Transcript
Page 1: Perceptions of land-degradation, forest restoration and fire management: A case study from Malawi

land degradation & development

Land Degrad. Develop. 21: 546–556 (2010)

Published online 28 June 2010 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ldr.995

PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION, FOREST RESTORATION AND FIREMANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY FROM MALAWI

G. M. DAVIES1,2*, L. POLLARD1 AND M. D. MWENDA1

1The Shanti Trust, c/o Makuzi Beach, Private Bag 12, Chintheche, Malawi2School of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Merrill Hall, Box 354115, Seattle, WA 98195-4115, USA

Received 7 July 2009; Revised 16 March 2010; Accepted 24 March 2010

ABSTRACT

Understanding local perceptions of degradation and attitudes to fire management are critical for gaining support for restoration work andimproving livelihoods. Deforestation and annual burning are causing significant land degradation problems in the area around Bandawe,northern Malawi. We mapped evidence of soil erosion and remaining areas of woodland. Gully erosion was common and primarily associatedwith heavily utilised footpaths. Areas between gullies showed signs of significant soil movement. Remnant patches of native woodland existedbut were small, degraded and isolated. We interviewed local households to understand local awareness and impacts of land-degradation, itsperceived cause and preferred methods for restoration. All households were aware of the presence of gullies and reported associated problemsof flood damage. Most households believed erosion was a result of deforestation. Burning practices were seen to have exacerbated erosionproblems. Changing fire management practice was not seen as realistic as it risked reducing the productivity of grasses and fires wereperceived to be too difficult to control. Tree planting was the community’s preferred approach to tackling erosion. Their focus was on plantingexotic fruit and timber trees around houses and they often requested that such work be done by volunteers. Such attitudes may have beeninfluenced by recent extension work and a desire to secure ownership of utilisable resource. Ecologists in the miombo zone should focus onimproving fire management practices and involving communities in creating diverse secondary woodlands that provide a range of goods andservices. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: community development; flooding; gully; Miombo woodland; participatory research; soil erosion; Malawi

INTRODUCTION

Local people’s experiences of rural development projects are

often not reported despite strong arguments that locally-

based, small scale projects are those most likely to achieve a

win-win conservation/development scenario (Wunder

2001), to meet development targets (Blaikie 2006) and that

a community’s willingness to become involved in develop-

ment projects is closely linked to their past experiences

(Walters et al. 1999). Integrating understanding of people’s

perceptions with observations of the functioning of

environmental systems is critical for developing sustainable

resource management activities (Redman 1999; Hanna

2001). Previous work examining farmers’ perceptions of

degradation has shown that they often have acute and

accurate awareness of problems even if, to outsiders, they

appear unable or unwilling to tackle them (Kiome and

Stocking 1995; Okoba and Sterk 2006; Mairura et al. 2008).

The insights that community-based studies provide into

local environmental problems can help to identify barriers to

* Correspondence to: G. M. Davies, School of Forest Resources, Universityof Washington, Merrill Hall, Box 354115, Seattle, WA 98195-4115, USA.E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

participation in development activities and the rational

behind continued use of practices that cause degradation.

Previous studies have identified a wide range of potential

barriers including, for example, concern over the impacts of

change on food security (Moges and Holden 2007),

inadequate resource governance systems and common

property rights (Reed et al. 2007), gender-based differences

in perceptions of problems (Wezel and Haigis 2000) and a

lack of simple tools by which farmers can assess existing

problems and the effects of intervention (Okoba and Sterk

2006).

Malawi faces a number of development challenges many

of which have been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere (e.g.

Dorward and Kydd 2004). With regards to natural resources,

a growing population has created an increasing demand for

agricultural land (Mlotha 2001, Walker and Peters 2006) and

fuel wood. Timber shortages (Hudak and Wessman 2000;

Bandyopadhyay et al. 2006) and land-degradation process

such as soil erosion (Mkanda 2002) are a significant

problem. Rates of forest loss in Malawi are generally high

with recent figures showing a decline from 3.9 to 3.4 million

ha between 1990 and 2005 (United Nations FAO 2006).

Previous estimates have however shown considerable

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PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 547

variation in rates of loss and include 2.3 per cent per annum

between 1972 and 1990 (Bunderson and Hayes 1995) and

1.8 per cent per annum between 1981 and 1992 (Hudak and

Wessman 2000). Heavy grazing or frequent fire, the latter

being an issue in our community, can have significant effects

on slope hydrology affecting rates of run-off, soil erosion

and soil fertility (e.g. Descheemaeker et al. 2006;

Descheemaeker et al. 2009). Though clearance for agricul-

tural land and firewood largely explain current high rates of

forest loss and land-degradation, several studies draw

attention to the importance of understanding particular

local causes of these processes (e.g. Abbot and Homewood

1999; Mlotha 2001).

Miombo woodlands, which formerly covered large areas

of Malawi, are dominated by species of Brachystegia,

Julbernardia and Isoberlinia (Campbell 1996). They

provide a wide range of resources including timber,

firewood, edible fruits and mushrooms, fodder for animals,

medicinal plants and bush meat. A number of authors (e.g.

Hyde and Kohlin 2000; Fisher 2004; Bandyopadhyay et al.

2006; Lowore 2006) describe them as ‘safety nets’ that can

provide resources or tradable goods in times when normal

food resources become depleted. As well as utilisable

products they provide a range of ecosystem services such as

watershed and flood protection, maintenance of soil fertility

and carbon storage (Harvey et al. 2003, Walker and

Desanker 2004; Lowore 2006; Williams et al. 2008). Recent

research has suggested that a number of these products have

the potential for domestication and the provision of goods

and services with a market value for increasing household

incomes (Akinifessi et al. 2006). Fire plays a crucial role in

the ecology of miombo woodlands but there is evidence to

suggest that frequent fire, or a combination of burning and

grazing can cause the degradation of existing woodlands and

prevent the regeneration of characteristic species. For

instance Gambiza et al. (2000) and Sankaran et al. (2008)

found that fire return intervals longer than 4–15 years are

necessary if miombo woodland cover is to be retained. The

continued decline in Malawi’s forest cover, it’s need for a

sustainable timber and fuelwood supply and the wide range

of other goods and services provided by miombo woodlands

suggests that their restoration and sustainable management

could play an important role in rural community develop-

ment.

The Shanti Trust, a small development organisation based

in Bandawe, initiated a community-led development

programme to tackle the causes and effects of land-

degradation and forest loss. The Trust has developed a tree

nursery, providing a mixture of exotic and native timber and

fruit trees, with the aim of helping local communities to

restore and expand their forest resource base. In the current

work we aimed to develop an understanding of the

differential perspectives of local people and development

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

facilitators (in this case the authors). We had four key

objectives: to generate a semi-quantitative picture of the

extent and impact of land-degradation processes around

Bandawe including the effect of the current fire regime on

these processes; to understand the perceptions of local

people with regards to land-degradation and fire manage-

ment; to document their ideas for possible solutions; and to

identify trade-off’s that local people made between

sustainable land-management and economic necessity. Such

an approach is crucial to identifying physical, economic and

sociological barriers to participation and to identify how

communities prioritise involvement in development pro-

jects. Through such work facilitators can develop objectives

that match people’s needs and desires, identify educational

requirements and provide a quick return on the community’s

investment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Project site

Bandawe is located in the Northern Region of Malawi, on

the shores of Lake Malawi, close to the town of Chintheche

(Lat. 11855’S, Long. 34810’E). The regional capital of

Mzuzu is roughly 120 km to the NNE. Bandawe is of

significant cultural and historical interest being the location

to which the Livingstonian Mission moved from Cape

MacClear in 1881. The original mission church dating from

1900 still exists and a local graveyard contains the remains

of several missionaries. Tourism is an important provider of

local employment with several lakeside lodges located

nearby. Most of the local population live in three near-

contiguous villages that stretch along the shores of the lake.

Each village is administered by one of three local chiefs:

Chimbano, Yakucha and Mkuwayi. The local people largely

belong to the Tonga ethnic group.

The climate of the area is characterised by a dry season

that lasts from June to October (mean monthly precipitation

18 mm) and wet season from November to May (mean

monthly precipitation 243 mm). Average maximum

temperature ranges from a high of 30.4 8C in November

to 25.8 8C in June (data from http://www.climate-charts.com

for Nkhata Bay (Lat 11836’S, 34818’E); accessed 9th March

2010).

From the lakeshore (480 m a.s.l.) the land rises about 50 m

to a flat plateau that reaches to the foot of forested hills

roughly 5 km away. Soils in the area immediately

surrounding the villages are infertile and sandy with an

extremely low organic content. The vegetation mostly

consists of a mixture of tussocky perennial grasses that can

grow over 2 m in height. These are cut to provide thatching

for homes that are re-roofed at the end of each rainy season.

Grassland areas are burnt on an annual fire cycle. Around

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548 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.

homesteads there are frequently dense stands of mature

mango (Mangifera indica), cashew (Anacardium occiden-

tale) and occasional baobab (Adansonia digitata) that form

an almost continuous canopy in a narrow band just above the

lakeshore.

Despite the low soil fertility some of the area is given over

to cassava fields but the majority of the land area of concern

is currently fallow. Grassland areas are cleared for planting

cassava and used for a number of years before being left

fallow. Land tenure is complex, individual families, the

church and local tourist lodges all own land. Community-

owned land also exists and this is largely administered by the

chiefs. There is significant variation in the amount of land

that individual households control and wealthier families

currently own some livestock (goats and cattle).

Surveying land-degradation

We assessed evidence of land-degradation by walking three

transects parallel to the lake shore. Transects ran parallel to

the ridge-line and were located near the top, middle and

bottom of the slope from the plateau above the village to the

lakeshore. We noted evidence for sheet-wash, rill and inter-rill

erosion as well as more severe signs of erosion such as

exposed tree roots and building foundations and gullies.

Gullies were marked with a GPS where they crossed a

transect, then followed up and down slope to locate their top

and bottom. We recorded gully height and width and the

extent of vegetation on their sides and bed. We also recorded

prominent local landmarks and the location of remnant areas

of woodland. The latter are important as they provide a seed

source for tree re-establishment and possible nuclei for future

woodland restoration. It also allowed us to identify species

that are robust to the effects of frequent fire (and that might

therefore be appropriate for planting) or that are valued by the

community (and hence protected from burning).

Household interviews

Along each transect all households that we passed at a

distance of than 200 m were selected for interview. We used

a semi-structured interview that had a number of pre-defined

starting questions concerning soil erosion, fire management

and land-restoration (Appendix 1). Interviews were largely

conducted in the local language, Chitonga, with translation

into English. Once conversation on a topic was initiated it

was allowed to roam freely until exhausted at which point a

new topic was begun. We ensured that interviewees had the

opportunity to ask the authors questions at the end. Notes

were taken on individuals’ responses. Following the

interview we recorded tree species found within a c. 50 m

radius around the property and whether the buildings’ roofs

were of corrugated iron or thatch.

A total of 20 households were interviewed during the

course of the survey (Figure 1). Main participants (family

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

groups often congregated during the course of the inter-

views) were classed into three age categories: young adults

(6), middle-aged (10) and elders (4). Seven of the main

participants were female and 13 male.

We used deductive content analysis (Weber 1990) to

identify themes and groupings amongst responses within

each topic area. When we asked interviewees about their

preferred tree species for restoration work some individuals

needed to be prompted with potential examples. We

calculated species preference scores with unprompted

responses for a species scoring 1 point and prompted

responses (i.e. agreement that a suggested species was a

good idea) half a point.

RESULTS

Patterns of land degradation

Soil erosion

Our survey revealed significant evidence of gully erosion

(Figure 1, Table I). The majority of gullies were associated

with footpaths, which tended to run directly up and down

slope, and contained little vegetation on their sides or base.

Many appeared highly unstable and showed signs of lateral

retreat (Figure 2). The worst erosion was seen on the main N-

S path through the village (Figure 1, gullies 11, 24 and 25)

and where footpaths converged near to the church and

football pitches. There was considerable evidence of ‘trail-

braiding’ (Cole 2004) with the development of a web of

inter-connected parallel paths caused by repetitive path

opening, erosion and abandonment. The bottoms of most

gullies were filled with loose, sandy sediment deposited by

wind or when water flow was reduced towards the end of the

rainy season. The deposited sediment means estimates of

their depth are likely to be conservative.

In addition to the gullies, there was evidence of

considerable soil movement throughout the study site. In

grassland areas the land-surface between individual grass

tussocks was consistently 3–5 cm lower than within tussocks

(Figure 2) suggesting movement of soil by sheet-wash, rill

and inter-rill erosion. A significant number of the houses and

trees had exposed foundations and roots that suggested

losses of up to 1.5 m in places. Where gullies emerged, there

were often significant deposits of bare, loose sand and a

number of houses had been inundated.

Remaining woodland

Most homesteads were surrounded by a large number of

mature exotic fruit trees (mostly Mangifera indica) and a

number of small Eucalyptus woodlots. A number of small

patches of native woodland remain (Figure 1) but these were

predominantly dominated by small, shrubby fire tolerant

species such as Combretum spp. and Rourea orientalis.

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Figure 1. Map of Bandawe produced during soil erosion survey. Three classes of gully (Table I) are shown, severe (solid), moderate (dot-dash) and recoveringor negligible (dashed) and each gully has a unique ID number. The map also shows areas of remnant woodland (dark grey), and the new community forest areathat is divided into plantations of native hardwoods (light grey) and exotic softwoods of mostly Eucalyptus (smaller area). The patch of woodland by gully 11was particularly interesting as it was dominated by a stand of mature Brachystegia utilis. Individual households interviewed are shown using capital letters. The

map also shows locally important sites including football pitches (FP) and the historic mission church and graves.

PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 549

Shrubs of the genus Strychnos were also relatively common.

The majority of these species showed signs of fire damage

(such as fire scars, charring or crown damage) and re-

spouting. There was little other evidence of tree regeneration

besides coppicing of cut Eucalyptus and Gmelina and the

presence of young saplings planted by Shanti Trust

volunteers. Dense patches of Landolphia kirkii were

relatively common and large numbers of seedlings were

found beneath their canopies. A small stand of open

woodland dominated by Parninari curatellifolia also

persisted at the north-eastern end of the village.

Household interviews

Perceptions of degradation

The vast majority of households interviewed were aware of

significant changes in the local landscape, most of which

could be interpreted as signs of degradation (Figure 3).

Interviewees often pointed to nearby gullies as a sign of local

problems and all but two participants noted the formation of

gullies as a significant and recent change in the landscape.

One respondent suggested that gullying had been a problem

since they first arrived in the village in 1961. A number of

older participants also dated the first appearance of gullies to

the 1960s but the majority were believed to have first

appeared approximately 20 to 30 years ago. Comparatively

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

few people stated that there had been any significant

reduction in tree cover in the recent past suggesting

deforestation has been largely complete for some time. No

one noted the evidence for rill and inter-rill erosion though

some respondents commented that the ground had become

‘more uneven’.

When asked about the causes of erosion, most participants

saw this in direct terms linking it to heavy rain and flooding

during the wet season (Figure 4). Nearly half (9) of the

interviewees believed that a lack of tree cover was important

and several commented on the effects of trampling and

footpath use. Elders were less likely to assign the problems

to a lack of tree cover compared to young and middle-aged

participants. Two households noted the importance of soil

texture. Responses about the impact of soil erosion were

similarly immediate with a large proportion of households

responding that it directly damaged their crops (12) and

houses (15) largely through associated flooding. Nearly half

(8) of the respondents also suggested that it damaged trees

either by washing away planted saplings or by exposing

roots causing existing trees to fall.

Attitudes to restoration

Most households were very enthusiastic about the initiation

of a restoration and soil conservation programme. Preferred

LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)

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Table I. Description of the gullies shown in Figure 1. Individual gullies were assigned a code to describe their overall severity, severe (S),moderate (M) or negligible/recovering (N). Vegetated shows whether the sides (S) or base (B) were covered in vegetation, letters in bracketsindicate partial or patchy coverage. Relations indicate when gullies were associated with footpaths (P) and football pitches (F), the latterforming large, bare open areas that were often heavily eroded.

ID Severity Width (m) Depth (m) Vegetated Relations Comments

1 M — — — P Cross roads on ridge-line2 M 6 1.50 — P Sides steep and undercut3 M 4–6 0.50–1.5 B — Sides deeply undercut4 N 5–6 0.25–1.25 B S F5 M 3–4 1.50 — P Steep sides6 N/M 2–10 0.75–1.75 — P Sides shallow7 N 8 0.25–1.75 S P Cross roads8 N/M 3–6 1.00–1.50 — P9 N — — — P Sides shallow

10 N 10 0.75 S P From burst Vetiver hedge11 S 18 1.75 (S) (B) P Dense path network12 M 3 1.00–1.25 — — Sides steep, eroding13 S — — (S) P Complex path network14 N 2–10 1.00–1.50 S P Steep sides, path abandoned15 N/M 2–15 1.25–1.50 (S) P Cross roads16 M — — B — Sides steep but slumped17 M — — — P Cross roads18 N 5–7 1.00–1.25 (S) P Sides shallow19 N 3–10 1.00–1.50 — P20 M N/A N/A — F Erosion around football pitch21 M 8–15 0.25–0.75 — — Diversion attempt failed22 N 5 1.25 — —23 N — — — F24 M — 1.00 (S) — Sides receding25 S 5–15 1.00–1.75 (S) — Cassava grown on sides26 N 15–20 1.00–1.50 (S) P Sides receding, some steep27 N/M 3–10 1.00–1.50 (S) P Sides steep28 M 4 0.25 (S) — Sides steep29 N 4 1.25 — — Splits from path, sides steep30 S 4 1.50 — — Sides steep, receding

550 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.

methods for restoration were the use of vetiver grass

(Chrysopogon zizanoides) hedges (see Donjadee et al. 2009

for a recent discussion) and general expressions of interest in

tree planting. With regards to the latter, a significant number

of respondents expected this to be done by volunteers rather

than by the community themselves. When asked where such

work should be focused, the majority of respondents thought

that the most appropriate places were immediately around

their homes (8) or within and around existing gullies (7). Just

three respondents suggested that large scale tree planting

was necessary for soil protection. Having established some

form of woodland restoration as a potentially important

mechanism for soil and flood protection, we then sought to

establish what sort of species people thought most

appropriate for use in restoration work. Exotic fruit trees

were the most popular group despite the fact that large

numbers of these already existed around homesteads

(Figure 5, Table II). Preferences were generally for citrus

fruits that are currently uncommon in the village. Three

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

people suggested that more Mangifera indica should be

planted despite having large numbers of these trees near

their own homes. With regards to timber species, Eucalyptus

was popular though there were a reasonable number of

responses in favour of planting native timber trees,

particularly those of high value. Native fruit trees were

rarely mentioned unprompted, though when asked about

them five households responded positively. The only native

fruit mentioned unprompted was Uapaca kirkiana. Vetiver

grass hedges were often mentioned as a priority for planting.

Fire management and its perceived effects

More than half the respondents (12) stated that they,

personally burnt grasses on their land every year. Four

individuals (Figure 1, D, E, F, J) suggested that they rarely

burnt their land and three of these (D, E, J) were vociferously

anti-burning. None of these households were located

particularly close to any of the major gullies and only

household J had any remnant woodland areas nearby.

LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)

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Figure 2. Examples of evidence for erosion around Bandawe. A severegully (Figure 1, Table I, gully number 30) associated with heavy footpathuse (top). Grass tussocks raised above the surrounding ground level due toerosion and showing evidence of capture of wind-blown sediment (bottom).

This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com

Figure 4. Summary of respondents’ perceptions of the causes of erosion.

PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 551

Respondents stated that the general timing of burning is

decided by local chiefs with almost half (9) the households

stating that they waited for his order. Others (3) suggested

that they lit fires to protect their own property when they saw

fires stared by their neighbours approaching. Respondents

Figure 3. Summary of respondents’ perceptions of recent changes in thelandscape.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

were fairly consistent in their reports that fires are generally

carried out in hot, windy conditions. Burning generally starts

in October, once grasses are fully cured and those suitable

for thatching have been harvested. Most respondents

indicated that thatch grasses were cut to between 10 and

30 cm in height prior to burning.

Nearly all households were aware that annual burning has

a range of potentially damaging consequences (Figure 6).

Three-quarters of respondents stated that fires increased soil

erosion and damaged existing trees. However, nearly the

same number (13) made pains to explain that they protected

trees from fires by clearing grasses around them to a distance

of 4 or 5 metres. Five of the respondents stressed that native

trees survive burning. When asked what would happen were

burning to cease a large majority of households (18)

expected to see poor grass growth and a lack of material for

Figure 5. Preference scores for six tree species groups. Scores are based onthe number of times species in a particular group were mentioned asdesirable for planting and the number of existing trees of that group already

growing around the homes surveyed.

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Table II. Summary of species preferences for use in tree planting and existing tree species found around participants homes. The table showsthe ten most frequently requested and the ten most common existing species (NB some species appeared in both lists). Linnaean, localChitonga and English names are given. Species are split into one of five categories: exotic fruits (EF), native fruits (NF), exotic timber (ET),native timber (NT) and grass (G). Timber is used here to indicate that the tree does not produce any edible products. ‘Existing’ shows thenumber of households (n¼ 20) that had a particular species within a c. 50 m radius around it. Accacia species recorded were all recentlyplanted exotics. Species of Combretum were not identified to species level during the survey but we recorded Combretum molle andCombretum zeyheri in the area, with the former by far the most important of the two. The local name appeared to apply to both species.

Linnaean Chitonga English Category Unprompted Prompted Existing

— — Fruit EF 7 3 —— — Native fruit NF 0 5 —Accacia spp. — — ET 1 1 7Afzelia quanzensis Msambafumu Pod mahogany NT 2 2 1Anacardium occidentale — Cashew EF 0 0 9Breonadia salicina Mung’ona — NT 5 1 0Carica papaya — Papaya EF 1 1 8Chrysopogon zizanoides — Vetiver G 10 1 4Citrus reticulata — Tangerine EF 8 3 0Citrus sinensis — Orange EF 11 3 2Combretum spp. Mlama Bush willow NT 0 0 5Eucalyptus spp. Blue gum Eucalyptus ET 9 4 15Gmelina indica — Melina ET 0 0 9Khaya anthotheca — Red mahogany NT 6 2 1Mangifera indica — Mango EF 3 0 16Musa spp. — Banana EF 0 0 3Persia americana — Avocado EF 3 3 3Psidium guajava — Guava EF 7 3 2Pterocarpus angolensis Mlombwa Bloodwood NT 1 0 6Rourea orientalis Ntantanyerere Short-pod NT 0 0 3Uapaca kirkiana Masuku Wild loquit NF 3 1 0

552 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.

thatching. It was made abundantly clear by all these

respondents that such a situation could not be entertained

despite the fact that seven of the twenty households had tin

roofs.

When discussion moved on to the subject of active fire

management 13 respondents made comments regarding the

ease of control of fires with the majority believing that this

was difficult. Elders, who were likely to have more

experience of setting fires, all stated that control was rather

Figure 6. Summary of respondents’ views on the effects of regular grassburning on vegetation and soil erosion. Negative effects are shown in dark

grey and benefits in white.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

difficult. Men also tended to see fire control as difficult

whilst the split was more even amongst middle-aged and

young respondents. Five respondents were particularly

pessimistic about the potential for fire management and

stated that whatever was done, the land around the village

would burn anyway. Three male participants emphasised the

important traditional role of fire and two of these were rather

suspicious of suggestions that modifications to fire manage-

ment might be beneficial.

DISCUSSION

Land degradation: reality and perceptions

Management practices such as forest clearance, annual

burning and heavy footpath use are well known to be

important processes accelerating erosion (Sidle et al. 2005).

Such disturbances, and associated erosion and flooding,

have a severe impact on the landscape and livelihoods of the

people of Bandawe. Our results suggest that gully formation

is an ongoing problem and one that has existed for at least

three to four decades. Given the population density of the

area, and its sandy soils, a degree of footpath erosion is to be

expected and is probably inevitable. However, low

vegetation cover, largely due to frequent burning, means

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PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 553

that heavy rainfall strips topsoil and is channelled into

gullies initiated by the dense network of footpaths. This is

well illustrated by the response of one interviewee who

informed us that ‘..wherever people start to use a footpath,

soon there will be a gully there..’ Our survey agrees with this

and such processes can be clearly seen in the heavy erosion

and gullying where footpaths congregate at the top of the hill

near the church. Our mapping exercise revealed evidence of

gully/footpath braiding (Cole 2004) and associated incre-

mental, severe degradation of a number of areas. Where

gullies were particularly large, there were often secondary

and/or abandoned paths and the process of path formation,

gully erosion and the opening of a new path may partly

explain the frequent pattern of parallel gullies seen in the

more severely eroded areas (Figure 1, gullies 11, 13, 16 and

28–30).

Though we currently have no direct information on rates

of erosion across our project area, elsewhere low vegetation

cover and heavy levels of disturbance have been shown to

have a significant effect on slope hydrology and erosion

(Sidle et al. 2005; Descheemaeker et al. 2006; Deschee-

maeker et al. 2009). In our area the situation is exacerbated

by the removal of the herb layer before the rainy season and

the extremely sandy soil of high erosivity. Research on

perceptions of soil erosion elsewhere shows mixed results.

Often landowners are aware of even relatively subtle erosion

or changes in soil fertility (Okoba and Sterk 2006; Moges

and Holden 2007) whereas on other occasions they may only

be aware of larger problems such as gullying (Okoba and

Sterk 2006). Our survey revealed a significant direct effect of

flooding on local livelihoods through the destruction of

homes, and crops. People tended to be most aware of these

more obvious aspects of degradation. More pernicious

effects such as declining soil fertility or rill and inter-rill

erosion were less frequently mentioned possibly as the area

of main concern is not cropped or intensively managed.

Attitudes to fire management

For the people of Bandawe annual burning is deemed

necessary in order to provide a good crop of thatch grasses.

The thatched roofs of local homes are replaced every year,

prior to the burning season, and grass supply is crucial issue.

Fire is an integral part of the community’s management with

some interviewees asserting that it was a key part of their

culture and traditions. A number of individuals were notably

anti-burning and concerned about its impact on forests and

soil erosion. Such respondents tended to be from more

wealthy households and relative levels of education may

have a significant influence on opinions. Such households

are also more able to purchase tin roofs and are thus less

sensitive to reductions in the availability of thatch. There

was no significant gender-division in who actually sets fires,

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

rather this was seen to be the responsibility of elders under

the guidance of village chiefs.

Unlike previous, similar studies (e.g. Angassa and Oba

2008; Kassahun and Afsaw 2008), the community was well

aware of the potential links between fire and land-

degradation but did not display any significant attempts to

manage fire sustainably or to target their burning. A few

interviewees stressed that they try to protect existing trees

but stated that damage still frequently occurred. Previous

research (Dewees 1995; Fisher et al. 2005), in addition to the

persistence of Parninari curatellifolia, the proliferation of

Mangifera indica and the small number of culturally

significant trees (for example the wooded local graveyard

and the ‘chiefs’ meeting tree of Afzelia quanzensis on the

lakeshore) shows that people will retain and manage trees if

sufficient incentive exists. In nearly all these places it was,

however, apparent that most mature trees either do not

experience fire, as there is little fuel beneath their canopies,

or are species able to withstand regular burning. Nowhere

did we see any natural regeneration other than re-sprouting

of Combretum spp., Rourea orientalis and Strychnos

coculoides. Such observations are similar to previous

research in Miombo woodlands (Ngulube et al. 1995;

Luoga et al. 2004; Aerts et al. 2008). The little direct work

that has been done on Miombo recovery following burning

suggests that there will be no development of characteristic

dominant species without intervention (Williams et al.

2008).

In other areas where the use of fire is a traditional land-

management tool, it has been recognised that well-managed

burning can have significant benefits for productivity,

biodiversity and fire hazard management. These benefits

can however be all too easily counterbalanced by the

negative impacts of poorly planned fires (e.g. Davies et al.

2008; Kassahun and Afsaw 2008). A sustainable approach to

fire management requires that land managers have a good

understanding of fire behaviour and are able to target their

burning appropriately. There appeared to be no common

view on how easy it was to control fires but younger

individuals were more likely to see this as relatively simple.

The fact that respondents mostly suggested that fires were lit

by elders under the instructions of village chiefs means

younger respondents may have had relatively little

experience of actually setting fires. Throughout the Miombo

zone fire management is a key issue and our results highlight

the importance of identifying responsibility for, and the

cultural background to, fire management in order to target

training. Our community is aware that they have difficulties

with fire control but have not had the opportunity to develop

appropriate skills to tackle the problem. Fire is seen in rather

black and white, burn/no burn terms as a lack of ability to

control fires means targeted burning has not been widely

considered.

LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)

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554 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.

Perceived solutions to land-degradation

Nearly all the people we spoke to emphasised the need for

tree planting as a means to tackle erosion. However,

preferences for what and where to plant did not necessarily

reflect the most effective approaches for erosion and flood

control. Respondents placed emphasis on plating exotic fruit

trees and vetiver grass hedges close to their homes, which

may offer a degree of protection, but does not tackle the root

causes of degradation.

Eucalyptus spp. were one of the most frequently

mentioned trees as they coppice readily, are fire tolerant

and can rapidly produce timber for construction. It was

interesting to note that another introduced timber species,

Gmelina indica, was extremely unpopular. Despite having

similar characteristics to Eucalyptus locals suggested it

impoverished soils and utilised water too heavily. Similar

criticisms have been made of Eucalyptus (Jagger and Pender

2003). Attitudes to restoration have also been heavily

influenced by recent extension work. The introduction of

new fruit trees and vetiver grasses has been met positively

and with some success but has also created demand for more

of these plants and for their use in situations where they may

not be most appropriate. Current ‘fashion’ and perceived

new opportunities may be driving attitudes in a way that

does not always mesh with priorities for ecological

restoration. There also seems to be a risk that, though a

potential impetus for change, the use of external gap-year

volunteers can potentially risk creating a perception that

restoration is something done by external groups to the

community rather than a process driven for and by the

community (Simpson, 2004).

Identifying trade-offs and constraints

The overwhelming constraint on attempting to manage land-

degradation in Bandawe is the need to shift the perceived

balance between the risks and returns from change.

Currently the risk of a lack of thatch is not seen to be

balanced by potential returns from improved fire manage-

ment. One of the most pernicious effects of rural poverty is

that it creates a ‘risk averse’ frame of mind in which there is

little room for experimentation. For example, communities’

response to a scarcity of forest products is often to invest

more time in collection or to substitute forest products rather

than to actively partake in forestry (Hyde and Kohlin 2000).

Proposals that have the potential to interrupt a resource

supply, that may be meagre but is at least somewhat reliable,

are unlikely to be met positively. Our community is

aware that current management is damaging but a change to

a new management regime cannot be easily taken when they

have no guarantee of success and no fall-back position. In

this context the focus on planting trees around homes may

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

represent a desire to secure resource use where ownership in

other areas is uncertain (Mwase et al. 2007) as well as to

prevent damage to property from flooding.

The importance of an economic return and ‘market value’

for the products of forestry (Hyde and Kohlin 2000) may

help to explain why the community tended to favour fruit

over slow-growing characteristic miombo trees, such as

Brachstegia utilis, that provide timber. Miombo woodlands

contain a number of native fruits of high nutritional quality,

for example Strychnos cocculoides (Saka et al. 2003),

Strychnos madagascariensis and Uapaca kirkiana (Ngulube

et al. 1995) and some have potential for domestication

(Akinnifesi et al. 2006). We might expect better perform-

ance and a greater contribution to ecological restoration

from them but they are not currently a priority for the

community.

Decisions about, and commitment to, participation are

largely a result of economic returns and impact on

livelihoods, though Patel et al. (1995) suggest that control

of soil erosion can also provide a strong incentive.

Demonstration and pilot studies are crucial in this context,

as is the need to target education at those most relevant to the

management practice of concern. In our case this means

working closely with village chiefs to improve fire

management practice as currently nearly the entire area

around the village burns every year. Considerable difficulty

lies in the fact that areas protected from burning will, in the

short to medium term, experience an increase in their

relative fire hazard due to increases in the biomass/fuel they

contain. Fuel management and the creation of firebreaks

within such areas are therefore important.

CONCLUSIONS

Forest clearance, annual burning and land-degradation are

closely linked and this is well understood by local people.

However, their preferences and efforts are directed to

tackling the symptoms of gullying and property damage

rather than the root causes of erosion: deforestation and

narrowly-focused objectives for fire management. Poverty,

labour-shortages and a reliance on a good crop of grasses for

thatching reduce the community’s willingness to experiment

with alternative land-management techniques. Changes to

fire regimes are necessary to help control erosion and

flooding but need to account for impacts on fire hazard and

the provision of essential products and services. This study

demonstrates the need to develop woodlands that are

dynamic, rapidly exploitable entities rather than attempting

to recreate ‘natural’ forests. Such an approach has proved

effective for gaining support for restoration efforts and for

protecting remaining forest resources elsewhere (Stone et al.

2008). Protecting existing woodland remnants from regular

burning and linking them together with targeted planting

LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)

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PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 555

may allow relatively rapid expansion of woodland albeit

relatively poor in species diversity. This requires community

level agreement on fire management policy and co-operative

application of prescribed fire to produce a network of

unburnt areas. It is unhelpful to view fire as bad or good but

rather to adopt an ecological management perspective that

utilises fire where appropriate to ensure productivity of

important resources such as thatch. Previous research

suggests that thresholds in the effects of fire return intervals

exist; miombo woodlands may persist where there is, on

average, more than 4–15 years between fires (Gambiza et al.

2000; Sankaran et al. 2008). A degree of disturbance in

miombo woodlands can actually help to maintain floral

diversity (Banda et al. 2006) and, used carefully prescribed

burning can help to manage fire hazard and develop fire

regimes that allow the restoration of woodlands. Further

research is required on fire behaviour and safe burning

conditions, successional pathways under different fire

regimes and grass productivity in burnt and unburnt areas.

Guaranteeing the long-term survival of forest manage-

ment or restoration projects is essential due to the slow

build-up of vegetation cover and soil nutrients and organic

matter (Walker and Desanker 2004; Williams et al. 2008).

Long-term persistence of secondary woodlands requires

however that local people perceive their woodlands as a

valuable resource and have the knowledge and experience to

effectively manage them. Understanding the desires and

preferences of local people is essential for building support

for forest management projects. Forests need to provide a

useful resource whose benefits outweigh the opportunities

created by clearing the land or allowing woodland to

degrade through burning or grazing. Education for, and

dialogue with, communities are thus crucial but can all

strongly influence communities preferences, perceptions

and priorities such that attempts at resource development,

poverty alleviation and ecological restoration may become

confused and difficult to integrate. Critiques of ‘doing

development’ to communities (Simpson 2004) suggest it is

vital to build community involvement to ensure the success

of projects. Our work demonstrates that it is important not to

treat development projects as something where the

community plays a passive role. The central role of fire

in the ecology of miombo woodlands, and communities’

good understanding of the relationship between fire and

degradation suggests that whilst fire bans may have little

success, providing training for fire management has a

significant role to play in developing sustainable land-

management practices and improving rural livelihoods.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is dedicated to the late Chief Yakucha who, always

generous with his time, friendship and enthusiasm, was

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

instrumental in the success of so much of the The Trust’s

work. Thanks are due to the community of Bandawe for their

participation and warm hospitality. Elaine Boyd, Brett Pollard

and Carlos Longwe provided invaluable support for the project

throughout. Beth Chapman and Lee Schofield at Quest Over-

seas were instrumental in facilitating the voluntary placements

that enabled this work. The Shanti Trust is a voluntary

organisation and thanks its many donors for their support.

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APPENDIX 1

Starting questions used to initiate conversation during the

semi-structured interviews. Sub-questions were only asked

if important themes were not mentioned independently by

interviewees.

1) What changes in the landscape have you noticed in this

area?

a) Are you aware of any gullies in the surrounding area?

b) Are you aware of any evidence of soil erosion other than

gullies?

2) What are the main causes of soil erosion in this area?

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3) What impact has soil erosion had on you and your

family?

4) What would be the best ways to prevent soil erosion?

5) What tree species would you like to see planted to help

control erosion and where should they be planted?

6) Do you burn the grass on your land? If so, how much,

how often and when?

7) Does burning grass having an impact on erosion?

8) Does burning grass have an impact on trees?

9) What would happen if you stopped burning grass on your

land?

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