putting it all togetHeR 135

Lesson 11: Logical Fallacies: Appeals to Emotion

Lesson 12: Logical Fallacies: The Imposters

Lesson 13: Logical Fallacies: Distracters and Distorters

Lesson 14: Why Did It Happen?

Lesson 15: Inductive Reasoning, Part I

Lesson 16: Jumping to Conclusions

Lesson 17: Inductive Reasoning, Part IILesson 18: Numbers Never Lie

Lesson 19: Problem Solving Revisited

Congratulations!

Posttest 141

aPPenDix How to PRePaRe oR a test 153

Two to Three Months beore the Test

The Days beore the Test

Test DayCombating Test Anxiety

Time Strategies

Avoiding Errors

Ater the Test


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crr

Elizabeth Chesla is the author oTOEFL Exam Success, ACT Exam Success, GED Success, Reading Comprehension

Success, Write Better Essays, and many other writing and reading guides and test preparation books. She lives in

South Orange, New Jersey.

Tamra Orr is a ull-time educational writer living in the Pacic Northwest. She has written several test prepara-

tion books and works or a dozen o the nations largest testing companies. She is the author o more than 70

books, mother o our, and wie o one.


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this book is designed to help you improve your critical thinking and reasoning skills in 20 short lessonsthat should take 20 minutes a day to complete. I you read one chapter a day, Monday through Friday,and do all the exercises careully, you should see dramatic improvement in your ability to think criti-cally and to solve problems logically and eectively by the end o your month o study.

Although each lesson is designed to be a skill builder on its own, it is important that you proceed through

this book in order, rom Lesson 1 through Lesson 20. Like most other skills, critical thinking and reasoning

develop in layers. Each lesson in this book builds upon the ideas discussed in those lessons beore it.

Each lesson provides several exercises that give you the opportunity to practice the skills you learn through-out the book. To help you be sure youre on the right track, youll also nd answers and explanations or these

exercise sets. Each lesson also provides practical suggestions or how to continue practicing the taught skills

throughout the rest o the day and weekand the rest o your lie. In addition, two special review lessons go over

the key skills and concepts in each hal o the book and provide you with practice applying them in practical,

real-lie situations.

To help you gauge your progress, this book contains a pretest and a posttest. You should take the pretest

beore you start Lesson 1. Then, ater youve nished Lesson 20, take the posttest. The tests contain dierent ques-

tions but assess the same skills, so you will be able to see how much your critical thinking and reasoning skills

have improved ater completing the lessons in this book.

b a lr d orr

To make the most o this text, its important to remember that critical thinking and reasoning skills are necessary

or just about every aspect o liewhether personal, proessional, or academic. Thats why its so important to

become an active listener and observer.

H u th b


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How to use tHis book

People oten come to conclusions based on what

they think or eel rather than on the evidence beore

them. They make decisions based on what theywant

to hear rather than what is really being said; they take

action based on what they imagine to be true ratherthan what is actually the case. But by really listening to

what people say and how they say it (acial expressions

and tone oten say much more than words them-

selves), you help ensure that you will be reacting to

whats really being said, not just to what you want to

hear.

Similarly, by paying careul attention to and think-

ing critically about every situation, youll help ensure

that the decisions you make and the conclusions you

come to will be justied. For example, i a place looksunsavory to you, analyze what it is about that place that

makes you uncomortable. Feelings generally come

rom things we are able to sense, even subconsciously,

in our environment. The more you can point to as jus-

tication or your thoughts, eelings, and actions, the

more logical your decisions and actions will be.

Much o this book will be devoted to helping you

build your observation skills. Meanwhile, here are a

ew pointers to help you not only as you work through

this book, but in everything you do.

Keep an Open MindIt is very rarely the case that there is onlyone possible

answer to a problem or onlyone right way to think

or act. Even in math, where things seem to be black

and white, there is usually more than one way to solve

a problem. When it comes to making decisions, espe-

cially those that involve other people, remember that

between black and white, there are a thousand shades

o gray. You may preer one shade over another, but

that doesnt necessarily cancel out the other colors.

Consider All SidesIt is easy to make the mistake o coming to a conclu-

sion or making a decision beore all sides o an argu-

ment are heard. However, the more complete a picture

you can get o a given situation, the more eective

your decision or solution will be. To that end, listen to

all sides o an argument, and examine a situation rom

various points o view. I you do, your decisions will

be much more sound and youll be able to solve prob-

lems more eectively.

Separate Feelings from FactsThis book will address, in more detail, the dierence

between act and opinion later on, but the distinction

is so important that its worth mentioning now. What

most oten clouds peoples ability to reason eectively

is their emotions. Indeed, this is a natural tendency,

but i you give eelings precedence over reason, you

oten end up making poor decisions. This is not to say

that you shouldnt consider your eelingso courseyou shouldbut just be sure theyre not overriding

the acts.

Think before You ActPeople are oten under pressure to make quick deci-

sions. But with the exception o emergency situations,

its usually best to take time to reason things through.

Hasty decisions are less productive in the long run

because theyre usually not the most logical or

inormed decisions. I you take a little time to considerall sides and separate eelings rom acts, youre much

more likely to make a wise decision or nd an eective

solution.

O course, sometimes making a quick decision is

the only option, like when taking a timed test or in an

emergency situation. Thats why its so important to

build your reasoning skills now and make them a part

o your everyday thought process. Then when you are

pressed or time, youll be able to reason through the

situation quickly and eectively.

I any o this sounds conusing, dont worry

each o these ideas will be explained thoroughly in the

lessons that ollow. Whats important is that you work

on developing these skills, starting with Lesson 1,

Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills.


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Beore you start your study o reasoning skills, you may want to get an idea o how much youalready know and how much you need to learn. I thats the case, take the pretest in this chapter.The pretest consists o 35 multiple-choice questions that cover all the lessons in this book. Naturally,not all o the reasoning skills in this book are covered on the test. Even i you get all o the questions on the pre-

test right, you will undoubtedly prot rom working through the lessons anyway; only a raction o the inorma-

tion in this book is covered on the pretest. On the other hand, i you miss a lot o questions on the pretest, dont

despair. These lessons are designed to teach you critical thinking and reasoning skills step by step. Just take your

time and enjoy the learning process.I you get a high score on this pretest, you may be able to spend less time working through this book than

you originally planned. I you get a low score, you may nd that you will need more than 20 minutes a day to get

through each chapter and learn all about logical reasoning.

On the next page, theres an answer sheet you can use to ll in your answer choices. Or, i you preer, simply

circle the correct answer underneath the item itsel. I the book doesnt belong to you, write the numbers 135

on a piece o paper and record your answers there. Take as much time as you need to complete this short test.

When you nish, check your answers against the answer key at the end o this chapter. Each answer tells you

which chapter o this book teaches you about the reasoning skill in that question.

Pr

1


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leaRningexPRess answeR sHeet

1. a b c d

2. a b c d

3. a b c d

4. a b c d

5. a b c d

6. a b c d

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11. a b c d

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33. a b c d

34. a b c d

35. a b c d

3


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5

PRetest

Pr

Read the ollowing passage and then answer the ques-

tions that ollow.

Wendy is a junior in high school and is getting ready

to choose a college. She is a serious student and

wants to go to the school with the best premed pro-

gram. However, she doesnt want to be too ar rom

home because she wants to be able to visit her sister,

who has recently been in a serious accident, on a reg-

ular basis. Wendy is likely to obtain scholarships

perhaps even a ull scholarshipbut she is worried

that her parents may not be able to aord whatever

costs the scholarships dont cover.

1. Which o the ollowing most accurately

presents the issues Wendy must consider, in

order o priority?

a. academic reputation, nancial aid, social lie

on campus

b. location, nancial aid, and academic

reputation

c. nancial aid, student services, location

d. academic reputation, campus environment,location

2. Which o the ollowing is probably the best

choice or Wendy?

a. the community college, which oers Wendy

a ull scholarship and has a new but

unranked premed track

b. an expensive liberal arts college, ranked in the

top ten or its premed program, which oers

Wendy a three-quarters scholarship. Thecollege is a ten-hour drive rom Wendys home.

c. the state university, ranked in the top 20 or

its premed program, which oers Wendy a

ull scholarship or her rst two years and

guarantees continued scholarships i she

maintains at least a B+ grade point average.

The state university is two hours away rom

Wendys home.

d. Put o school or a ew years until Wendy

can save up some money and her sister has

recovered. This way, Wendy will be less

limited in which school she can choose.

Choose the best answer or each o the ollowing.

3. There are 60 minutes in each hour is

a. a act.

b. an opinion.

c. probably a act, but Id have to veriy it rst.

d. none o the above

4. Grand Canyon National Park encompasses

more than 1.2 million acres isa. a act.

b. an opinion.

c. probably a act, but Id have to veriy it rst.

d. none o the above.

5. Stephen King is the best horror author on the

planet! is

a. a act.

b. an opinion.

c. probably a act, but Id have to veriy it rst.d. none o the above


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6

PRetest

The ollowing items (620) present questions, state-

ments, or short passages that illustrate the process o

reasoning or critical thinking. In some items, the

speakers reasoning is fawed. Read each item and

select the answer choice that most accurately describesit. Choose d i there is no faw or i the speaker remains

neutral.

6. You dont actually like the new history teacher,

do you?

a. The question is unclear and conusing.

b. Inherent in the question is a bias against the

teacher.

c. The question implies the listener is a teacher.

d. The speaker is remaining neutral.

7. New GingerSnap Soda costs less!

a. The ad doesnt tell how much the soda costs.

b. The ad doesnt tell how much other sodas

cost.

c. The ad doesnt tell what the soda costs less

than.

d. This ad is ne as it is.

8. Please, Kevin. You are the astest typist Iveever met. I know you can get it done or me in

record time. Youre a whiz!

a. The speaker is fattering Kevin.

b. The speaker is pressuring Kevin.

c. The speaker is trying to scare Kevin.


9. Either we put 40 students in each class or we

hire two dozen new teachers. Theres no other

choice.

a. The speaker is proposing two equally bad

solutions.

b. The speaker is trying to change the subject.

c. The speaker isnt allowing or other

possibilities, like staggering classes.

d. Theres nothing wrong with the speakers

reasoning.

10. I wouldnt listen to what Charlie says about

anything, and especiallynot what he says about

politics. I mean, all he does is watch reruns all

day. What does he know?

a. The speaker assumes that Charlie cant havea valid opinion about politics because he

watches reruns.

b. The speaker assumes that the listener will

listen to Charlie in the rst place.

c. The speaker doesnt like reruns.


reasoning.

11. Im sorry I am late, Mr. Cummings. I just

ound out that my sister is getting a divorce andI was pretty upset.

a. The speaker is bragging.

b. The speaker is trying to appeal to the bosss

sense o pity.

c. The speakers excuse is too vague.


12. You agree with me, dont you, Marlene? Well,

i you dont, dont worry. The last person who

disagreed with me only got red.a. The speaker is using humor inappropriately.

b. The speaker is trying to get Marlene red.

c. The speaker is trying to scare Marlene into

agreeing with him.


13. I didnt pass the entrance exam because the

weather was so nice.

a. The speaker has no credibility.

b. The speaker is jumping to conclusions.

c. The speakers explanation is irrelevant to

the claim.


reasoning.


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7

PRetest

14. This morning it poured down rain, so it is

going to be a very wet spring.

a. The speaker knows very little about weather

patterns.

b. The speaker draws an unair conclusionabout the weather based on just one

incident.

c. The speaker is trying to convince others that

they should prepare or a lot o

precipitation.


reasoning.

15. I was a really good student in music class, so I

should make a great perormer someday.a. The speaker is jumping to conclusions.

b. The speakers reasoning is untestable.

c. The explanation is circular.


reasoning.

16. Lets go camping this weekend, Susan. It is

inexpensive, the campground is close and we

have all o the equipment we need. It would be

un to spend the weekend sitting around acampre under the stars.

a. The speaker is trying to prove to Susan what

a good camper he is.

b. The speaker is hoping to show Susan how to

save money.

c. The speaker is clearly biased on the topic o

traveling.


reasoning.

17. I we let Roger stay out until midnight, next

thing you know, hell be coming in at one, then

three, and then not at all.

a. The speaker is assuming that Roger wants to

stay out all night.b. The speaker is assuming thatXwill

automatically lead to Y.

c. The speaker is assuming thatXand Yare

unacceptable alternatives.


reasoning.

18. I didnt cheat on my taxes. I just used creative

accounting techniques.

a. The speaker is breaking the law.b. The speaker is setting a bad example or

others.

c. The speaker is using a slanted phrase or

cheating.


reasoning.

19. I know I didnt grade your papers like I said I

would, but I am sure the other teachers were

too busy also!a. The teacher is bringing in an irrelevant issue.

b. The teacher is blaming other teachers or her

not doing her job.

c. The teacher is making a circular argument.

d. Theres nothing wrong with the teachers

reasoning.


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8

PRetest

20. Joseph, look at this! I took this new vitamin

supplement and my hair is thicker, my memory

is better and my grades have improved. This

has to be the best nutritional product on the

planet.a. The speaker doesnt believe in vitamin

supplements.

b. The speaker is assuming that the vitamin

supplement is responsible or all the good

things happening to him.

c. The speaker doesnt know what to attribute

his new changes to.


reasoning.

In the ollowing situations, which source is most

credible?

21. Regarding the best way to diaper a small baby

a. a pediatrician

b. a baby store owner

c. a amily development counselor

d. a mother o our

22. In deense o a girl accused o shoplitinga. her mother

b. her best riend

c. the store owner

d. the police ocer

Read the ollowing argument careully and answer the

questions that ollow.

(1) Although many high-school students might dis-

agree, it should be a requirement that they completeninety hours o community service in order to grad-

uate. (2) Ninety hours may seem like a long time, but

stretched out over the course o three or our years,

its a very easible goal. (3) Participating in commu-

nity service improves sel-condence and provides

students with the skills needed to analyze and solve

real-world problems. (4) For instance, students

might choose to volunteer or an organization that

aims to improve literacy in adults.

(5) There are not many in-school educational meth-ods as eective as this that can teach teens how to lis-

ten, be patient, and nd the best way to approach a

dicult situation. (6) These are real-lie skills that

they need or college and to become well-inormed,

conscientious adults. (7) In act, creating indepen-

dent thinkers should be the goal o all educational

programs, whether they are implemented in or out-

side o an academic environment.

23. What is the main point (conclusion) o theargument?

a. sentence 1

b. sentence 2

c. sentence 3

d. sentence 4

24. Which o the ollowing is the strongest support

or the conclusion?

a. sentence 2

b. sentence 4

c. sentence 5

d. sentence 7


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9

PRetest

25. Sentence 5 is which o the ollowing?

a. It is reasonable evidence based on a statistic.

b. It is reasonable evidence based on common

sense.

c. It is based on personal experience.d. It is not reasonable evidence.

Read the ollowing passages careully and answer the

questions that ollow.

Janice got a raise in July. That month, she had moved

into a larger apartment. She got a dog or a companion

and enjoyed taking him or walks each evening. Earlier,

she had spent each evening putting in overtime to

nish a big project or her boss so she appreciates theree time now.

26. Which o the ollowing is most likely the

primary reason or Janices raise?

a. She moved into a larger apartment.

b. She got more exercise by walking her dog.

c. She had been at her job or years and it was

overdue.

d. She worked a great deal o overtime to get a

project done.

27. Based on the passage, which o the ollowing

can we logically conclude?

a. Janice deserved the raise because o all the

hard work she did.

b. Janice was desperate or some ree time to

spend with her dog.

c. Janice waited until the summer to move into

a larger apartment.

d. Janice was upset about having to put in so

much overtime.

A young woman is riding her bike down the street

when there is an accident right in ront o her. She

can see that several people are hurt and so ar, there

are no other cars around.

28. Which o the ollowing should she do rst?

a. Run into the closest store to ask them to call

911.

b. Attempt to remove the injured rom their

vehicles.

c. Write down the license numbers o the cars

or the police.

d. Make sure that there is no danger to you

rom the vehicles.

Ellen is in charge o the annual holiday party or

ABC Company. She wants everyone to be happy with

the location, so she decides to take a survey. There

are 80 employees; 20 are in management, 40 are sales

representatives, and 20 are support sta.

29. I Ellen surveys ten employees, her survey

results are

a. very likelyto accurately refect the

sentiments o all o the employees.b. likelyto accurately refect the sentiments o

all o the employees.

c. very unlikelyto accurately refect the

sentiments o all o the employees.

30. I Ellen surveys 20 employees who are all

members o management, her survey results are

a. very likelyto accurately refect the


b. likelyto accurately refect the sentiments oall o the employees.

c. very unlikelyto accurately refect the



22/177

10

PRetest

31. Ellen would get the most accurate results by

surveying

a. ten managers, 20 salespeople, and ve

support sta.

b. ten managers, 20 salespeople, and tensupport sta.

c. 20 managers, 20 salespeople, and 20 support

sta.

d. ten managers, ten salespeople, and ten

support sta.

32. Every time you leave a pile o dirty clothes on

the bathroom foor, you notice that your

mother puts them on the foor o your

bedroom rather than washing them. When youput the clothes in the hamper, she launders

them and returns them clean, dry, and olded.

You thereore conclude:

a. Your mother has more time to do laundry

on some days than on others.

b. Your mother only looks in the bathroom

now and then.

c. Your mother is hoping that you will start

doing your own laundry soon.

d. Your mother expects you to put dirtylaundry in the hamper rather than on the

foor.

33. Beverly is putting together the schedule or her

new employees. Each employee has to work

two days a week. Andrew (A) can only work on

Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Brenda (B)

can only work on Mondays, Tuesdays, andWednesdays. Carla (C) can only work on

Tuesdays and Fridays. David (D) can work any

day except Wednesdays, and Edward (E) can

only work on Thursdays and Fridays. Which o

the ollowing is the best schedule?

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

a. B & D A & D A & B C & E C & E

b. A & D B & C A & B D & E C & E

c. B & C C & D A & D B & E A & Ed. A & D B & C C & E B & E A & D

Use the ollowing paragraph to answer questions 34

and 35.

Joe, Karl, Larry, and Mike all work or the same

company. Joe has been there two years longer

than Karl and one year less than Larry. Mike has

been there one year longer than Karl. Larry has

been there or ten years.

34. Who has been there the longest?

a. Joe

b. Karl

c. Larry

d. Mike

35. Who is the newest employee?

a. Joe

b. Karl

c. Larry

d. Mike


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11

PRetest

ar k

You can nd relevant instruction and examples or any item(s) you missed in the lesson(s) listed to the right o

each correct answer.

1.b. Lesson 2

2.c. Lesson 2

3.a. Lesson 3

4.c. Lesson 3

5.b. Lesson 3

6.b. Lesson 6

7.c. Lesson 5

8.a. Lesson 11

9.c. Lesson 12

10.a. Lesson 1311.b. Lesson 11

12.c. Lesson 11

13.c. Lesson 14

14.b. Lesson 16

15.a. Lesson 16

16.d. Lessons 79

17.b. Lesson 11

18.c. Lesson 6

19.a. Lesson 13

20.b. Lesson 17

21.d. Lesson 4

22.c. Lesson 4

23.a. Lesson 7

24.c. Lessons 8, 9

25.b. Lesson 9

26.d. Lesson 17

27.a. Lesson 17

28.c. Lessons 2, 1929.c. Lesson 18

30.c. Lesson 18

31.b. Lesson 18

32.d. Lesson 15

33.b. Lesson 19

34.c. Lessons 15, 19

35.b. Lessons 15, 19


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no matter who you are or what you do, you have to make decisions on a regular basis. You may notrealize it, but even those decisions that seem like second naturelike deciding what to wear whenyoure getting dressed in the morningrequire some critical thinking and reasoning skills. Whenyou decide what to wear, you take many actors into considerationthe weather orecast; the current tempera-

ture; your plans or the day (where are you going? who will you see?); your comort level (will you be walking a

lot? sitting all day?); and so on. Thus, you are already a critical thinker on some level. But your lie is complicated,

and you ace decisions that are much more dicult than choosing what to wear. How do you handle a confict?

Solve a problem? Resolve a crisis? Make a moral or ethical decision?

Lesson summary

Youve probably heard the terms critical thinking and reason-ing skills many times, in many dierent contexts. But what exactly

does it mean to think critically? And just what are reasoning

skills? This lesson will answer these questions and show you why

critical thinking and reasoning skills are so important.

The more one listens to ordinary conversations, the more apparent it

becomes that the reasoning aculties o the brain take little part in the

direction o the vocal organs.

Edgar Rice Burroughs,

American author and creator o the Tarzan series(18751950)

cRiticaltHinking anDReasoning

skills

1


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cRitical tHinking anD Reasoning skills

The person who thinks beore he acts seldom

has to apologize or his acts.

Napoleon Hill

(Think and Grow Rich)

While theres no guarantee youll always make

the right decision or nd the most eective solution to

a problem, there is a way to signicantly improve your

oddsand that is by improving your critical thinking

and reasoning skills.

D: wh ar crth d R s?

To improve your critical thinking and reasoning skills,

you need to know exactly what they are.

Critical ThinkingThink or a minute about the words critical thinking.

What does this phrase mean? Essentially, critical

thinking is a decision-making process. Specically,

critical thinking means careully considering a prob-lem, claim, question, or situation in order to deter-

mine the best solution. That is, when you think

critically, you take the time to consider all sides o an

issue, evaluate evidence, and imagine dierent sce-

narios and possible outcomes. It sounds like a lot o

work, but the same basic critical thinking skills can be

applied to all types o situations.

It is important to keep in mind that all problems

have more than one solution. Like potato chips,

you cant stop at just one. Keep thinking (and

munching!) and see how many possible answers

you can nd. You might be surprised.

tip

Critical thinking is so important because it helps

you determine:

How to best solve a problem

Whether to accept or reject a claim How to best answer a question

How to best handle a situation

Reasoning SkillsReasoning skills, on the other hand, deal more with

the process o getting rom point A, the problem, to

point B, the solution. You can get there haphazardly, or

you can get there by reason.

A reasonis a motive or cause or somethinga

justication or thoughts, actions, or opinions. Inother words, its whyyou do, say, or think what you do.

But your reasons or doing things arent always

reasonableas you know i youve ever done or said

something in the heat o the moment. Reasoning

skills ask you to use good sense and base your reasons

on acts, evidence, or logical conclusions rather than

just on your emotions. In short, when you decide on

the best way to handle a situation or determine the

best solution to a problem, you should have logical

(rather than purelyemotional) reasons or coming tothat conclusion.

loc: according to reason; according to con-

clusions drawn rom evidence or common

sense

eoo: drawn rom emotions, rom intense

mental eelings


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th Dr Rd e

It would be alse to say that anything emotional is not

reasonable. In act, its perectly valid to take your emo-

tions into consideration when you make decisions.

Ater all, how you eel is very important. But i theres

no logic or reason behind your decisions, youre usually

in or trouble.

Lets say, or example, that you need to buy a com-

puter. This is a rather big decision, so its important that

you make it wisely. Youll want to be sure that you:

Careully consider your options

Consider dierent possibilities and outcomes Have logical reasons to support your nal

decision

It may seem obvious that you need to choose a

computer that best suits your needs and budget. For

example, as much as you might like the top-o-the-

line gaming computer with the best video card,

almost unlimited memory, and built in surround

sound, you shouldnt get it i you only need this com-

puter or simple unctions. But or a variety o emo-tional reasons, many people do make these kinds o

unwise, unreasonable decisions. They may have

thought critically and still made the wrong choice

because they let their emotions override their sense o

logic and reason.

Practice1. For practice, imagine this scenariobuying a

new computerand apply critical thinking

and reasoning skills to it. First, critical thinking:What dierent things should you take into

consideration when thinking about what kind

o computer to buy? List at least ve dierent

considerations. One is already listed or you.

Things to consider:

1. price

2.

3.

4.5.

aw

You probably listed several important issues, such as:

Condition: new or used

Speed

Amount o memory

Internet access

CD/DVD player CD burner/Video card

Sizedesktop or laptop?

Brand name/manuacturer

Size o monitor

Type o keyboard

Hardware or sotwarewhat programs do you

need?

Available tech support

Reviews o product

J yr D

One way to help ensure that youre using your critical

thinking and reasoning skills is to always justiy your

decisions and actions. Why did you do what you did?

Why did you make that decision? Why did that seem

like the best solution? Try this with even your every-

day decisions and actions. Youll get to know your

current decision-making process, and youll be able to

determine where in that process you can become

more eective.


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Practice 2. Imagine that you do really have to buy a

computer. Using your critical thinking and

reasoning skills, write down what kind o

computer (brand, price, etc.) youd buy and

why. You can make up the specics: whats

important is that you include several dierent

reasons that show youve thought about your

decisions careully and critically.

Kind o computer:

Approximate price:

Reasons or this choice:

aw

Answers will vary. Heres a sample answer:

Kind o computer: new Dell laptop

Approximate price: $519

Reasons or this choice:

Dell is a solid brand name with ull tech ser-

vice and a one-year warranty

A laptop ts my needs because I do a lot o

my work on the bus and in coee shops

The price is about average and I ound a deal

that saves me $180 instantly, so Im actually

getting a $700 laptop

It has two times more storage than the other

laptop looked at

It has an extended battery lie

Its lightweight so I wont have a problem

carrying it in my backpack

It has a CD/DVD burner included and an

excellent graphics card

wh cr th dR s ar ipr

You will ace (i you dont already) situations on the

job, at home, and at school that require critical

thinking and reasoning skills. By improving these

skills, you can improve your success in everything

you do. Specically, strong critical thinking and rea-

soning skills will help you:

Compose and support strong, logical arguments

Assess the validity o other peoples arguments

Make more eective and logical decisions

Solve problems more eciently

Essentially, these our skills make up problem-

solving skills. For example, i someone wants to

change your mind and convince you o something,

you have a problemyou have to decide whether or

not to change your belies, whether to accept that per-

sons argument. Similarly, when you have a choice to

make, or a position youd like to support, you have a

dierent type o problem to solvewhat choice to

make, how to support your position. Thus, this book

will use the term problem solvingto reer to any one othese situations. Problem solving will be the ocus o

the next lesson.

Dont be ooled by the use o the term argu-

ment. In this book, the word doesnt mean raised

voices, harsh tones, and veiled insults. Instead,

in this arena, according to Princeton, the word

argumentmeans a course o reasoning aimedat demonstrating a truth or alsehood; the

methodical process o logical reasoning.

tip


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PracticeUse your critical thinking and reasoning skills to solve

the ollowing problem.

Hans has been out o work or two months. Then,

in the same week, he is oered jobs by two dierent

engineering companies, the Johnson Corporation

and Samson Brothers. They are paying the same hourly

rate but the Johnson Corporation is oering a better

benets program, while the Samson Brothers is located

ar closer to Hans home. What should Hans do?

3. List the dierent issues Hans should consider

in making this dicult decision.

4. Make a decision or Hans and explain why

thats a good decision or him. Feel ree to make

up the various circumstances in his lieor

example, whether Hans is married with

children or single. The more reasons you can

give or his decision, the better.

aw

3. Some o the issues Hans needs to consider include:

Job security

Insurance benets

Hours

Job environment

Specic job responsibilities

Location/commute

Room or promotion

Stability o company

Compatibility with coworkers

4. Answers will vary. Heres a sample answer:

Hans should take the job with the Johnson Corpora-

tion. They are oering excellent insurance coverage

and a pension plan. Since Hans has our children anda wie with some health problems, both o these are

important actors. Although he would save gas money

and time by taking the closer job, it would not be

enough to outweigh the advantages o the Johnsons

benets. In addition, the Johnson Corporation has a

stellar reputation in town and Hans is sure that with

time and hard work, he will be able to move into a

higher position within the company.

i shr

Critical thinking is the act o careully considering a

problem, claim, question, or situation in order to

determine the best solution. Reasoning skills, which

go hand-in-hand with critical thinking, ask you to

base your decisions on acts, evidence, and/or logical

conclusions. Critical thinking and reasoning skills are

implemented simultaneously to help you make smart

decisions and solve problems eectively. They alsohelp you make stronger arguments and better evaluate

the arguments o others.


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Notice how many decisions you make throughout the day and how many dierent problems you ace.

What kind o decisions and problems do you encounter most oten at home? At work? At school?

Write down the process you went through to make a decision or solve a problem today. What did you

do to get rom point A, the problem, to point B, the solution?

Evaluate a decision or problem you solved recently. Do you think it was a wise decision or eective

solution? Why or why not? Did you consider the range o issues, or did you neglect to take certain

issues into consideration? Did you make your decision based mostly on reason or mostly on your

emotions?

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a nd we will show, beyond a reasonable doubt, that my client is not guilty o committing the heinousact he is accused o. I youve ever watched a legal drama or sat on a jury yoursel, this statementshould sound amiliar. You probably know that sometimes jury members are aced with very seri-ous dilemmas. In act, many times, the ate o a deendant rests in their nal decision, or verdict.

Luckily, not all situations or problems are as ormidable as deciding the destiny o another human being.

But everyone aces his or her share o problems, and its important to handle them quickly and eectively.

Critical thinking and reasoning skills can help you do just that.

Lesson summary

You ace problems every day, and sometimes they can be over-whelming. In this lesson, youll learn how to pinpoint the main

issue o a problem and how to break it down into its various parts,

thus making the problem more manageable.

The true triumph o reason is that it enables us to get along with

those who do not possess it.

Voltaire,French writer and philosopher (16941778)

PRoblem-solvingstRategies2


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PRoblem-solving stRategies

D: wh i Pr?

Lets begin by dening the wordproblem. In terms o

critical thinking and reasoning skills, a problem is any

situation or matter that is challenging to solve, thus

requiring you to make a dicult decision. That deci-

sion can be about anythinghow to answer a perplex-

ing question, how to handle a complicated situation,

how to convince someone to see your point o view, or

even how to solve a puzzle or mystery. For example,

you might ace the ollowing kinds o problems:

Questions: Should a U.S. presidential term be

more than our years? Should you

report your coworker or stealing?Situations: Your riends are pressuring you to go

to a party tonight, but you promised

your brother youd help him on a

project. What do you do?

Convincing: How do you convince Joe that he

shouldnt treat his girlriend so

poorly?

Solving: Who stole the money rom the sae?

How can you make enough money to

pay or college?

id h Pr

The rst step to solving any problem is to identiythe

problem. This may sound obviouso course you

need to know what the problem is. But its important

to take this step, because in real lie, with all its com-

plications, its easy to lose sight o the real problem at

hand. When this happens, the problem becomes muchmore complicated than it needs to be because you end

up ocusing on secondary issues rather than whats

really at stake.

Once youve identied the problem, you need to

break it down into its parts. This is an essential step

because it gives you a sense o the scope o the problem.

How big is it? How many issues are there? Sometimes,

at rst glance, problems seem so big that a solution

seems impossible. Other times, you may underesti-

mate the size o a problem and end up making a poor

decision because you overlook an important actor. By

breaking a problem down into its parts, you may ndits not as big a problem as you thoughtor that its

much more complicated than you initially anticipated.

Either way, when you break a problem down, you

make it manageablebig or small, you can take it on

one issue at a time.

PracticeTo see exactly how breaking down a problem works,

read the ollowing scenario:

Your car has broken down and will have to be in the

shop or two or three days. Its Monday, and you

need to get to work, which is 20 miles north o

where you live. The nearest bus stop is ten miles

away to the east. Your brother, who lives near you,

works 20 miles to the south. The nearest cab com-

pany is 20 miles to the west.

1. Which o the ollowing best expresses the real

issue or problem?a. how you will be able to aord the repairs

b. how you can convince your brother to give

you a ride

c. how you are going to get to work

d. whether you will be able to aord a cab

aw

The answer is chow you are going to get to work.

This is the main problem you must solvethe big

picture.

Notice, however, that each o the other answers

above is a subissue; each option except choice c is a

specicway to address the larger, more general prob-

lem. Its important to remember that choices a, b, and

d are justparts o the problem. Also, there may be other

parts that are not listed here. I one o those options

doesnt work out, other viable options remain.


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When you break the problem down into parts,

you might turn them into a list. Putting them inwriting can oten give them more validity to you.

It might also inspire you to come up with more

details than you might have i youd keep them

in your head.

tip

PracticeHeres another scenario:

Youre the leader o a small production-line team.

Two members o the team have had a serious ght.The other two team members witnessed the ght.

Everyone seems to have a dierent story.

2. Which o the ollowing best expresses the real

issue or problem?

a. who started the ght

b. what really happened

c. whose version o what happened you should

believe

d. how to get the team working together againe. how to prevent uture disputes

aw

This situation is a bit more complicated than the rst.

To get the best answer, you need to ask yoursel where

the real issue lies, whats really at stake. Is it more

important to determine what happened, or to decide

how to x what happened?

Its very easy to get caught up in the details o the

ght, trying to nd out whos to blame. But whilethats important, the real problem is to gure out how

to keep making progress, and how to get the team

working together again, which is refected in choice d.

The other choices, except choice e, illustrate dierent

components o that larger problem.

In order to solve this problem, you do need to

address both issues in choices a and b: who started it and

what really happened. And in order to do that, youll

need to take into consideration choice c as well: whose

version o what happened you should believe. Further-

more, you should also keep choice e in mind so that

you can minimize this type o problem in the uture.

br h Pr iPr

Now that youve identied the main problem, its time

to identiy the various parts o that problem. You

already know several issues:

Problem: How to get the team working together

again

Parts o the problem:

Who started the ght

What really happened

Whose version o what happened you should

believe

How to prevent uture disputes

Practice

3. Each o these issues must be addressed in orderto solve the problem. But these arent the only

issues. Can you think o any other parts o this

problem? Write them here:

As you think about the dierent parts o a prob-

lem, pretend or a moment that you are a jour-

nalist. Ask the most important questions that

any skilled newspaper writer does: who, what,

when, where, why, and how. These can lead you

to data you might have missed beore.

tip

23


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aw

You might have added several issues, such as:

Parts o the problem:

Who started the ght What really happened


believe


How to reprimand the members who were

ghting

Whether or not to report the ght to your

superiors

How to exercise your authority

How to carry out your investigation

I you thought o any other issues, add them here.

Prr i

The next step is to decide how to tackle the issues

above. Clearly, some are more important than others,and some must be addressed beore others. Thats why

its essential to rank the parts o the problem in the

order in which you think they should be addressed.

Which issues need to be dealt with rst? Second?

Third? Are there some issues that must be solved beore

you can deal with others?

Practice4. Use your critical thinking and reasoning skills

to prioritize the previously mentioned issues.

aw

Answers will vary, depending upon what other issues

you identied. Heres how the previous list might be

prioritized:

Parts o the problem, in order o importance:

How to exercise your authority

How to carry out your investigation

Who started the ght

What really happened


believe

How to reprimand the members who were

ghting

Whether or not to report the ght to yoursuperiors


R i

When youre breaking down a problem, its important

that you make sure your issues are relevant to the

problem. That is, each issue should be clearly related

to the matter at hand. Its oten obvious when some-thing isnt relevant. Whether you like your pizza plain

or with pepperoni, or example, clearly has nothing to

do with this problem. But something like who has

been on the job longer might be relevant. It depends

upon what the ght was about.

One thing to keep in mind, however, is that per-

sonal preerences are oten brought in as issues when

they shouldnt be. For example, you may like certain

members o your production team better than others,

but that doesnt mean that these people are morebelievable than the others. In other words, your riend-

ship with one or the other, or lack thereo, should not

be relevant to the situation. Lessons 4 and 8 have more

to say about this kind o bias.


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PracticeRead the ollowing scenario careully and then answer

the questions that ollow.

You just won rst prize in the local radio station

contest. Now you have to choose between tickets to

an all-expense paid three day trip to Disney World

or a ve day ocean cruise. Your kids are denitely

campaigning or Disney World. Your spouse votes

or the cruise. Your mother told you to sell the tick-

ets and buy a new rerigerator.

5. The main problem or issue is

a. how much un your kids will have at Disney

World.b. who you should listen to beore making the

decision.

c. which tickets you should choose.

d. how long your rerigerator is going to last.

6. What are the parts o the problem?

7. In what order should you address the parts o

the problem?

aw

5. The main problem is choice c, which tickets you

should choose.

6. You may have broken the problem down into the

ollowing parts:

How much will each trip actually cost me out

o pocket?

What do I want to do most?

What does my spouse think?

How will my spouse/kids/mother react i I

dont pick what they want?

How long can I be gone rom work/school?

Can I bring my kids on the cruise?

Whose opinion should I trust? How much are these tickets worth?

7. You should probably address the parts o the

problem in the ollowing order:

How much will each trip actually cost me out

o pocket?

What do I want to do the most?

How long can I be gone rom work/school?

Whose opinion can I trust?

How much are the tickets worth?

How will my spouse/kids/mother react i I

dont pick what they want?

Can I bring my kids on the cruise?

i shr

A problem is any situation or matter that is challeng-

ing to solve, thus requiring you to make a dicult

decision. Breaking problems down can help you make

even big problems manageable. The rst step to eec-

tive problem solving is to clearly identiy the main

problem. Then, break the problem down into its vari-

ous parts. Ater you rank the parts in order o priority,

check to make sure each issue is relevant.


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Take a problem that you come across today and break it down. Identiy the main issue and each o its

parts. Then, prioritize the parts.

While sitcoms oten drastically simpliy the problems we ace in real lie, dramas like Law and Orderand Greys Anatomyor House oten show characters dealing with complex problems. Watch one o

these shows and notice how the characters work through their problems. Do they correctly identiy the

real problem? Do they break it down into its parts? Evaluate their problem-solving strategies.

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i youve ever watched the popular TV series CSI, you know that the investigators on the show rely heavilyon evidence to prove their theories and solve their cases. What does this mean? It means that beore theypoint any ngers, they use scientic proo to justiy their claims.As a viewer, you may have an opinion as to who committed the crime in questionthat is, you maybelieve

it was one character over another. But according to the crime scene investigators, who did what and when is a

matter oact. That is, with enough evidence, they dont believethey knowbecause they canprove it.

Lesson summary

One o the keys to eective critical thinking and reasoning skillsis the ability to distinguish between act and opinion. This lesson

will show you the dierenceand why it matters.

Too oten we . . . enjoy the comort o opinion without the discomort

o thought.

John F. Kennedy,

35th president o the United States (19171963)

tHinking vs.knowing3


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tHinking vs. knowing

D: . op

Beore we go any urther, lets deneactand opinion.

Facts are:

Things known or certain to have happened

Things known or certain to be true

Things known or certain to exist

Opinions, on the other hand, are:

Things believed to have happened

Things believed to be true

Things believed to exist

Essentially, the dierence between act and opin-

ion is the dierence between believing and knowing.Opinions may be based on acts, but they are still what

we think, not what we know. Opinions are debatable;

acts usually are not. A good test or whether something

is a act or opinion is to ask yoursel, Can this state-

ment be debated? Is this known or certain to be true?

I you can answeryes to the rst question, you have an

opinion; i you answeryes to the second, you have a act.

I youre not sure, then its best to assume that its an

opinion until you can veriythat it is indeed a act.

fc: based on what is kow

Oo: based on what is bvd

wh h Dr d op i ipr

When youre making decisions, its important to be

able to distinguish between act and opinionbetweenwhat you or others believe and what you or others

know to be true. When you make decisions, assess oth-

ers arguments, and support your own arguments, use

acts, as they generally carry more weight than opin-

ions. For example, i I try to convince my boss that I

deserve a raise and I use acts to support my argument,

Im much more likely to get that raise than i I simply

use the opinion, I think I deserve one. Notice the

dierence between the ollowing two examples:

I really think I should get a raise. Its about

time, and I deserve it. Ive earned it. I really think I deserve a raise. Ive met all o

my production goals since Ive been here, my

evaluations have been excellent, and I was

employee o the month.

Notice in the second example, acts support the opin-

ion that I deserve a raise.

Furthermore, distinguishing between act and

opinion is important because people will oten pres-

ent their opinions as act. When youre trying to makebig decisions or solve complex problems, you need to

know that youre working with evidence rather than

emotions.

Being aware o acts and opinions when you talk

to others can help you get more amiliar with

them. Be sure that when you are sharing your

opinions with riends, amily or co-workers, tocouch those statements with phrases such as Ive

heard, In my opinion, Ive been told, I

think or I believe. This way your thoughts are

not projected as truths.

tip

PracticeRead the ollowing statements careully. Which o the

ollowing are acts? Opinions? Write an F in the blank

i the statement is a act and an O i it is an opinion.

____ 1. People who have been out o school and in

the workorce or several years make better

students.

____ 2. More people than ever beore are working

or a ew years beore they go to college.


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____ 3. Many companies provide tuition

reimbursement or adults returning to

school or college degrees.

____ 4. Most companies dont provide enoughtuition reimbursement or their employees.

____ 5. At Hornig Steelworks, you wont get

reimbursed unless you earn at least a C in

any course you take.

aw

1. O

2. F

3. F

4. O

5. F

PracticeTo strengthen your ability to distinguish between act

and opinion, try turning a act into an opinion. Heres

a act:

Americans pay ederal, state, and local taxes.

An opinion is something debatable. Here are two

opinions based on this act:

Americans pay too much in taxes.

Americans should pay taxes only i they make over

$40,000.

Now you try it.

6. Fact: Texting causes accidents.

Opinion:

7. Fact: You can vote and go to war at age 18, but

you cant legally drink alcohol until youre 21.

Opinion:

8. Fact: E-mail and other technologies are

making it possible or more people to work

rom home than ever beore.

Opinion:

9. Fact: Most college students are required to

take some liberal arts and science courses, no

matter what their majors.

Opinion:

aw

Answers will vary. Here are sample answers:

6. Texting while driving should be a elony because

it is such a dangerous combination.

7. You should be allowed to drink at the same age

you are eligible to go to war.

8. E-mail and other technologies are great because

they enable us to work rom home.

9. Most colleges should require students to take

both liberal arts and science courses.


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t trh

Try this exercise. Label the ollowing as either act (F)

or opinion (O).

____10. I believe that the government has evidence

o contact with aliens hidden in Roswell,

New Mexico.

____11. The government has evidence o contact

with aliens hidden in Roswell, New Mexico.

You didnt by chance mark the rst claim as O

and the second claim as F, did you? I you did, its easy

to see why. The rst claim ispresented as an opinion(I believe), and it is thereore clearly an opinion. The

second claim, however, is presented as a act. But is it

true? Is it something known or sure? Well, it cant

really be proven or disproved, unless you have access

to secret government documents. Statement 11 is

what is called a tentative truth, since it is neither a act

nor an opinion. Until the truth o that matter can be

veriedespecially a matter that has been so contro-

versial or so many yearsits best to hold on to a

healthy measure o doubt.Tentative truths need not deal with conspiracy

theories or other issues o major importance. They

can deal with issues as simple as this:

Volvos get 30 miles per gallon.

This is a matter o act, and it sounds like some-

thing that should be accepted as true, but unless you

got in a Volvo and drove around, you may not be able

to veriy it. You can tentativelyaccept it as act, espe-cially i the source is credible. Credibility is the key

determinant o whether you should accept acts you

cant veriy yoursel. The next lesson shows you how to

determine credibility.

Credibility o sources is an integral key to deter-

mining acts rom opinions. Beware o credibility

when you use the Internet because it is rie with

unreliable sources. Generally speaking, the sites

ending in .edu, .gov, and .org are more

trustworthy than .com.

tip

PracticeDetermine whether the ollowing claims are acts (F),

opinions (O), or claims that you should accept as ten-

tative truths (TT):

12. An increasing number o television shows can

be accessed on the Internet.

13. The quality o some o the episodes varies

depending on the strength o your computer.

14. Some o the shows you can watch arent very

good, but the selection grows daily.

aw12.F

13.TT (would need verication but seems like a

truthul statement)

14.O


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. op crR

Now lets look at a situation where you will have to use

your critical thinking and reasoning skills to make a

decision and it will be important to distinguish between

act and opinion. Lets return to the example where

you must invest your inheritance rom your great

uncle. In order to make a good decision, you need to

know the dierence between act and opinion. You

also have to be able to recognize when opinions are

based on acts. First, lets continue to practice noticing

the distinction between act and opinion.

Practice 15. Read the ollowing paragraphs careully. High-

light the acts and underline the opinions.

Paragraph A:

There are lots o dierent ways to invest your money.

Many people invest in stocks and bonds, but I think

good old-ashioned savings accounts and CDs (cer-

ticates o deposit) are the best way to invest your

hard-earned money. Stocks and bonds are otenrisky, and it doesnt make sense to gamble with your

hard-earned money. True, regular savings accounts

and CDs cant make you a millionaire overnight or

provide the high returns some stock investments do.

But unless youre an expert, its hard to know which

stocks will provide you with that kind o return.

Besides, savings accounts and CDs are ully insured

and provide steady, secure interest on your money.

That makes a whole lot o cents.

Paragraph B:

Many olks are scared o the stock marketbut they

shouldnt be. True, the stock market is risky, but the

gamble is worth it. Besides, playing it sae requirestoo much patience. The stock market is by ar the

best option or todays investors.

aw

How did you do? Was it easy to distinguish between

act and opinion? Heres what your marked-up pas-

sages should look like:

Paragraph A

There are lots o dierent ways to invest your

money. Many people invest in stocks and bonds,

but I think good old-ashioned savings accounts

and CDs (certicates o deposit) are the best way to

invest your hard-earned money. Stocks and bonds

are oten risky, and it doesnt make sense to gamble

with your hard-earned money. True, regular sav-

ings accounts and CDs cant make you a million-

aire overnight or provide the high returns some

stock investments do. But unless youre an expert,its hard to know which stocks will provide you with

that kind o return. Besides, savings accounts and

CDs are ully insured and provide steady, secure

interest on your money. That makes a whole lot o

cents.

Paragraph B

Many olks are scared o the stock marketbut

they shouldnt be. True, the stock market is risky,but the gamble is worth it. Besides, playing it sae

requires too much patience. The stock market is by

ar the best option or todays investors.


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Youve decided youd like to see a movie tonight, but youre not sure what to see. Youre thinking aboutcatching the latest Steven Spielberg movie, so you decide to nd out what others think o it. Yourcoworker, who goes to the movies at least twice a week, says its one o the best lms hes ever seen,that youll love it. Your sister, a legal secretary who knows you very well, says she thought it was OK, but she thinks

youll hate it. A review in the Times calls it dull and uninspired, a real disappointment. The ull-page ad in

the Times, however, calls it dazzling, a true cinematic triumph, and gives it two thumbs up. So, do you go to

see the movie or not?

In this instance, youre aced with many opinionswhat various people think about the movie. So whose

opinion should you value the most here? How do you make your decision?

Lesson summary

When were aced with opinions and tentative truths, its impor-tant to know how much we can trust our sources and how much

they know about the subject at hand. This lesson will teach you

how to evaluate the credibility o your sources so that you can

make well-inormed decisions.

Begin challenging your own assumptions. Your assumptions are

your windows on the world. Scrub them o every once in awhile, or

the light wont come in.

Alan Alda, American actor (1936)

wHo makestHe claim?4


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wHo makes tHe claim?

D: wh icrd?

When youre aced with a variety o opinions, one o

the most important things to consider is the credi-

bilityo those giving their opinion. That is, you need

to consider whose opinion is the most trustworthy

and valid in the particular situation.

Cdby: believability; trustworthiness

Credibility also plays a very important role when deal-

ing with those tentative truths you encountered in the

last lesson. Whenever youre oered opinions or actsthat you arent comortable accepting and arent able

to veriy, the credibility o your source is crucial in

helping you decide whether or not to accept these

opinions or tentative truths.

H Dr crd

Several actors determine the credibility o a source.

One is your previous experience with that source. Doyou have any reason to doubt the truthulness or reli-

ability o this source based on past experience?

Next, you need to consider your sources poten-

tial or bias as well as level o expertise. But lets return

to our opening scenario or a moment. In this situa-

tion, we have our dierent opinions to consider:

What your coworker thinks

What your sister thinks

What the Times review says What the Times ad says

O the our, which is probably the leastcredible (least

trustworthy) source, and why?

One way to better understand the dierence

between act and opinion is to read the news in

your local newspaper and then again in the tab-

loids. Watch what words are used in each one. See

how many acts you can spot in each story. How

do they dier?

tip

You should have chosen the Times advertisement

as the least credible source. Why? Simply because it is an

ad, and no advertisement is going to say anything bad

about the product its trying to sell, is it? Advertisements

generally have limited credibility because theyre biased.

R b

A bias is an opinion or eeling that strongly avors one

side over others; a predisposition to support one side;

or a prejudice against other sides. The ull-page ad in

the Times clearly has a vested interest in supporting the

movie. No matter how good or how bad it really is, the

ad is going to print only avorable comments so that

you will go see the lm.Advertising has a clear money-making agenda.

But bias is prevalent in everyday situations, too. For

example, you may be less likely to believe what your

neighbor has to say about candidate Warren, simply

because your neighbor keeps thoughtlessly starting

construction on the new addition to his house at 6 a.m.

In that case, youd be infuenced by your annoyance

with your neighbor rather than the validity o his opin-

ion. You need to remember to separate your eelings

about your neighbor rom what he actually has to say.

Similarly, another neighbor may have great things

to say about candidate Warren, but i you know that this

neighbor is Warrens cousin, or that Warren has prom-

ised your neighbor a seat on the local council, then you

can see that your neighbor has something at stake in

getting you to vote or Warren. Its important, thereore,

to know as much as possible about your sources when

deciding how heavily to weigh their opinions.


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aw

5.Knowledge o movies: 1Times review;

2coworker; and 3sister. Even though your

coworker may not be a proessional movie critic

like the writer o the Times review, he goes to see

enough movies to have developed some exper-

tise. You may not agree with his criteria or deter-

mining what makes a good movie, but at least he

should be granted some credibility.

6.Knowledge o you and your taste in movies:

Probably 1sister; 2coworker; and 3Times

review, though this order can vary greatly,

depending on the situation. Where you rank the

Times review depends entirely upon your pastexperience with the Times. I youve never read a

Times review beore or you dont usually, then it

should probably be ranked as the lowest in exper-

tise here. However, i you regularly read the

reviews, you may have ound that you generally

agree with the opinions o the reviewersthat is,

you usually like the movies that get good reviews

and dislike the movies that get poor ones. In this

case, you can rank the Times review rst. On the

other hand, you may have ound that you gener-

ally disagree with the reviewersthat you usually

like the movies that they dont. In that case, the

Times review would be the lowest on your list.

Determining Level of ExpertiseIn many a courtroom, lawyers will call an expert wit-

ness to the stand to support their case. For example, in

a murder case where the deendant is pleading insanity,

the prosecution and the deense might call upon psy-

chologists who can provide expert opinions about the

deendants ability to distinguish between right and

wrong. These expert witnesses are usually outside the

casethat is, they are not involved in the alleged crime

and do not have any relationship to or with the deen-

dant; otherwise, they might be biased.

For this testimony to be helpul to either side,

however, the jury must be convinced that the expert

witness is indeed an expert; they must be assured o his

or her credibility. The lawyers will help establish the

witnesss credibility by pointing out one or more othe ollowing credentials:

Education

Experience

Job or position

Reputation

Achievements

These ve criteria are what you should examine

when determining someones level o expertise andthereore credibility. One category is not necessarily

more important than the other, though generally a

persons education and experience carry the most

weight.

An outstanding expert witness at this trial, there-

ore, might have the ollowing prole:

Dr. Joanne Francis

Education: PhD, Harvard University

Experience: Ten years at County Medical Hospital;15 years at Harvard Psychiatric Center

Position: Chie o Psychiatric Care at Harvard Psy-

chiatric Center; teaches graduate courses at

Harvard

Reputation: Ranked one o the ten best on the East

Coast

Accomplishments: Has won several awards; was

asked to serve on a ederal judicial committee to

establish guidelines or determining insanity;

has written three textbooks and published 20

journal articles

Notice how strong Dr. Francis is in each o the ve

categories.


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PracticeUsing the criteria to determine expertise, read the ol-

lowing choices and choose the source with the most

expertise. Which one do you think has the least? Why?

7. What cell phone you should get:

a. the cell-phone company

b. your children

c. the ad on television

d.Consumer Reports magazine

8. What type o running shoes to buy:

a. your ather

b. the shoe salesperson

c. your coachd. Runners World magazine

9. What to wear to the awards dinner:

a. your best riend

b. your boy/girlriend

c. an article in Cosmo magazine

d.the clerk at Forever 21 store

aw

7.d. The cell-phone company is not about to recom-

mend another phone even i they know it would

be the better choice. They can only promote their

own products and the sales person may even be

working on commission so certainly has a bias.

The same is true o the television ad; its sole pur-

pose is to sell you a product so has a built in bias.

Your children are probably pushing the phone

that happens to come with extras or the amily,

so dont listen to them. The magazine is unbiasedand has no personal interest in your decision

ollow their recommendations.

8.c. Your ather may be looking at the price tag

beore anything else and the salesperson wants to

make a commission on the sale. The magazine

article is denitely better because it is not biased,

but the journalist doesnt know you or your eet.

In the case o shoes, your coach is the authority.

He knows you, how you run, and what you need

on the track to succeed.

9.a. Your best riend is more likely to be honest i

something does or does not look good on you.

Your boy/girlriend is more likely to be biased or

even more reluctant to say something does not

look good. Cosmo doesnt have a clue who you are

and the clerk is looking or a sale, not an honest

opinion.

sp c: ecrd

One o the most dicult but important times to

determine credibility is when there are eyewitnesses to

a crime or other incident. Unortunately, just because

someone was at the scene doesnt mean his or her

account is credible. One obvious actor that can inter-

ere with witness credibility is bias. Lets say two

coworkers, Andrea and Brady, get in a ght. There are

three witnesses. Al is riends with Andrea; Bea is

riends with Brady; and Cecil is riends with both

Andrea and Brady. Chances are that what Al saw will

avor Andrea and what Bea saw will avor Brady. What

Cecil saw, however, will probably be closest to the

unbiased truth.

Other actors can also interere with witness

credibility. I an incident occurs at a bar, or example,

we have several possible intererences. It was probably

dark, smoky, and noisy, and the witnesses may have

been drinking, tired, or simply not paying very much

attention to their surroundings.

In all eyewitness accounts, the longer the time

between the event and the time o questioning, the

more unreliable the account o the witness will most

likely be. Think or a minute about your childhood.


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Did you ever tell a story about something that hap-

pened when you were little, only to be corrected by a

parent or sibling who says, Thats not what hap-

pened? Their version is dierent. Why? Because our

memory ades quickly and can be infuenced by ourown ideas about ourselves and others.

Thus, there are at least our actors that infuence

the credibility o eyewitnesses:

1. Bias

2. Environment

3. Physical and emotional condition o the

witness

4. Time between event and recollection o event

PracticeImagine you are a police ocer who has just arrived at

the scene o a ght between two young men on a street

corner. Three people witnessed the incident, which

occurred at 9:00 P.M. You arrive and begin interview-

ing witnesses at 9:20 P.M. The street corner is well lit.

10. Who do you think is the most credible witness,

and why?

Witness A is an elderly woman who was sitting

on the stoop about ten eet rom the corner.

She was wearing her glasses, but she admits

that she needs a stronger prescription. Her

hearing, however, is ne. She doesnt know

either boy involved in the incident, though

shes seen them around the neighborhood

beore.

Witness B is a riend o one o the boys but

does not know the other. He is an outstanding

student at the local high school and a star

basketball player. He was at the deli around the

corner buying bread when he heard the boys

shouting and came out to see what was going

on. He had just had a ght with his girlriend.

Witness C is a stranger to the neighborhood.

He was crossing the street toward the corner

when the boys started ghting. He has 20/20

vision. He is 45 and has two teenage children.

He was only a ew eet away rom the boyswhen the ght occurred.

aw

10. Though Witness C may have been distracted by

trac, chances are hes the most credible eyewit-

ness. He was heading toward the corner and was

looking at the boys. He may not have been able to

hear what happened in the beginning, but he

should have been able to see exactly what

occurred. His vision is perect and theres no rea-

son to suspect any bias.

Witness A is probably next on the list. Though

she may not have been able to see as clearly as

Witness C, she was close enough to have heard

what passed between the boys. Again, we have

little reason to suspect bias.

Witness B is probably the least credible witness.Though he has a good reputation, he has two

strikes against him. The rst is that he is riends

with one o the boys, so he may be biased. The

second is that he had just had a ght with his

girlriend, so he may have been distracted and not

paying much attention.


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Have you ever been hanging out with a group

o riends and all o you have seen something

happenlike an accident, a ght or a surprise?

What do you think would happen i a police

ocer asked each o you to describe what you

had seen? Chances are, each one o you would

have a slightly dierent version. Everyone would

be telling the truth, but rom his or her own

perspective and through his or her lters. That

is why eyewitnesses may have the best o inten-

tionsbut still be quite wrong.

tip i shr

When youre making decisions and solving problems,

its important to consider the credibility o your

sources. To determine whether a source is trustworthy,

you must rst rule out the potential or bias and then

evaluate the sources level o expertise. Expertise is

determined by education, experience, job or position,

reputation, and achievements. Eyewitness credibility,

on the other hand, must take into consideration the

witnesss potential or bias, the environment, the con-

dition o the witness, and the time lapse between the

event and the witnesss recollection o the event.

As you talk to others today and hear any o their opinions or tentative truths, think about their credibil-

ity. What biases might they have, i any? What is their level o expertise? Remember, a sources cred-

ibility can change depending upon the subject matter o the claim.

Watch a detective or leg

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