Download - Play Intervention
Running head: PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 1
Examining the Use of Play Activities to Increase Appropriate Classroom Behaviors
Kallie LeBrasse
University of St. Thomas
Research Professor: Catherine R. Barber, Ph.D.
December, 2012
Running head: PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 2
Table of Contents
Abstract 4
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
Self- Reflection and Background Information 5
The Current Study 9
Justification 10
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
Introduction 13
Play Therapy Techniques for Young Children 13
Structured play therapy 14
Non-directive child-centered play therapy 19
Multicultural Considerations 21
Play Therapy within Schools 26
Influence of Play Therapy on Children’s Behavior and Social Skills 31
Behavior 31
Social skills 34
Summary 38
Chapter 3: Method 40
Participants 40
Measures 41
Design 42
Procedure 43
Baseline period 43
Running head: PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 3
Treatment period 43
Posttest period 44
Data Analysis Plan 45
Ethical Issues 46
Chapter 4: Results 47
Chapter 5: Discussion 50
Strengths and Limitations 51
Recommendations and Action Planning 52
References 55
Appendix 59
Running head: PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 4
Abstract
This one group pretest-posttest experimental study investigated the importance of addressing a
child’s social needs at school to increase the occurrence of socially appropriate classroom
behaviors. This study observed five groups of boys’ interaction with each other during small
group play activities and guidance lessons within classroom. Throughout their play, the boys
were given mini social skills lessons to help facilitate and practice appropriate behaviors during
the play activities. The entire Kindergarten class, consisting of 26 students, was involved in the
lessons and activities. The 20 participants were gathered through the signing of an informed
consent form allowing me to utilize their data in my report. During the play activities, the boys
were observed within their classroom to document the occurrence of the noted behaviors during
baseline, midpoint, and posttest periods. Results indicated that the participants’ verbal, motor,
and passive off-task behaviors significantly decreased from baseline to posttest observations.
Strength, limitations, and implications of the results are discussed, and future research is also
recommended.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 5
Chapter 1
Introduction
Self-Reflection and Background Information
The importance of play in a child’s life is based on the developmental
understandings according to Piaget (as cited in Landreth, Ray, & Bratton, 2009). In order
to acquire a complete understanding of children, their world, and their experiences, it is
necessary to understand the framework from which they work. Piaget described two
stages in which most elementary-aged children function, preoperational (2-7 years) and
concrete operational (8-11 years) (as cited in Landreth et al., 2009). In a typical
Kindergarten classroom, the students can be expected to enter at a preoperational stage
and few may progress into the concrete operational stage by the end of their first grade
year. Most young children experience significant challenges during their transition from
pre-Kindergarten classes to Kindergarten, which may be observable through changes in
their external or internal behaviors (Sink, Edwards, & Weir, 2007). During this
transition, more focus is placed on academics than previous experienced by these
students.
During the preoperational stage, the stage most associated with Kindergarten
students, children are acquiring essential language skills (Landreth et al., 2009). The
preoperational stage is often categorized as the magical thinking stage, in which
children’s play behaviors are imaginary, as they attempt to explain things for which they
do not have an understanding. During this stage, children lack the understanding of their
own and other’s emotions and feelings. At a young age, a child’s most effective means
of communication is through play, allowing for creative expression and processing.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 6
Because of the limited communicative ability during the preoperational stage, children
must be given the opportunity to express themselves and their experiences in a constraint-
free environment that promotes effective communication.
Within my current school, a private boys’ Catholic school, the boys’ first
experience with formal learning is in Kindergarten. These children are expected to meet
or exceed necessary academic standards by the end of each grade, as determined by state
and national standards (Blanco & Ray, 2011). The pressure placed on teachers to ensure
that all students succeed inhibits the time necessary to teach social skills, allow for
developmental processing time, and provide appropriate activities, such as free-play.
Social skills are essential in Kindergarten, as children are developing through the
preoperational stage. Children in this stage are beginning to reason logically, but have
not yet developed necessary verbal skills to adequately express their thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors (Hall, Kaduson, & Schaefer, 2002; Landreth et al., 2009). Schools expect
their students to meet necessary academic gains despite the child’s limited ability to
communicate his needs. Play can help a child make a connection between his concrete
understandings, the experiences learned and understood, and abstract events, such as
thoughts and feelings (Landreth et al., 2009). Through play, children are given the
opportunity to overcome emotional and social limitations that could potentially impede
their academic achievement (Blanco & Ray, 2011).
In order for play to be an effective means of communication, many factors must
exist. Expression through play can only be effective when presented in a safe, caring
environment (Lawver & Blankenship, 2008). This safe environment helps the child work
on self-esteem and social anxieties without the fear of breaking rules or pleasing the
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 7
teacher. Due to the constraints necessary to promote and maintain acceptable behavior, a
classroom environment often fails to provide the safe space in which children can work
on self-esteem and social anxieties (Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver & Wehby, 2010).
Therefore, children need a different, constraint-free, environment where they can express
feelings and act out experiences. The establishment of a positive, safe environment
where students have the opportunity to express themselves helps support children’s
behavior and academic needs (Partin et al., 2010).
Within a safe environment, the child needs to be actively involved in building a
relationship with the teacher or school counselor as the play is occurring. The school
counselor must employ empathy and acceptance throughout the interaction with the
students while they play. Empathy on the part of the school counselor helps the child feel
understood and is another important factor while facilitating play (Beaty-O’Ferrall,
Green, & Hanna, 2010). The school counselor models empathy and acceptance and, in
turn, teaches these skills to the children within the group. As children play in their group,
they also begin to build empathy for each other, as they familiarize themselves with and
relate to each other’s experiences.
Without the use of play to bridge concrete and abstract thoughts, a child may
become overly frustrated with the stressors found in school environments. These external
stressors, along with other emotional factors, could result in classroom misbehaviors,
such as verbal, motor, and passive off-task behaviors, as well as out-of-seat behaviors.
Children with disruptive behaviors, as explained above, present difficulties for their peers
and teachers (Cochran, Cochran, Nordling, McAdam, & Miller, 2010). Until recently in
my current school setting, interventions and activities to help children alleviate
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 8
misbehaviors or express emotional or social needs were not available. Due to a lack of
attention to the emotional and social needs of children, many elementary-aged students
are likely to become unhappy while at school, as they face their increasing emotional and
social pain without support or guidance (Blanco & Ray, 2011; Cochran et al., 2010). In
an attempt to express his needs, a child will misbehave to gain control of his unresolved
emotional and social difficulties.
There is evidence that suggests that childhood disruptive behaviors lead to
academic failure, which elevates the risk for a depressed mood and continued
misbehaviors (Cochran et al., 2010). Therefore, schools must work to implement an
effective intervention that addresses emotional and social concerns and disruptive
behaviors, thereby increasing student learning. Currently, disruptive behaviors that occur
within the classroom are handled through various classroom management techniques,
such as token reward systems, color-coded rating scales, punitive punishments, and
teacher-managed/directed interventions. Various researchers have demonstrated the
effectiveness of the above techniques, yet these techniques are teacher-managed and
based on extrinsic rewards; they do not facilitate personal growth within the child. These
extrinsic rewards work to temporarily eliminate undesirable behaviors, but behaviors
categorized as being good, such as respect and responsibility, are not internalized.
Therefore, as a student continues to misbehave, despite the efforts of the teacher, the
teacher begins to lessen interactions with the student to avoid triggering or escalating the
current misbehaviors (Partin et al., 2010). The child inadvertently learns that he is not
worthy of respect, attention, or a caring relationship, which can directly affect the child’s
developing self-worth.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 9
Through play, the focus is switched to the preceding problematic behaviors or
emotions, thus allowing a child self-expression (Kern & Clemens, 2007). Self-expression
helps the child become aware of his choices and therefore promotes self-direction
(Cochran et al., 2010). When a child sees that he has the ability to overcome and control
his own behaviors, in a supportive caring environment, he is developing a positive sense
of self-worth. The purpose of play is two-fold, to be proactive in nature allowing children
the opportunity to communicate in their own way before problematic behaviors present
themselves and reactive as a means to express feelings and concerns that have arisen due
to the inability to communicate effectively within the classroom.
The Current Study
This study investigated the outcome of teaching social skills strategies practiced
through play activities to address a child’s social needs at school. Specifically through
these mini-lessons, it was anticipated that the boys would choose classroom behaviors
that promoted learning and achievement. The behaviors that were observed for this study
are recognized as a decrease in motor off-task, verbal off-task, passive off-task, and out
of seat behaviors, and therefore an increase in on-task behaviors. Students met in small
groups to practice these social skills through play activities. The play activities are
designed to promote appropriate interactions and communication as the children interact
during play. Throughout their play, the boys were also given mini social skills lessons to
help facilitate and practice appropriate social interactions during the play activities. The
participants’ sessions, in total, focused on the development of social skills, limit setting,
and self-expression.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 10
I predicted that by addressing the social needs of children through play, teachers
could expect to see an increase in on-task classroom behaviors and a decrease in motor,
verbal, and passive off-task behaviors. This quantitative study used a one group pretest-
posttest experimental design that utilized a coded observational form, that documented
the occurrence of on-task, motor off-task, verbal off-task, passive off-task, and out of seat
behaviors among the participating Kindergarten boys during the baseline, midpoint, and
posttest periods.
Justification
This study presented educators with an alternative to temporary behavior
modification techniques and an option for developmentally appropriate interventions.
This study gave educators necessary understandings about play in the elementary school
setting and how the opportunity for play could potentially address the emotional and
social needs of students, thus promoting appropriate classroom behaviors and increasing
student achievement.
In their study about school children’s play, Gmitrova, Podhajecka, and Gmitov
(2009) described play as a “well-established curriculum component of childhood
education” (p. 339). Gmitrova et al. also made a connection between a child’s cognitive
competence and his quality of play. Pretend play, as described by these authors, is the
ability to transform objects symbolically and act out emotions or experiences. According
to Gmitrova et al., which supports Landreth et al.’s (2009) study, pretend play is an
integral component of helping a child develop language skills and cognitions. Therefore,
play is important for academic readiness and success in school.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 11
Harpine, Nitza, and Conyne (2010) studied how group prevention for disruptive
behaviors helps children understand that they are not alone in their experiences,
emotions, or struggles. As children play, they recognize the similarities between their
inner struggles and those of other group members. Harpine et al. noted that prevention
group interventions are helpful in acquiring new skills, such as social skills practiced
during play. The research done by Harpine and colleagues highlighted the interactive
involvement between children as they play, providing a hands-on learning experience
with a focus on their new social skill. Higher academic achievement has been seen in
elementary-aged children who participated in prevention groups due to the early
intervention for a child’s emotional and social distress (Harpine et al., 2010).
In a preventative playgroup, children learn essential social skills similar to the
ones promoted in Landreth et al.’s (2009) study. Landreth and colleagues list six essential
skills discovered and developed during play. Their list includes skills necessary to accept
and respect themselves, assume responsibility for themselves, be creative and resourceful
in confronting problems, maintain self-control and self-direction, and make choices, as
well as being responsible for these choices. As children play together, they live out their
moments with toys. The play represents past experiences and the feelings (Landreth et al.,
2009). Therefore, the counselor can facilitate and promote the use of appropriate social
skills as the children play and relate to each other.
Through group play, children begin to understand that they all share similar fears,
emotions, experiences, and problems (Harpine et al., 2010). Group play intervention is
also a culturally sensitive approach, as the child has the freedom to communicate through
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 12
play in a way that is most comfortable and typical for his culture and experiences
(Landreth et al., 2009).
I was interested to observe how applied interventions in my school community
could help support students’ emotional and social needs. As the students’ needs were
met through a group play intervention, I was hoping to see a decrease in their off-task
behaviors within the classroom, thus helping the participants make necessary adaptations
to the school environment and letting them experience success.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 13
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Introduction
In an attempt to address the social, emotional, and academic needs of all children,
research has been done to assess the effectiveness of various techniques used by teachers
and school counselors. Studies have examined play therapy’s effectiveness, as opposed to
temporary behavior modifications frequently seen throughout elementary schools. With
an attempt to view the strengths, limitations, and implications for future research within
the area of play therapy, the current review of the literature focused on play therapy
techniques for young children, multicultural considerations while using play as a
counseling method, play therapy in regards to the school setting, and play therapy’s
influence on behavior and social skills.
Play Therapy Techniques for Young Children
The importance of play, as well as the use of play therapy in clinical settings, has
been highly researched. The different techniques chosen by a therapist during a play
therapy session are selected based on the extensive variety of developmentally
appropriate play approaches that focus on helping the child become aware of and express
his or her feelings, improve self-control and self-direction, and increase empowerment
and problem-solving skills (Hall et al., 2002). Play therapy techniques should promote
the use of play to help children develop the verbal skills necessary to process through
their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors (Hall et al., 2002). Due to a lack of time in
schools, school counselors may find it beneficial to integrate various theories,
approaches, and techniques within one play session. School counselors may also find it
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 14
beneficial to use this variety of approaches and techniques to address the different needs
of the students seen in a counseling group or individually. Some techniques require a
more structured approach in the playroom, while others are child-centered; both
approaches will be reviewed here to assess their use with students.
Structured play therapy. Structured play therapy (SPT), as described by Jones,
Casado, and Robinson (2003), is directed and facilitated by the therapist, in which the
therapist presents specific activities that address issues important to the development of a
child. Jones et al. describe the role of the therapist in SPT as using structured activities to
direct the therapeutic process and create structure in the play session; this way the child is
led in a direction that will be most beneficial. In SPT, the therapist designates a goal for
each session and designs specific activities to address the child’s difficulties (Jones et al.,
2003). Throughout SPT, Jones et al. remind the therapist to be cognizant of the timing in
which he or she focuses on certain issues. Jones et al. warn therapists to only focus on
themes that the child is prepared to overcome. In order to avoid pushing the child too
quickly, Jones et al. recommend planning for and choosing appropriate structured
exercises; the timing of exercises cannot be overemphasized in SPT. Throughout the
course of therapy, the therapist must be mindful of the child’s readiness to approach new
themes/difficulties (Jones et al., 2003). Jones et al. propose a flexible framework that
allows the child to focus on activities when they deem ready.
Jones et al.’s (2003) ultimate goal of SPT is to help children learn new skills,
express their feelings, acknowledge difficulties, and deal with painful situations in a safe
environment. Although many structured activities exist, therapists must remain mindful
that little research has been done to address appropriate sequencing of activities (Jones et
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 15
al., 2003). Jones et al. emphasize the effectiveness of SPT with reluctant children and
adolescents older than seven years of age, who have the cognitive development to focus
and process through the therapy session. The authors present SPT as an effective therapy
focusing on symptom relief and specific themes/issues that result in the child’s
misbehaviors.
Hall and colleagues (2002) chose fifteen therapist-directed effective play therapy
techniques that they believed to address pertinent problems in school-aged children, such
as anxiety, depression, impulsivity, distractibility, and noncompliance. Hall et al. outlined
the therapeutic rationale, description, and application of their chosen techniques. Many
activities chosen by Hall et al. focused on the opportunity for children to communicate
their feelings in a safe environment. Other activities focused on specific feelings, most
commonly anger. The activities helped the child understand what emotions are and how
to express them appropriately.
The feeling word game is an example of a structured technique that allows
children to communicate their feelings in a non-threatening manner (Hall et al., 2002).
During this game, children are to name feelings that a child their age may have. The
counselor then writes these feelings on a card. The counselor lines up the feeling cards
and hands the children a set of poker chips. As the counselor tells a story about himself or
herself, the children place the chips on the appropriate feeling cards. Another example of
a structured game illustrated by Hall and colleagues is the mad game. This game is
designed to show children that anger is a common and acceptable feeling. This game
allows children to verbally and kinesthetically express their anger. During the mad game,
children will be given blocks. Each person will place a block on top of a previously
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 16
existing block when it is his or her turn. Each time they place a block on the tower, the
children will express something that makes them angry. Once all of the blocks are
stacked, the children are asked to think of one last thing that makes them angry and
knock down the stack of blocks. These illustrated techniques are only a couple creative
and directive play therapy strategies that encourage a child’s emotional acceptance and
expression.
Hall et al. (2002) emphasize the importance of acquiring a greater number of play
therapy techniques to ensure that the therapist will have the “right tool” for assisting the
individual student. Hall et al. recognize the need for future research in this area to assess
the significant gains they believe to be associated with these various techniques, as well
as the creative potential of play therapists and the play therapy theory.
The use of games in the playroom is another commonly utilized form of
counselor-directed therapy. Swank (2008) describes directive game play as an approach
that incorporates games into the play therapy process to develop social skills, self-
discipline, cooperation, socialized competition, concentration, leadership, emotional
control, tolerance, and problem solving. Swank emphasizes the use of game play with
older students to help engage them at their own developmental play level. As children
play games, they develop a social setting in which they are practicing social rules and
boundaries, thus allowing social learning to occur (Swank, 2008).
Swank (2008) recommends that therapists use a beginning, middle, and end
structure when implementing game play. The therapist must be conscious of choosing a
game that addresses the therapeutic issue identified for the student. The beginning of the
session introduces the game to the student and engages the student’s interest. During
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 17
game play, the therapist assists the student in processing through issues that may arise.
The session ends with the therapist and student processing the game play experience and
relating the experience to the student’s own life.
Three categories of games were introduced in Swank’s (2008) study. Games
involving physical skill, strategy games, and chance games were discussed, as well as
limitations of their use. Physical skills games were used with children recognized as
having hyperactivity and impulsive behaviors. Swank recommended the use of darts or
tag for these children. The space limitations with physical skills games must be noted,
especially within schools, where confidentiality could be breached in an open-area.
Swank utilized strategy games as a means to teach socialization, problem-solving, and
responsibility for choices and consequences. Strategy games such as chess or checkers
require that the child have an appropriate cognitive ability and the focus necessary to
understand and follow the rules of the game. Therapists must be aware that strategy
games have the potential to take away from the therapeutic factor during game play due
to the concentration required to play the game. Games of chance are used to introduce the
child to the use of games in the playroom. Because the results of chance games are
uncontrolled by the child, Swank recognizes the risk of non-responsibility in one’s
control of the game outcomes. Swank also cautions therapists to use games carefully to
ensure that the games used have a clear therapeutic purpose and the identified goals are
clear. The focus of the session should remain on the process during game play and not on
the outcome of the game.
Therapists have only reported effective game play during discussions about their
experiences, as opposed to actual scientific research (Swank, 2008). Further research will
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 18
be needed to examine the specific processes and outcomes of game play during play
therapy sessions, as well as their effectiveness as an intervention.
Taylor (2009) examined the effective use of combining solution-focused and sand
tray therapies to work with children. This author describes solution-focused therapy as a
verbal therapy that uses carefully worded remarks that acknowledge a client’s strengths
and utilizes these strengths to solve current and future problems. Taylor explained how
the application of solution-focused therapy with children differs from its application with
adults in its use of developmentally appropriate language and the reliance on play
approaches. Solution-focused therapy, as portrayed by Taylor, emphasizes the clients’
abilities and coping skills, brings these skills into the awareness of clients, and develops
these skills to overcome past and current difficulties.
Taylor (2008) also illustrated the use of sand-tray therapy as a nonverbal
communication tool that utilizes small miniatures within a sand-tray to facilitate a client’s
healing and strengthen the client’s existing resources. Taylor described the use of sand-
tray as a way for children to build and express their existing experiences in a kinesthetic
manner.
In addition to analyzing the characteristics of solution-focused and sand-tray
therapies, Taylor (2008) also explained their similarities. In Taylor’s review, the
principles of each technique were examined and a list of similarities was generated.
Taylor outlined similarities such as empowering the client to become a master of his own
life, capitalizing on the client’s strengths and resiliencies, allowing room for the client to
express painful memories, and promote healing within self.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 19
Solution-focused therapy contains five stages: the client describes the problem,
the client explores the exceptions, the client develops his goals, the therapist gives
feedback at the end of the session, and the therapist evaluates the client’s progress
(Taylor, 2008). Taylor described each stage and demonstrated how sand tray and
solution-focused therapies could be integrated. With the integration of solution-focused
and sand-tray therapies, Taylor emphasized the opportunity for clients to experience the
positive and empowering approach of these two techniques. Yet, Taylor also recognized
the need for further research to determine the efficacy of this integrated approach with
specific problems and specific age groups. Limitations may be found when incorporating
this technique with younger children, clients who have a lower cognitive ability, or those
with poor abstract reasoning skills.
Non-directive child-centered play therapy. Conversely, Guerney (2001)
presents child-centered play therapy (CCPT), a therapy based on the assumption that
therapy will be most effective when the child is allowed to take responsibility for the
direction of play. CCPT aims to create a supportive environment in which the child
experiences self-direction and growth (Bratton, Ray, Edwards, & Landreth, 2009).
Guerney (2001) explains the importance of the therapist trusting the child to direct the
course of therapy to best fit his or her inner self. Therefore, the child begins to develop a
stronger self-concept, leading to more mature behavior, without ever having to target the
presenting issues overtly (Guerney, 2001).
Bratton et al. (2009) recognize the need for the therapist to identify specific play
behaviors of the child to highlight the underlying problems and gain insight into the
child’s world. In this model, the perception of the child’s reality is accepted and followed
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 20
by the therapist without challenges, which distinguishes CCPT from SPT (Bratton et al.,
2009). Bratton et al. describe the child as the expert of his or her life and therefore the
child will lead the therapy in the direction that will best meet his or her needs with the
full support of the therapist. CCPT emphasizes the development of an empathetic,
accepting relationship between the child and therapist that helps to facilitate an
atmosphere that allows free expression. CCPT also emphasizes play therapists’ ability to
recognize and accurately reflect on the child’s feelings, thus gaining insight into the
underlying problem and promoting the child’s inherent ability to solve his own problems.
As CCPT develops, the therapist understands the necessity for therapy to progress
gradually. It is important that the therapist establishes limits only when absolutely
necessary to allow the child control of the experience. Yet, the use of limits helps
illustrate the child’s responsibility within the therapeutic relationship (Bratton et al.,
2009; Guerney, 2001).
Although CCPT is child directed, Guerney explains the degree of predictability
with which children will move through the stages of play therapy. Guerney labeled the
stages as warm-up, aggressive, regressive, and mastery stages. During the warm-up
stage, Guerney observes children beginning to adjust to the playroom, therapist, and
leadership role to which they have been assigned. Guerny describes the aggressive stage
as one in which the children begin to feel secure enough to begin dealing with the
problems that are masked by their external or internal behaviors. Guerney describes the
regressive stage as the point in which the child uses the nurturing toys to regress into a
developmental stage that they have already mastered. Finally, the mastery stage is
categorized by the child’s change in roles from being the aggressor or regressing, to
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 21
being the hero, or showing progress toward the verbalization of his feelings and increased
self-worth.
According to Bratton et al. (2009), CCPT has a long history of research to support
its use in dealing with children’s difficulties. Bratton et al. indicate that with 60 years of
research, play therapy is most likely the longest researched intervention for children.
Most recently, Bratton et al. demonstrated that the research has found CCPT to positively
impact internal and external behavior problems, self-efficacy, self-concept, anxiety,
stress, and depression among children. Although the research supports the efficacy of the
use of CCPT with children, Bratton et al. recognize the restrictive generalizability of
CCPT research as it is limited by small sample sizes. Therefore, the effectiveness of play
therapy is often studied with meta-analyses of various related studies.
Multicultural Considerations
There is an increase in the growth of ethnic and racial diversity in the United
States as evidenced by the United States Census (Chang, Ritter, & Hays, 2005; Hinman,
2003). In order to meet the social and emotional needs of all people, The Association for
Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) established multicultural
counseling competencies in which counselors must be trained (Chang et al., 2005). The
framework presented by AMCD guides the counselors’ knowledge of their own cultural
values, the clients’ worldview, and appropriate implementation of culturally appropriate
intervention strategies (Chang et al., 2005). Along with this, Hinman (2003) emphasizes
the need of play therapists to provide culturally sensitive and appropriate services to
children within various cultures. Regardless of a child’s cultural background, play
therapy literature suggests that play therapy is the developmentally appropriate form of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 22
therapy for all children (Ritter & Chang, 2002). The Association for Play Therapy (APT)
and AMCD suggest that therapists begin to develop their own cultural identities, identify
any biases, and gain necessary knowledge about their clients’ cultural framework, in
order to work effectively with clients from a variety of cultures (Chang et al., 2005).
Chang et al. (2005) describe the importance of fostering a culturally sensitive and
appropriate environment within the playroom and modifying play language and toys for
multicultural children. Therefore, a play therapist can communicate acceptance to the
child, including any cultural aspects within that relationship (Chang et al., 2005). By
exploring the child’s cultural identity, the counselor can develop an understanding of the
child’s experiences and how they may influence current difficulties (Hinman, 2003).
Research has suggested that play therapy within schools is effective with diverse
populations, yet Chang et al. (2005) address the limited research and literature about
multicultural issues in counseling, especially within play therapy.
Hinman (2003) discusses multicultural considerations that must be made during
the delivery of play therapy services. According to the author, play therapists can
improve their effectiveness with multicultural children in various ways. The play
therapist must extend his or her knowledge about specific cultures, especially those
cultures in which the therapist serves (Hinman, 2003). Hinman describes how a basic
knowledge about the child’s culture can help the therapist deliver effective services and
join with the parents in providing necessary resources and information about the culture.
Hinman explains that a working relationship with the child’s parents is established when
the play therapists increase their understandings about cultural influences on a child and
the impact of these various experiences. As the play therapist’s understandings of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 23
different cultures increases, the therapist will begin to understand how the child copes
with difficulties. As a result, Hinman presents play therapy as a safe environment in
which children can explore the meaning of their cultural framework and identity.
Hinman (2003) illustrates the limitations of a play therapist while working with
multicultural children. Hinman advises therapists to have open communication about
cultural limits, as it helps develop a mutual learning experience with the child and the
child’s family. Play therapy is an effective tool that serves children from a variety of
cultural backgrounds; if play therapists continue to educate themselves about the cultures
in which they serve, they can develop a practice that effectively works with each client
(Hinman, 2003).
Chang et al. (2005) conducted a study to gain knowledge about play therapists’
perceptions of multicultural trends in play therapy and methods by which play therapists
address cultural diversity in their playrooms. Chang et al.’s study surveyed 505 play
therapists who were registered with the APT and were recruited through a purposive
sampling procedure. The survey in the study asked two open-ended questions and
included a seven item demographic form; the questions were analyzed, and results were
grouped based on a variety of characteristics.
Results from Chang et al.’s (2005) study indicate that respondents were more
likely to reply about toys used to address multicultural issues, as opposed to what trends
they noticed among multicultural clients. Chang et al. commented on the noticeably high
occurrence of respondents’ observations about the increase of multicultural play items,
which are now available from vendors. Despite this increase in multicultural play items,
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 24
Chang et al. noted that many children, no matter their culture, would most often use
animal families when depicting their own.
Chang et al.’s (2005) study reported that several play therapists observed no
multicultural trends in their playrooms, while others observed an influx in their
multicultural clients, as well as differences among children in their play. These same
respondents in the study recognized their clients as culturally diverse and emphasized the
need for all play therapists to acknowledge cultural issues. Although the survey data
collected by Chang et al. indicated that the majority of play therapists observed
differences in play among multicultural children, the authors could not draw a conclusion
about whether play therapists actually conduct their sessions differently with
multicultural children compared to their Caucasian peers. Further research must evaluate
the modifications made for multicultural children. Additionally, Chang et al. recommend
that a qualitative study be conducted to provide more information about which techniques
or materials play therapists find effective with their multicultural children.
Chang et al. (2005) also described the various limitations in their study. These
limitations include how the self-report nature of the survey could have swayed the
respondents to respond in a socially acceptable manner as opposed to reporting their true
practices. The survey’s rate of return and the lack of follow-up with respondents were
also limitations recognized by Chang et al. The authors revealed that neither the survey
nor demographic questionnaire addressed the multicultural background of the play
therapist.
In a quantitative study by Ritter and Chang (2002), 134 registered play therapists
were surveyed to explore their self-perceived multicultural competencies and adequacy of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 25
multicultural training. Ritter and Chang distributed The Multicultural Counseling
Competence and Training Survey consisting of 32 Likert-type questions. Out of the 505
surveys Ritter and Chang distributed, only 149 were returned, and only 134 were
completed accurately enough for analysis, a return rate of slightly less than 30%. Results
of Ritter and Chang’s research suggest that overall play therapists reported being
multiculturally competent, yet perceived their multicultural training as inadequate. The
play therapists’ years of experience appeared to have no association with their perceived
competencies or adequacy of training. However, Ritter and Chang found a significant
difference in perceived competency between play therapists who were enrolled in
multicultural courses and those who were not. Overall, the more multicultural classes in
which play therapists had participated, the more adequate they rated themselves and the
more highly they rated their trainings (Ritter and Chang, 2002). Ritter and Chang suggest
that the play therapists surveyed were most competent with multicultural awareness and
terminology and less competent with racial identity development.
Ritter and Chang recognize their main limitation as the rate of return for their
distributed surveys. The results gained from the limited sample would be hard to
generalize. Ritter and Chang realize that these results are a foundation for further
research. These authors similarly recommend play therapists to become aware of their
own limitations and seek additional training when necessary. Ritter and Chang
recommend that future research in this area be done qualitatively to examine how a play
therapist becomes multiculturally competent, and to gain information regarding specific
weaknesses that were not self-reported.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 26
Play Therapy within Schools
The use of therapeutic play originated in clinical settings and was seen as a viable
counseling option for children (Shen, 2008). In recent school counseling literature,
researchers are encouraging the use of play therapy as a counseling method for
elementary school counselors (Ray, Muro, & Schumann, 2004). Research has
documented that elementary school children respond positively to creative interventions
utilized in schools (Green & Christensen, 2006). Play therapy is a counseling method that
demonstrates a creative process that encourages a child’s academic, social, and emotional
development (Green & Christensen, 2006). Researchers have studied the use of play
therapy in elementary schools as a part of the responsive services component within the
school’s comprehensive school guidance program (Green & Christensen, 2006; Ray et
al., 2004). The role of play therapy, as a remediation intervention, is implemented to help
decrease maladaptive behaviors associated with academic, social, and emotional
development within a child (Green & Christensen, 2006). The recommended
incorporation of play therapy into a school’s guidance curriculum has been seen in
various research studies, yet Ray et al. (2004) indicate that many school counselors only
integrate play therapy into the remedial portion of the school’s program. School
counselors need to integrate the skills and knowledge from play therapy trainings into all
components of the existing school guidance program (Ray et al., 2004).
Ray et al. (2004) conducted a study that described a yearlong play therapy
program provided to an elementary school of approximately 750 students of a diverse
population. The study attempted to provide a description of the strengths and limitations
associated with using play therapy in an elementary school setting. The authors of the
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 27
study along with seven other play therapists used a child-centered play therapy approach
while working within the school. Ray and colleagues also took on the roles of consultant
to the counseling program, coordinator of the playroom and play therapy program, and
clinical consultant for the social workers, school counselors, teachers, and administrators.
The study was broken into three components: play therapy, filial therapy for teachers and
parents, and teacher education. Ray et al. addressed the strengths and limitations of each
component within their study.
Due to the nature of the current study, the child-centered play therapy component
in Ray and colleagues’ study (2004) will be the focus of this review. This component of
Ray et al.’s study was met with various limitations due to the nature of the school setting,
yet implications for future research were also found. Before participants were gathered,
Ray et al. and the seven other play therapists needed to address restrictions, such as the
teachers’ willingness to allow 30 minutes of the child’s instructional time to participate in
play therapy, locations of playrooms, as well as the availability and space allotment of
these rooms, cost of materials, and lastly, the use of the term “therapy” within the school
system. Once the limitations of child-centered play therapy within the school were
addressed or recognized, Ray et al. began to gather participants through parent or teacher
referrals. In this study, parents were asked to contact the school counselor if they felt
their child needed remedial services for behavioral or coping difficulties. It should be
noted that the study did not specify what constituted a behavioral or coping difficulty. If a
child was referred for play therapy, Ray et al. advised the school counselor to send home
a permission slip for the parents to sign. In the end, the study gathered 32 children who
would attend the play therapy sessions.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 28
Ray et al. (2004) attempted to collect data that quantified the progress made by
the children through their experience with play therapy, yet the data were compromised
due to transition among students and teachers. However, Ray et al. did analyze and
document office referrals for behavioral disturbances and found a decrease in the amount
of referrals among the children that participated in play therapy compared to their records
prior to the intervention. In addition, final teacher interviews conducted by Ray and
colleagues demonstrated positive changes in classroom behaviors among the play therapy
children.
During Ray et al.’s study (2004), the play therapists expressed challenges with the
shift of their roles from mental health professionals to school interventionists. The study
also indicated a challenge with communication between the play therapists and teachers.
Due to the lack of a control group, it is difficult to determine whether the therapy was
responsible for improvements among participants. In future research, an increase in
communication between therapist/school counselor and the teacher may increase the
teacher’s understandings of the child’s struggles, the awareness about why change may
be occurring within the classroom, and the escalated or subdued behaviors exhibited by
the child (Ray et al., 2004).
In light of the positive implications of Ray et al.’s study (2004), Shen (2008)
researched the reasons that prevented elementary school counselors from implementing
play therapy into their guidance curriculum. Shen examined the influencing reasons
preventing Texas school counselors’ use of play therapy in school using a quantitative
survey method. The participants for Shen’s study were selected through systematic,
stratified sampling that distributed a questionnaire to 960 Texas school counselors, of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 29
whom only 239 responded. The results of the study indicated that school counselors
apply play therapy for many positive reasons, such as intervention advantages, rewarding
counseling outcomes, and empirical data. In contrast, school counselors surveyed in this
study also indicated counselor competencies and resource constraints as reasons to avoid
implementation of play therapy. Although the study specified more positive reasons for
implementation, the negative reasons hindering the counselors dominated the school
counselors’ ability to confidently apply play therapy techniques.
Shen’s results support the idea that elementary school counselors’ lack of time
and training, as well as the out-of-pocket costs associated with the play therapy materials,
contribute to their lack of confidence in practicing play therapy techniques. Implications
for growth, as indicated by Shen, could help facilitate the use of play therapy within
schools. Shen recommends that school counselors attend play therapy workshops, and
that play therapy classes be added into counselor training programs at universities. Shen
also recommends that administrators seriously consider releasing non-counseling duties
and allocate more of their budget to the school counselors, in order to meet students’
counseling needs. Lastly, this study encourages further research in the area of play
therapy in schools to provide empirical data on its effectiveness (Shen, 2008).
Elementary school children’s perception of play therapy in the school setting is an
important aspect of the research and literature concerned with play therapy. Green and
Christensen (2006) conducted a study to investigate elementary school children’s
perceptions of play therapy when utilized by their school counselor. Green and
Christensen studied seven elementary school children who were currently engaged in
play therapy with their school counselor. Due to the nature of the study, Green and
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 30
Christensen conducted qualitative research and collected data using interviews, personal
observations, and document reviews.
The results of the study done by Green and Christensen (2006) were divided into
three categories: therapeutic relationship, emotional expressiveness, and creative play.
The participants indicated several factors within the therapeutic relationship to which
they attributed their successes in play therapy. These factors include their freedom to
choose whether they preferred to play or verbalize their emotions and experiences, the
empathy and acceptance of the school counselors while the children played, and the
collaborative problem-solving between counselor and student. The students indicated
their comfort in knowing that someone (the school counselor) accurately understood their
problems and could help to find solutions (Green & Christensen, 2006). The children also
indicated different factors within Green and Christensen’s category of emotional
expressiveness. The participants in the study perceived emotional expressiveness in terms
of safety, fun, and their process of change. The process of change, as described by the
children, was linked to their perceptions of how they made better choices, experienced a
decrease in anxiety, changed their misbehaviors, experienced an increase in self-worth,
and noticed an increase in empathy for others. Participants in Green and Christensen’s
study then identified the most enjoyable play activities as sand play, role play/drama, and
artwork/drawing.
Green and Christensen (2006) also indicated limitations and future research
implications for their study. The study’s limitations are inherent with a qualitative study,
such as the researcher’s biases and the inability to generalize the findings to the entire
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 31
population. Another problematic restriction within in this study was the school
counselors’ lack of adherence to the strict protocols placed on play therapy modalities.
Influence of Play Therapy on Children’s Behavior and Social Skills
Behavior. Children demonstrating social incompetence may display
misbehaviors and emotional instabilities, thus making it harder to relate to their peers.
Therefore, creative interventions must not only address social deficits, but behavioral
ones as well. Through play therapy, toys become the child’s primary means of
expression, giving the child the ability to project his feelings onto ambiguous stimuli.
Trotter et al. (2003) describe toys as giving different symbolic meanings to each child’s
struggles. Toys are a way for the child to express either negative or positive feelings. The
child’s play is not make-believe, but will actually reflect his subjective reality (Dougherty
& Ray, 2007). An intervention for children exhibiting misbehaviors is essential in helping
decrease the children’s need to externalize problematic behaviors, helping to create more
solid relationships with their peers (Ray, Blanco, Sullivan, & Holliman, 2009).
Within play therapy, a child is encouraged to express feelings symbolically, but
not behaviorally (Trotter et al., 2003), which highlights the importance of therapeutic
limit setting, helping the child develop self-control and self-discipline. When the therapist
sets limits, the child is taken out of their pretend play and necessary boundaries within the
playroom are created (Trotter et al., 2003).
Similarly, Cochran, Cochran, and Cholette (2011) discuss the importance of only
setting limitations that are necessary in anchoring the play into reality and making the
child aware of his responsibilities within the playroom. Cochran et al.’s (2011) study
provides an analysis of two kindergarten-aged boys’ limit testing behavior and limit
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 32
setting during their play therapy sessions. The two boys attended a large, urban
elementary school with occurrence of high poverty and Title I funds. The kindergarten
teachers and school administrators referred the boys for play therapy. Both boys
exhibited severe and persistent defiant and aggressive behaviors that were noted as
different from their peers. Cochran and colleagues also noted that both boys had
experienced abrupt changes, trauma, and stress. The boys attended play therapy for 30
minutes twice a week. This study chose a treatment model that created limitations to
ensure a safe environment for self-expression and continued to anchor play into reality.
The study provided three sources of data: reports of child’s behavior from school
administrators, therapist observations, and teacher ratings on the Teacher Report Form
(TRF) on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The study suggested that play therapy
provided an effective environment for testing limits and its association with positive
regard from the therapist. The study found that limit setting during play therapy allowed
the boys the opportunity to express themselves within a safe environment. Cochran et al.
explain the curative powers of limit testing followed by limit setting in strengthening the
therapist-child relationship. Even though Cochran et al. found their study to be
successful, limitations to the study included the inability to generalize the findings to a
large population, clients missing sessions, and an abrupt ending to the session of one
client. Further research can examine the aspects of how and why limit setting in play
therapy helps in the development of a child’s social and emotional self.
Cochran et al. (2010) presented another study that similarly observed two case
studies of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) for two first grade boys who were
described as having highly disruptive behavior, specifically attention problems and
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 33
aggression. These boys also attended play therapy for 30 minutes twice a week. Similar
to the previous study, the TRF was used to measure problematic behaviors, as well as
recorded observations by the therapist about her thoughts on the presenting problems and
explanations about why and how play therapy seemed to work. The overall results for
both boys indicate the usefulness of play therapy for children demonstrating disruptive
behaviors. Yet, Cochran et al. (2010) advise the reader not to make generalizations based
on single case study designs.
Similarly, Ray et al. (2009) conducted a qualitative study to explore the use of
play therapy with children described as having aggressive behaviors. The study observed
42 students from two elementary schools. The students were identified using the
definition of aggression as provided by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Students
were systematically placed into either a no intervention control group or a play therapy
treatment group. Originally, Ray et al. intended that the students be placed randomly into
each group but due to school requests random assignment was not used. Nineteen
students were assigned to the play therapy group and attended 14 sessions that occurred
during a seven-week period. Ray et al. had planned to offer 16 session of play therapy, as
research yields significant differences in behaviors after 11 – 18 sessions of play therapy
and even greater changes in 19 or more sessions. Yet, due to scheduling conflicts, the
study had to reduce the number of sessions. Ray et al.’s study used similar data
collection techniques as Cochran et al.’s (2011) study. Teachers in this study were asked
to complete the Teacher’s Report Form (TRF) of the CBCL. Results from the study were
not statistically significant and showed only a moderate decrease in aggressive behaviors
between children in the treatment group and control group. Teachers’ data reported a
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 34
significant improvement in both groups, and parents’ data reported no significant changes
in the groups’ behaviors. In future studies, Ray et al. recommend that a larger sample
sized be used, as well as more insistence on parental participation, to allow for increased
statistical power and generalization. Ray et al. also believe it would be beneficial to
replicate the study with a randomized sample of students during the middle, as opposed
to the beginning, of the school year.
Social skills. Social competence is often used to describe a child’s social
acceptance, social behaviors, the use and understanding of social skills, and the absence
of problematic behaviors (McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009). Socially competent children are
observed to play well with others by entering into play groups appropriately, initiating
play with others, meeting age appropriate social goals, and responding appropriately to
other children (McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009). LeGoff (2004) began developing engaging
interventions for children’s social skills when he noticed the lack of social skills
programs within schools. During observations of existing social skills programs, LeGoff
noted that the interventions seemed difficult, irrelevant, and un-engaging for the children.
Literature regarding social skills interventions recommends that the intervention be
customized to the individual’s needs (LeGoff, 2004). LeGoff (2004) also cited research
suggesting that utilizing a child’s interests and adapting these to help promote the
development of social competence and play skills. Two studies examined the use of play
as it relates to the development of social skills through the observations of a child’s
behavioral or social issues.
During play, children develop and strengthen their understanding of appropriate
social norms (McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009). McAloney and Stagnitti describe pretend
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 35
play as the child’s way to create imaginary situations that allow the child to test various
social skills and their consequences. McAloney and Stagnitti’s research found that
children who engage in pretend play are more likely to be considered socially component
among adults and peers. The authors investigated the relationship between children’s
performance on a pretend play assessment and their engagement during social peer play.
The study used the Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment (ChIPPA) and the Penn
Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS) to test the concurrent validity between the two
measurement devices. The ChiPPA is a standardized play assessment that measures the
quality of a child’s pretend play (McAloney & Stagnitti, 2009). On the other hand, the
PIPPS is a rating scale used to measure children’s interactive peer play competencies.
McAloney and Stagnitti (2009) sampled 53 preschool-aged children from various
socio-economic backgrounds. The researchers predicted that the children’s pretend play
and objects used during play would relate to how well they would socially interact with
their peers, based on the assumption that if a child’s pretend play was elaborate and
developmentally appropriate, then they would relate to their peers well. The results of
this study indicated that children who have elaborate play with both conventional and
unstructured toys were more socially competent with their peers and less disruptive in
their preschool classes. McAloney and Stagnitti also concluded that children who had
low scores in relation to object substitution were more likely to struggle in their
interactions with peers. Teachers interviewed in the study also reported that these
children were socially disconnected from their peers and were not observed to initiate
engagement with others. This study’s findings help develop the understanding about
children’s pretend play ability and their social interaction.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 36
McAloney and Stagnitti (2009) recognize their largest limitation to this study as
only being able to generalize these results for children from one country, Australia. The
authors recommend that a replication of this study be conducted with more children from
various countries to further validate the results. McAloney and Stagnitti also found
discrepancies among parent ratings. They recommend that research be conducted to
compare the reliability and validity for parent ratings to teacher ratings using the PIPPS.
McAloney and Stagnitti (2009) encourage play therapists to develop more
complex pretend play sequences that utilize conventional toys to assist children with their
social peer play. The authors also promote the use of unstructured toys during play
therapy sessions, as this facilitates the development of problem solving skills, flexibility,
and the ability to make connections to reality. As play is emerging as a primary treatment
for children, play therapists are becoming more equipped with skills necessary to engage
and assist children in their behavioral, emotional, social, and academic development.
Another study conducted by LeGoff (2004) assessed the effectiveness of social
skills interventions used for children with Autism Spectrum disorders. LeGoff noticed
that current techniques recommended for use with children diagnosed with Autism
Spectrum disorders utilized peer instruction and peer modeling, which had little to no
impact on the use of appropriate social skills outside of the intervention. It was noted in
LeGoff’s review of the literature that the skills and exercises were learned and could be
reproduced when prompted, but the desired skills were not self-initiated in the classroom
or on the playground. In order to use a child’s natural interests to promote learning and
behavior change, LeGoff began his research with the use of LEGO therapy. During
LEGO group therapy, LeGoff assigned joint jobs to the children; one was given the job of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 37
director, giving verbal directions for assembling the LEGO creation, and the other was
given the job of builder, following the directions given by the director. LeGoff
emphasized the skills of sharing, taking-turns, making eye contact, and following social
rules.
For his study, LeGoff (2004) chose 34 males and 13 females between the ages of
6 and 16. The majority of the children attended public schools and all children were
diagnosed with Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Syndrome, or Pervasive Developmental
Disorder. It was noted that some of the children were on medications and the use of the
medications throughout the study was monitored to ensure that the dosage was not
changed during the treatment phase. The goal of LeGoff’s study was to improve the
children’s social competencies, which were described as the initiation of social
interaction, duration of social interaction, and development of age-appropriate social and
play behaviors.
LeGoff (2004) used three measures of data for his study. The first was a measure
of the frequency of observed self-initiated social contact during a half-hour playtime
following lunch. The second was an observed duration of social interactions with peers
during a one-hour after-school recreation time. This measure did not focus on whether or
not the interaction was self-initiated, but was more concerned with the type of
interactional exchange and its duration. The last measure was used to reflect the
development of age-appropriate social and play behaviors as characteristic of the Social
Interaction subscale of the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale (GARS-SI). Parents, teachers,
and therapists completed the GARS-SI during the intake and follow-up assessments.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 38
LeGoff’s results indicate improvements in initiation of social contact, duration of
social contact, and decreased scores on the GARS-SI of the participants. The participants’
teachers reported an improvement in confidence and sociability within participants.
LeGoff also reported that the results found no correlation between the cognitive level of
the participants and the outcome of the intervention, as well as no relationship between
the age of the participant and the effectiveness of the intervention.
The observations within the study were not made by blind observers and therefore
may contain observer biases (LeGoff, 2004). Another limitation defined by LeGoff was
psychometric problems with the GARS-SI leaving this measurement questionable for the
study. It should also be noted that the study lacked a control group and therefore it is
difficult to determine if improvements were based solely on the therapy. Nonetheless,
LeGoff also proposed areas for further research. Research to identify aspects of the
intervention that resulted in its effectiveness will assist in determining the extent to which
LEGO intervention improves the social competence of children. Therefore, LeGoff
understands that further research could analyze the aspects of the intervention to
determine the most effective modalities. This understanding may explain why LEGOs
were engaging and promoted change within Autism Spectrum children. LeGoff’s study
supported the use of LEGOs as a therapeutic technique for promoting and developing
social competence with children diagnosed with Autistic Disorder, Asperser’s Syndrome,
or Pervasive Developmental Disorder.
Summary
In order to promote self-exploration, self-control, and self-direction, child-
centered play therapy focuses on letting children deal with the problems most apparent in
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 39
their lives. Many externalized behaviors found in elementary classrooms result from
emotions and experiences not expressed by the child. With the opportunity to explore
these feelings in a non-directive, safe environment, children begin to learn limit setting,
self-expression, and social norms. Both quantitative and qualitative studies support the
use of using play therapy with children in schools or in a clinical setting. By offering play
therapy in schools, teachers, counselors, and administrators are enabling children to
become self-monitoring with their behaviors and not dependent upon extrinsic rewards
through token economies.
The current study used a combination of whole group structured social skills play
activities along with small group directive and non-directive play activities to promote
self-expression, limit setting, behavior regulation, and adherence to social norms. The
current study extended upon the ideas presented by play therapy and adapted them to a
school setting, in which play is being utilized as an intervention for motor, verbal, and
passive off-task behaviors in the classroom, including out-of-seat behaviors. The role of
play interventions in this current study was intended to decrease off-task behaviors
associated with academic, social, and emotional development within a child. Students’
progress was communicated to their teachers so that the teachers could better understand
both the students’ struggles and what appears to work to decrease such struggles.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 40
Chapter 3
Method
Participants
Two Kindergarten classes containing 26 total boys were asked to participate in
this study. The 20 consented Kindergarten participants were obtained after parental
permission was given for the utilization of data in the study. Parents were given seven
days to return the permission form.
The participants’ ages ranged from five to six years of age. The majority of the
participants were Caucasian (55%), while 28% were Hispanic, 11% Mixed-Racial, and
6% Asian. Mixed-Racial was defined as the parent or child’s identification with two or
more races. The selected participants attended a private, Catholic boys’ school with an
enrollment of 261 boys in an urban, affluent community. The participants attended
regular classes that were supplemented with bi-monthly guidance lessons, mini social
skills lessons, and play activities.
It should be noted that participants’ names are not used in this study. Any
behavior exhibited during the study that may result in the identification of a participant
has been changed to describe similar behaviors while reporting observations or other
relevant information.
Group 1 and Group 4 each consisted of four six-year-old boys who meet on
alternating Mondays. Group 2 consisted of four six-year-old boys and Group 5 of three
five-or-six-year boys, both of whom meet on alternating Tuesdays. Group 1 and 2 each
contained a participant diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neither
participant was taking medication for the condition. The three six-year-old students in
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 41
Group 3 met every other Wednesday during the duration of the study. All groups met at
the same afternoon time period, which occurred at the end of the day right before
dismissal. At the conclusion of the study, all groups met for a total of four guidance
lessons and four play activity sessions that incorporated a mini social skills lesson.
Measures
A coded observation form was developed by the researcher to standardize the
recording of indicated behaviors within the classroom. The observation form indicated
the participant being observed, time of day, day of the week, and duration of observation.
The study was conducted so that the length of observation, time of day, day of the week,
and setting of observation were all standardized for the duration of baseline, mid-point,
and posttest periods for each participant. An example of this form is located in Figure 1
(see Appendix).
Each observation lasted for thirty minutes. Observations were divided into sixty
30-second intervals, in which the child’s behaviors were recorded as on-task (O), motor
off-task (M), verbal off-task (V), passive off-task (P), or out-of-seat (S). The activities,
independent work (1), small group activity (2), large group activity (3), or large group
instruction (4), were also recorded during the observation of the child. A summary form
for each group and participant was generated to calculate the overall percentage of time
the student was observed doing one of the identified behaviors. Standardization of the
observation time and continued use of the same observer increased the intra-observer
reliability for this measure. During each observation, the classroom teacher and
Kindergarten aid were present.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 42
Design
A one group pretest-posttest experimental design was employed to determine the
relationship between play activities and social skills lessons and students’ behaviors
within the classroom. The independent variable for this study was the boys’ participation
in play activities and social skills lessons. The dependent variable was the number of
observed occurrences of on-task (O), motor off-task (M), verbal off-task (V), passive off-
task (P), or out-of-seat (S) behaviors during the baseline, mid-point, and posttest periods.
This design was chosen to establish baseline data for the identified behaviors, as
well as a mid-point observation to monitor the identified behaviors during the treatment
period. It was intended that for each behavior, the participants displayed fewer instances
of the off-task behaviors observed during the treatment period than during the baseline
period, indicating that the play activities and social skills lessons were helping the student
become properly engaged in classroom lessons.
As with any pretest-posttest experimental design, this study was limited in its
ability to be generalized to the population of interest. The study would benefit from meta-
analyses done in a girls’ private school and/or in a co-ed public school. In order to
increase external validity, this study would need to be replicated and data between studies
would need to be compared. Threats to the internal validity of this study were maturation,
history, and instrumentation. To address history threats, teachers were asked to update the
researcher as to any known events that may have occurred on an observation day that
could potentially skew the data. Maturation threats are small due to the condensed
intervention period. Lastly, instrumentation was standardized to ensure the most
consistent measurement of observed behaviors. Observer reliability and consistency were
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 43
defined by only using the researcher to observe identified behaviors during each
observation of the treatment period.
Procedure
Baseline period. Before baseline measurements were taken, students were
divided into five groups and parental permission was gained. It must be noted that the
parents were not permitting their child to participate in the activities; they were only
permitting the use of their child’s data. After the proposed study was presented to the
children’s parents through letters from both the researcher and Headmistress of the
school, 20 participants were identified. After informed consent was gained, the children
were observed in their classroom. The completed observations and summary forms were
compiled and locked in a filing cabinet for further review during the mid-point period.
During the baseline period, each participant was observed on his scheduled day
(e.g. Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday) in the morning. The time of day differed between
groups due to their school and class schedules, but all occurred before lunch. Baseline
observations began during the second and third week of the school year. During the
baseline observations, participants were not given any extra behavior modifications or
interventions other than standard classroom procedures. During this time, a rapport
building activity was done with each group to ensure proper relationships were built and
promoted.
Treatment period. The treatment consisted of social skills lessons taught during
regular whole group guidance lessons once every other week, which focused on
promoting effective classroom behaviors, especially those pertaining to motor off-task,
verbal off-task, passive off-task, and out of seat behaviors. The participants then attended
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 44
a 30-minute play session semi-monthly, which emphasized and reviewed new social
skills in small groups. These sessions allowed the children non-directed child-centered
play in a small group. During play, limit setting and inclusion were promoted and
encouraged when necessary. Therefore, the treatment period consisted of two
components; the whole group social skills lessons and the small group play activities.
This treatment took place each afternoon before dismissal and was consistent for each
group throughout the duration of the study.
Developmentally appropriate activities developed by Richardson (1996) and
supplemented with activities from Jelleberg (2006) were chosen for the whole group
guidance lessons. Each guidance lesson lasted for thirty minutes and occurred once a
week for the duration of the treatment. Participants were observed after two weeks of the
intervention on their regularly scheduled days and times within their classrooms. The
occurrences of on-task, motor off-task, verbal off-task, passive off-task, and out-of-seat
behaviors were recorded on the observation form for each child.
Posttest period. After six weeks of the intervention, posttest observations were
taken on the 20 participants. Improved areas for each behavior for each participant were
noted. In total, this study lasted nine weeks: One week was spent gathering baseline data,
six weeks were used to implement social skills lessons and play activities, one week was
used to gather posttest data, and one week was used for data analysis and comparisons
between baseline, mid-point, and posttest data.
Data Analysis Plan
Data were collected through behavior observations in the classroom. During the
baseline, mid-point, and posttest periods, observations of indicated behaviors for each of
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 45
the participants were charted and percentages of occurrences were obtained. The
observation data were analyzed statistically to determine whether there was a significant
change in behavior from the baseline data through the mid-point and into the posttest
periods. The observation notes were secured in a locked filing cabinet to assure
confidentiality. During the time in which the data were stored, the research advisor and I
had access to the information.
Ethical Issues
Permission was given by the headmistress and the lower school principal of the
boys’ Catholic school to proceed with the study as indicated on the school authority
permission form. Parental permission for each participant considered for the intervention
was also obtained through an informed consent form.
There was a risk that participants may have experienced minor psychological
distress by participating in the play activities. This risk could have resulted from
interactions with others or emotional expression during play. Such emotions are normal
reactions to any form of peer interaction. The initial social skills lessons helped to keep
the play intervention partially structured, thus creating an environment for the
participants to monitor their own behaviors and emotions. I was present during both the
social skills lessons and the play activities to intervene when necessary. If a participant
did become upset, he could meet with me privately, speak with the lower school
principal, or meet with the headmistress.
The research was explained to the participants’ parents, who signed the parent
permission form granting the utilization of their child’s data within the study. The
children’s consent was obtained through their parents, but the children were notified in
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 46
the first session of their right to leave the group if or when necessary. The children knew
that there were no penalties if they wished to leave or if they wished not to participate in
the group. The participants and I discussed the importance of confidentiality within the
group. Due to confidentiality, the parents did not have access to the data until the study
was presented. The parents were also encouraged not to question their child about the
content of the group meetings or about the other children within the group.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 47
Chapter 4
Results
Prior to the implementation of small groups and observations, a whole group
guidance lesson was given to introduce the counselor and the role of the counselor within
the school. Rapport was established prior to any data collection or interventions. During
the initial week, baseline observation data were obtained each morning before the
students met in their small playgroup, which occurred in the afternoons. The means and
standard deviations of this baseline data are represented in Table 1 (see Appendix).
Observation data was obtained by recording the off-task behavior observed during each
30-second time interval for a period of 30 minutes. Figure 1 (see Appendix) provides an
example of the observation sheet used to collect data. The occurrences of each observed
behavior were then turned into percentages. The percentages were used to find the means
and standard deviations.
Small group play activities continued for four weeks with two guidance lessons
occurring during these four weeks. On the fifth week of the intervention, midpoint data
was collected each morning before the students attended their playgroup. Table 1 (see
Appendix) presents the mean and standard deviation of this set of data. Four more weeks
passed before posttest observational data was collected on the participants. During weeks
five through seven, two more guidance lessons were used to supplement the small group
play activities. During the eighth week, posttest observations were conducted and the
mean and standard deviation are presented in Table 1 (see Appendix). To better help
illustrate the decrease in observational means for each off-task behavior, Figure 2 (see
Appendix) shows the decrease in means from baseline to midpoint to and posttest.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 48
Data analysis focused on determining if there were differences among the means
of each of the identified off-task behaviors (motor, verbal and passive off-task behaviors,
and out of seat behaviors). I conducted a repeated measures analysis of variance
(ANOVA) with each of the four off-task behaviors. By conducting this test, I was able to
identify whether or not a significant difference was found between observation means.
During the research, three time points, baseline, midpoint, and posttest, as well as means
for each off-task behavior were used to determine the ANOVA. The ANOVA showed a
significant difference for the verbal off-task behaviors, F(2, 38) = 4.92, p = .013,
indicating that there was a significant difference between at least two of the means for
this variable. There was also a significant difference found in the motor off-task
ANOVA, F(2, 38) = 7.68, p = .002, also indicating that overall the students displayed
significantly fewer instances of motor off-task behavior from baseline to posttest
observations. One last significant difference was found with passive off-task behaviors,
F(2, 38) = 7.66, p = .002, concluding that these observed behaviors also decreased from
baseline to posttest observations. Lastly, out of seat behaviors were found to be
marginally significant, F(2, 38) = 2.53, p = .093, which is worth analyzing considering
the behavior dropped to nearly zero.
Because the differences were found to be significant for verbal, motor, and
passive off-task behaviors, the researcher followed up with a paired samples t test to
determine which pair, baseline-midpoint, midpoint-posttest, and/or baseline-posttest, was
significantly different from another. In other words, the paired t test helped indicate
where exactly the differences were found for each off-task behavior. The paired samples t
tests revealed variations between time points. Results overall showed significant
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 49
decreases for all three behaviors, verbal, t(19) = 2.66, p = .015, motor, t(19) = 3.47, p
= .003, and passive, t(19) = 3.87, p =.001, from baseline to posttest observations t test.
Additional t test data analyses can be found on Table 2 (see Appendix), including the t
test scores for baseline to midpoint and midpoint to posttest.
Due to the results found with the paired samples t test, the researcher conducted a
Cohen’s d to determine effect size, or the measure of standard deviation units between
baseline and posttest paired t tests for each off-task behavior. The results indicate that
there was a large effect size for all three variables, verbal, d = 1.36, motor, d = 1.59, and
passive, d = 1.78.
The results prompted rejection of the null hypothesis, thus providing support for
the research hypothesis. The hypothesis stated that by addressing the social needs of
children through play, teachers could expect to observe a decrease in motor, verbal, and
passive off-task behaviors. The data indicate a significant decrease in verbal, motor, and
passive off-task behaviors after the eight-week intervention. There was a marginally
significant decrease found for out-of-seat behaviors. This result could be a factor of low
means in the area (means indicate the behavior occurring almost zero percentages of the
time) or perhaps the intervention did not address this concern specifically.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 50
Chapter 5
Discussion
This study performed a one group pretest-posttest experimental design to
determine the relationship between play activities and social skills lessons and students’
behaviors within the classroom. The expectation was that there would be a decrease in
motor, verbal, and passive off-task behaviors by addressing the social needs of children
through play. The findings support the research hypothesis, which is also consistent with
the previous literature. Bratton and colleagues (2005), in a meta-analytic review of play
therapy, found that on average, children who participated in play therapy performed more
than three-fourths of a standard deviation higher than their peers in a control group.
My findings prompted rejection of the null hypothesis, thus providing support for
the research hypothesis. The data, measured through t tests, indicate a significant
decrease (p < .05) in verbal, motor, and passive off-task behaviors after the eight-week
intervention. By comparing the means of each of the four off-task behaviors, findings
indicate a decrease in means overall. Therefore, the findings may conclude that the
difference between pretest and posttest scores was likely to be a true difference in
behaviors from pretest to posttest, rather than due to sampling error. The significant
findings indicate that the improvement observed is likely real improvement that could be
observed in the larger population. Unfortunately, the current study does not indicate if the
improvement was due to the intervention or not. This could only be determined with an
experimental design, which would include a control group.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 51
Strengths and Limitations
Compared to previous literature on this topic, the current study aimed to measure
the effectiveness of play within the schools, as a means of promoting appropriate
classroom behavior. There have been multiple studies performed to study play therapy in
various ways, but many of them are case study reports. My study was unique in that it
brought in the school perspective of adding a play intervention back into the
Kindergarten curriculum to see if children’s ability to play out their feelings would help
increase on-task, appropriate classroom behaviors. Another strength of this study was the
observational protocol, which likely increased intra-rater reliability while also making the
study more replicable.
The current study also experienced a few limitations, which are consistent with
limitations found in similar studies. A notable limitation is the lack of a control group
within the study. A similar limitation was found in Muro and colleagues’ (2006) study on
long-term child-centered play therapy, in which they cautioned the reader to consider
their study only as an exploratory study due to the lack of a comparison group. Similarly,
the current study’s results indicated a decrease in off-task behaviors, thus supporting the
research hypothesis, but due to a lack of a control group it cannot be determined whether
the outcome is a result of the intervention or due to the maturation of the students.
Previous research also indicates that the limited number of play intervention
sessions in the current study may also appear to be a limitation. This limitation was due
to the time period in which the study was performed. According to previous research
done by Ray, Blanco, Sullivan, and Holliman (2009), it is ideal to have 11-18 sessions,
which produces more of a statistically significant difference. It was also suggested that
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 52
more than 19 sessions would result in even more gains by the participating students (Ray
et al. 2009). In addition, Muro and colleagues (2006) found that a lengthy duration of
play therapy improved the child’s behaviors and the child’s relationship with the teacher.
More progress could be made if eight to 12 more sessions were allotted and added. Future
research may perform a follow-up study with a larger class size. This would allow the
students to be divided into more groups, including a control group. This could also allow
the possibility of adding more play sessions into the schedule at regular intervals.
Recommendations and Action Planning
A recommendation for future research would be to use a larger sample size and
include a control group. By increasing the sample size, the population of students could
be more generalizable. A study on repetitive symbolic play during play therapy by
Campbell and Knoetze (2010) also recommended the use of a larger sample of students to
ensure that a wider variety of problems was presented, which would assist in making
generalizations to a larger population. This increase in sample size would also allow for a
control group.
Another suggestion for future research would be to compare the social skills
lessons with the play component to see if they are similarly effective or if one is more
effective than the other. This would be helpful for justifying both components in the
intervention, especially given the increased emphasis on academics over play in early
education.
For future educators, I would recommend that teachers, principals, and school
counselors collaborate to establish a social skills curriculum for students in Kindergarten
and first grade that incorporates play. Based on the current study’s findings, students
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 53
given the opportunity to learn, model, and practice a set of social skills through play
showed significant improvement in their classroom behaviors over an eight week time
period. Bratton and colleagues’ (2005) research also supports play therapy as a method
for changing behaviors, improving social adjustments, and developing personality. In this
capacity, play therapy in the schools can be viewed as a preventative and consulting
method, not just remediation (Ray et al., 2004). In addition, by giving students a small
group in which to work, rapport and relationship building were promoted. This provided
the students a trusting relationship in which they began to resolve their own problems
through non-directive play (Bratton at al, 2005). Landreth and colleagues (2009) suggest
starting the school year by having staff development training focused on explaining the
importance of play for children, as well as including the emotional, academic, and
behavioral outcomes. Sharing this information helps initiate teacher and administrator
support of such a program.
The current study serves as a starting point for further exploration in the
effectiveness of play interventions within the guidance program, as a whole, at the
elementary level. The strengths of the current study present a base for future research on
play therapy within the schools. The sample size, lack of control group, and duration of
the study prevent generalization to a larger population of students. However, the current
study did show a significant decrease in off-task behaviors within the classroom after the
students participated in the play intervention. As a school counselor, it will be important
for me to continue to update myself on the current trends in play therapy, include these
methods into my play interventions within the guidance program, and document the
changes I see with each class, group, or individual. Documentation and data are essential
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 54
for guiding such a program, especially when the school counselor is advocating for the
use of play interventions within the program.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 55
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Appendix
Table 1: Baseline, Midpoint, and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Off-Task Behaviors
Table 2: Paired Samples t Test results for Baseline – Midpoint, Midpoint – Posttest, and Baseline – Posttest Time Points for Verbal, Motor, and Passive Off-Task Behaviors
Figure 1:.Data management form for each participant’s observation used during baseline, midpoint, and posttest observations
Figure 2: Pretest, midpoint, and posttest observational means for verbal, motor, and passive off-task behaviors and out-of-seat behaviors
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 60
Table 1
Baseline, Midpoint, and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Off-Task Behaviors
Baseline Midpoint PosttestVariable N M SD M SD M SDVerbal 20 9.25 8.85 8.90 6.36 3.70 4.81
Motor 20 12.00 8.11 7.45 5.35 4.90 4.92
Passive 20 12.45 8.50 6.65 7.13 5.25 4.19
Out-of-Seat
20 3.30 5.79 2.10 2.49 0.65 1.76
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 61
Table 2
Paired Samples t Test results for Baseline – Midpoint, Midpoint – Posttest, and Baseline – Posttest Time Points for Verbal, Motor, and Passive Off-Task Behaviors
Baseline – Midpoint Midpoint – Posttest Baseline - PosttestVariable df t p t p t pVerbal 19 0.190 0.850 2.970 0.008* 2.660 0.015*
Motor 19 2.360 0.029* 1.650 0.116 3.470 0.003*
Passive 19 2.630 0.017* 0.800 0.435 3.870 0.001*
Note: * indicates statistically significant t tests at the p < .05 level.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 62
Figure 1. Data management form for each participant’s observation used during baseline, midpoint, and posttest observations.
PLAY INTERVENTION AND SOCIAL SKILLS 63
Figure 2. Pretest, midpoint, and posttest observational means for verbal, motor, and passive off-task behaviors and out-of-seat behaviors.