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land degradation & development
Land Degrad. Develop. 21: 546–556 (2010)
Published online 28 June 2010 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ldr.995
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION, FOREST RESTORATION AND FIREMANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY FROM MALAWI
G. M. DAVIES1,2*, L. POLLARD1 AND M. D. MWENDA1
1The Shanti Trust, c/o Makuzi Beach, Private Bag 12, Chintheche, Malawi2School of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Merrill Hall, Box 354115, Seattle, WA 98195-4115, USA
Received 7 July 2009; Revised 16 March 2010; Accepted 24 March 2010
ABSTRACT
Understanding local perceptions of degradation and attitudes to fire management are critical for gaining support for restoration work andimproving livelihoods. Deforestation and annual burning are causing significant land degradation problems in the area around Bandawe,northern Malawi. We mapped evidence of soil erosion and remaining areas of woodland. Gully erosion was common and primarily associatedwith heavily utilised footpaths. Areas between gullies showed signs of significant soil movement. Remnant patches of native woodland existedbut were small, degraded and isolated. We interviewed local households to understand local awareness and impacts of land-degradation, itsperceived cause and preferred methods for restoration. All households were aware of the presence of gullies and reported associated problemsof flood damage. Most households believed erosion was a result of deforestation. Burning practices were seen to have exacerbated erosionproblems. Changing fire management practice was not seen as realistic as it risked reducing the productivity of grasses and fires wereperceived to be too difficult to control. Tree planting was the community’s preferred approach to tackling erosion. Their focus was on plantingexotic fruit and timber trees around houses and they often requested that such work be done by volunteers. Such attitudes may have beeninfluenced by recent extension work and a desire to secure ownership of utilisable resource. Ecologists in the miombo zone should focus onimproving fire management practices and involving communities in creating diverse secondary woodlands that provide a range of goods andservices. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words: community development; flooding; gully; Miombo woodland; participatory research; soil erosion; Malawi
INTRODUCTION
Local people’s experiences of rural development projects are
often not reported despite strong arguments that locally-
based, small scale projects are those most likely to achieve a
win-win conservation/development scenario (Wunder
2001), to meet development targets (Blaikie 2006) and that
a community’s willingness to become involved in develop-
ment projects is closely linked to their past experiences
(Walters et al. 1999). Integrating understanding of people’s
perceptions with observations of the functioning of
environmental systems is critical for developing sustainable
resource management activities (Redman 1999; Hanna
2001). Previous work examining farmers’ perceptions of
degradation has shown that they often have acute and
accurate awareness of problems even if, to outsiders, they
appear unable or unwilling to tackle them (Kiome and
Stocking 1995; Okoba and Sterk 2006; Mairura et al. 2008).
The insights that community-based studies provide into
local environmental problems can help to identify barriers to
* Correspondence to: G. M. Davies, School of Forest Resources, Universityof Washington, Merrill Hall, Box 354115, Seattle, WA 98195-4115, USA.E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
participation in development activities and the rational
behind continued use of practices that cause degradation.
Previous studies have identified a wide range of potential
barriers including, for example, concern over the impacts of
change on food security (Moges and Holden 2007),
inadequate resource governance systems and common
property rights (Reed et al. 2007), gender-based differences
in perceptions of problems (Wezel and Haigis 2000) and a
lack of simple tools by which farmers can assess existing
problems and the effects of intervention (Okoba and Sterk
2006).
Malawi faces a number of development challenges many
of which have been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere (e.g.
Dorward and Kydd 2004). With regards to natural resources,
a growing population has created an increasing demand for
agricultural land (Mlotha 2001, Walker and Peters 2006) and
fuel wood. Timber shortages (Hudak and Wessman 2000;
Bandyopadhyay et al. 2006) and land-degradation process
such as soil erosion (Mkanda 2002) are a significant
problem. Rates of forest loss in Malawi are generally high
with recent figures showing a decline from 3.9 to 3.4 million
ha between 1990 and 2005 (United Nations FAO 2006).
Previous estimates have however shown considerable
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 547
variation in rates of loss and include 2.3 per cent per annum
between 1972 and 1990 (Bunderson and Hayes 1995) and
1.8 per cent per annum between 1981 and 1992 (Hudak and
Wessman 2000). Heavy grazing or frequent fire, the latter
being an issue in our community, can have significant effects
on slope hydrology affecting rates of run-off, soil erosion
and soil fertility (e.g. Descheemaeker et al. 2006;
Descheemaeker et al. 2009). Though clearance for agricul-
tural land and firewood largely explain current high rates of
forest loss and land-degradation, several studies draw
attention to the importance of understanding particular
local causes of these processes (e.g. Abbot and Homewood
1999; Mlotha 2001).
Miombo woodlands, which formerly covered large areas
of Malawi, are dominated by species of Brachystegia,
Julbernardia and Isoberlinia (Campbell 1996). They
provide a wide range of resources including timber,
firewood, edible fruits and mushrooms, fodder for animals,
medicinal plants and bush meat. A number of authors (e.g.
Hyde and Kohlin 2000; Fisher 2004; Bandyopadhyay et al.
2006; Lowore 2006) describe them as ‘safety nets’ that can
provide resources or tradable goods in times when normal
food resources become depleted. As well as utilisable
products they provide a range of ecosystem services such as
watershed and flood protection, maintenance of soil fertility
and carbon storage (Harvey et al. 2003, Walker and
Desanker 2004; Lowore 2006; Williams et al. 2008). Recent
research has suggested that a number of these products have
the potential for domestication and the provision of goods
and services with a market value for increasing household
incomes (Akinifessi et al. 2006). Fire plays a crucial role in
the ecology of miombo woodlands but there is evidence to
suggest that frequent fire, or a combination of burning and
grazing can cause the degradation of existing woodlands and
prevent the regeneration of characteristic species. For
instance Gambiza et al. (2000) and Sankaran et al. (2008)
found that fire return intervals longer than 4–15 years are
necessary if miombo woodland cover is to be retained. The
continued decline in Malawi’s forest cover, it’s need for a
sustainable timber and fuelwood supply and the wide range
of other goods and services provided by miombo woodlands
suggests that their restoration and sustainable management
could play an important role in rural community develop-
ment.
The Shanti Trust, a small development organisation based
in Bandawe, initiated a community-led development
programme to tackle the causes and effects of land-
degradation and forest loss. The Trust has developed a tree
nursery, providing a mixture of exotic and native timber and
fruit trees, with the aim of helping local communities to
restore and expand their forest resource base. In the current
work we aimed to develop an understanding of the
differential perspectives of local people and development
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
facilitators (in this case the authors). We had four key
objectives: to generate a semi-quantitative picture of the
extent and impact of land-degradation processes around
Bandawe including the effect of the current fire regime on
these processes; to understand the perceptions of local
people with regards to land-degradation and fire manage-
ment; to document their ideas for possible solutions; and to
identify trade-off’s that local people made between
sustainable land-management and economic necessity. Such
an approach is crucial to identifying physical, economic and
sociological barriers to participation and to identify how
communities prioritise involvement in development pro-
jects. Through such work facilitators can develop objectives
that match people’s needs and desires, identify educational
requirements and provide a quick return on the community’s
investment.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Project site
Bandawe is located in the Northern Region of Malawi, on
the shores of Lake Malawi, close to the town of Chintheche
(Lat. 11855’S, Long. 34810’E). The regional capital of
Mzuzu is roughly 120 km to the NNE. Bandawe is of
significant cultural and historical interest being the location
to which the Livingstonian Mission moved from Cape
MacClear in 1881. The original mission church dating from
1900 still exists and a local graveyard contains the remains
of several missionaries. Tourism is an important provider of
local employment with several lakeside lodges located
nearby. Most of the local population live in three near-
contiguous villages that stretch along the shores of the lake.
Each village is administered by one of three local chiefs:
Chimbano, Yakucha and Mkuwayi. The local people largely
belong to the Tonga ethnic group.
The climate of the area is characterised by a dry season
that lasts from June to October (mean monthly precipitation
18 mm) and wet season from November to May (mean
monthly precipitation 243 mm). Average maximum
temperature ranges from a high of 30.4 8C in November
to 25.8 8C in June (data from http://www.climate-charts.com
for Nkhata Bay (Lat 11836’S, 34818’E); accessed 9th March
2010).
From the lakeshore (480 m a.s.l.) the land rises about 50 m
to a flat plateau that reaches to the foot of forested hills
roughly 5 km away. Soils in the area immediately
surrounding the villages are infertile and sandy with an
extremely low organic content. The vegetation mostly
consists of a mixture of tussocky perennial grasses that can
grow over 2 m in height. These are cut to provide thatching
for homes that are re-roofed at the end of each rainy season.
Grassland areas are burnt on an annual fire cycle. Around
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
548 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.
homesteads there are frequently dense stands of mature
mango (Mangifera indica), cashew (Anacardium occiden-
tale) and occasional baobab (Adansonia digitata) that form
an almost continuous canopy in a narrow band just above the
lakeshore.
Despite the low soil fertility some of the area is given over
to cassava fields but the majority of the land area of concern
is currently fallow. Grassland areas are cleared for planting
cassava and used for a number of years before being left
fallow. Land tenure is complex, individual families, the
church and local tourist lodges all own land. Community-
owned land also exists and this is largely administered by the
chiefs. There is significant variation in the amount of land
that individual households control and wealthier families
currently own some livestock (goats and cattle).
Surveying land-degradation
We assessed evidence of land-degradation by walking three
transects parallel to the lake shore. Transects ran parallel to
the ridge-line and were located near the top, middle and
bottom of the slope from the plateau above the village to the
lakeshore. We noted evidence for sheet-wash, rill and inter-rill
erosion as well as more severe signs of erosion such as
exposed tree roots and building foundations and gullies.
Gullies were marked with a GPS where they crossed a
transect, then followed up and down slope to locate their top
and bottom. We recorded gully height and width and the
extent of vegetation on their sides and bed. We also recorded
prominent local landmarks and the location of remnant areas
of woodland. The latter are important as they provide a seed
source for tree re-establishment and possible nuclei for future
woodland restoration. It also allowed us to identify species
that are robust to the effects of frequent fire (and that might
therefore be appropriate for planting) or that are valued by the
community (and hence protected from burning).
Household interviews
Along each transect all households that we passed at a
distance of than 200 m were selected for interview. We used
a semi-structured interview that had a number of pre-defined
starting questions concerning soil erosion, fire management
and land-restoration (Appendix 1). Interviews were largely
conducted in the local language, Chitonga, with translation
into English. Once conversation on a topic was initiated it
was allowed to roam freely until exhausted at which point a
new topic was begun. We ensured that interviewees had the
opportunity to ask the authors questions at the end. Notes
were taken on individuals’ responses. Following the
interview we recorded tree species found within a c. 50 m
radius around the property and whether the buildings’ roofs
were of corrugated iron or thatch.
A total of 20 households were interviewed during the
course of the survey (Figure 1). Main participants (family
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
groups often congregated during the course of the inter-
views) were classed into three age categories: young adults
(6), middle-aged (10) and elders (4). Seven of the main
participants were female and 13 male.
We used deductive content analysis (Weber 1990) to
identify themes and groupings amongst responses within
each topic area. When we asked interviewees about their
preferred tree species for restoration work some individuals
needed to be prompted with potential examples. We
calculated species preference scores with unprompted
responses for a species scoring 1 point and prompted
responses (i.e. agreement that a suggested species was a
good idea) half a point.
RESULTS
Patterns of land degradation
Soil erosion
Our survey revealed significant evidence of gully erosion
(Figure 1, Table I). The majority of gullies were associated
with footpaths, which tended to run directly up and down
slope, and contained little vegetation on their sides or base.
Many appeared highly unstable and showed signs of lateral
retreat (Figure 2). The worst erosion was seen on the main N-
S path through the village (Figure 1, gullies 11, 24 and 25)
and where footpaths converged near to the church and
football pitches. There was considerable evidence of ‘trail-
braiding’ (Cole 2004) with the development of a web of
inter-connected parallel paths caused by repetitive path
opening, erosion and abandonment. The bottoms of most
gullies were filled with loose, sandy sediment deposited by
wind or when water flow was reduced towards the end of the
rainy season. The deposited sediment means estimates of
their depth are likely to be conservative.
In addition to the gullies, there was evidence of
considerable soil movement throughout the study site. In
grassland areas the land-surface between individual grass
tussocks was consistently 3–5 cm lower than within tussocks
(Figure 2) suggesting movement of soil by sheet-wash, rill
and inter-rill erosion. A significant number of the houses and
trees had exposed foundations and roots that suggested
losses of up to 1.5 m in places. Where gullies emerged, there
were often significant deposits of bare, loose sand and a
number of houses had been inundated.
Remaining woodland
Most homesteads were surrounded by a large number of
mature exotic fruit trees (mostly Mangifera indica) and a
number of small Eucalyptus woodlots. A number of small
patches of native woodland remain (Figure 1) but these were
predominantly dominated by small, shrubby fire tolerant
species such as Combretum spp. and Rourea orientalis.
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
Figure 1. Map of Bandawe produced during soil erosion survey. Three classes of gully (Table I) are shown, severe (solid), moderate (dot-dash) and recoveringor negligible (dashed) and each gully has a unique ID number. The map also shows areas of remnant woodland (dark grey), and the new community forest areathat is divided into plantations of native hardwoods (light grey) and exotic softwoods of mostly Eucalyptus (smaller area). The patch of woodland by gully 11was particularly interesting as it was dominated by a stand of mature Brachystegia utilis. Individual households interviewed are shown using capital letters. The
map also shows locally important sites including football pitches (FP) and the historic mission church and graves.
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 549
Shrubs of the genus Strychnos were also relatively common.
The majority of these species showed signs of fire damage
(such as fire scars, charring or crown damage) and re-
spouting. There was little other evidence of tree regeneration
besides coppicing of cut Eucalyptus and Gmelina and the
presence of young saplings planted by Shanti Trust
volunteers. Dense patches of Landolphia kirkii were
relatively common and large numbers of seedlings were
found beneath their canopies. A small stand of open
woodland dominated by Parninari curatellifolia also
persisted at the north-eastern end of the village.
Household interviews
Perceptions of degradation
The vast majority of households interviewed were aware of
significant changes in the local landscape, most of which
could be interpreted as signs of degradation (Figure 3).
Interviewees often pointed to nearby gullies as a sign of local
problems and all but two participants noted the formation of
gullies as a significant and recent change in the landscape.
One respondent suggested that gullying had been a problem
since they first arrived in the village in 1961. A number of
older participants also dated the first appearance of gullies to
the 1960s but the majority were believed to have first
appeared approximately 20 to 30 years ago. Comparatively
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
few people stated that there had been any significant
reduction in tree cover in the recent past suggesting
deforestation has been largely complete for some time. No
one noted the evidence for rill and inter-rill erosion though
some respondents commented that the ground had become
‘more uneven’.
When asked about the causes of erosion, most participants
saw this in direct terms linking it to heavy rain and flooding
during the wet season (Figure 4). Nearly half (9) of the
interviewees believed that a lack of tree cover was important
and several commented on the effects of trampling and
footpath use. Elders were less likely to assign the problems
to a lack of tree cover compared to young and middle-aged
participants. Two households noted the importance of soil
texture. Responses about the impact of soil erosion were
similarly immediate with a large proportion of households
responding that it directly damaged their crops (12) and
houses (15) largely through associated flooding. Nearly half
(8) of the respondents also suggested that it damaged trees
either by washing away planted saplings or by exposing
roots causing existing trees to fall.
Attitudes to restoration
Most households were very enthusiastic about the initiation
of a restoration and soil conservation programme. Preferred
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
Table I. Description of the gullies shown in Figure 1. Individual gullies were assigned a code to describe their overall severity, severe (S),moderate (M) or negligible/recovering (N). Vegetated shows whether the sides (S) or base (B) were covered in vegetation, letters in bracketsindicate partial or patchy coverage. Relations indicate when gullies were associated with footpaths (P) and football pitches (F), the latterforming large, bare open areas that were often heavily eroded.
ID Severity Width (m) Depth (m) Vegetated Relations Comments
1 M — — — P Cross roads on ridge-line2 M 6 1.50 — P Sides steep and undercut3 M 4–6 0.50–1.5 B — Sides deeply undercut4 N 5–6 0.25–1.25 B S F5 M 3–4 1.50 — P Steep sides6 N/M 2–10 0.75–1.75 — P Sides shallow7 N 8 0.25–1.75 S P Cross roads8 N/M 3–6 1.00–1.50 — P9 N — — — P Sides shallow
10 N 10 0.75 S P From burst Vetiver hedge11 S 18 1.75 (S) (B) P Dense path network12 M 3 1.00–1.25 — — Sides steep, eroding13 S — — (S) P Complex path network14 N 2–10 1.00–1.50 S P Steep sides, path abandoned15 N/M 2–15 1.25–1.50 (S) P Cross roads16 M — — B — Sides steep but slumped17 M — — — P Cross roads18 N 5–7 1.00–1.25 (S) P Sides shallow19 N 3–10 1.00–1.50 — P20 M N/A N/A — F Erosion around football pitch21 M 8–15 0.25–0.75 — — Diversion attempt failed22 N 5 1.25 — —23 N — — — F24 M — 1.00 (S) — Sides receding25 S 5–15 1.00–1.75 (S) — Cassava grown on sides26 N 15–20 1.00–1.50 (S) P Sides receding, some steep27 N/M 3–10 1.00–1.50 (S) P Sides steep28 M 4 0.25 (S) — Sides steep29 N 4 1.25 — — Splits from path, sides steep30 S 4 1.50 — — Sides steep, receding
550 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.
methods for restoration were the use of vetiver grass
(Chrysopogon zizanoides) hedges (see Donjadee et al. 2009
for a recent discussion) and general expressions of interest in
tree planting. With regards to the latter, a significant number
of respondents expected this to be done by volunteers rather
than by the community themselves. When asked where such
work should be focused, the majority of respondents thought
that the most appropriate places were immediately around
their homes (8) or within and around existing gullies (7). Just
three respondents suggested that large scale tree planting
was necessary for soil protection. Having established some
form of woodland restoration as a potentially important
mechanism for soil and flood protection, we then sought to
establish what sort of species people thought most
appropriate for use in restoration work. Exotic fruit trees
were the most popular group despite the fact that large
numbers of these already existed around homesteads
(Figure 5, Table II). Preferences were generally for citrus
fruits that are currently uncommon in the village. Three
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
people suggested that more Mangifera indica should be
planted despite having large numbers of these trees near
their own homes. With regards to timber species, Eucalyptus
was popular though there were a reasonable number of
responses in favour of planting native timber trees,
particularly those of high value. Native fruit trees were
rarely mentioned unprompted, though when asked about
them five households responded positively. The only native
fruit mentioned unprompted was Uapaca kirkiana. Vetiver
grass hedges were often mentioned as a priority for planting.
Fire management and its perceived effects
More than half the respondents (12) stated that they,
personally burnt grasses on their land every year. Four
individuals (Figure 1, D, E, F, J) suggested that they rarely
burnt their land and three of these (D, E, J) were vociferously
anti-burning. None of these households were located
particularly close to any of the major gullies and only
household J had any remnant woodland areas nearby.
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
Figure 2. Examples of evidence for erosion around Bandawe. A severegully (Figure 1, Table I, gully number 30) associated with heavy footpathuse (top). Grass tussocks raised above the surrounding ground level due toerosion and showing evidence of capture of wind-blown sediment (bottom).
This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com
Figure 4. Summary of respondents’ perceptions of the causes of erosion.
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 551
Respondents stated that the general timing of burning is
decided by local chiefs with almost half (9) the households
stating that they waited for his order. Others (3) suggested
that they lit fires to protect their own property when they saw
fires stared by their neighbours approaching. Respondents
Figure 3. Summary of respondents’ perceptions of recent changes in thelandscape.
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
were fairly consistent in their reports that fires are generally
carried out in hot, windy conditions. Burning generally starts
in October, once grasses are fully cured and those suitable
for thatching have been harvested. Most respondents
indicated that thatch grasses were cut to between 10 and
30 cm in height prior to burning.
Nearly all households were aware that annual burning has
a range of potentially damaging consequences (Figure 6).
Three-quarters of respondents stated that fires increased soil
erosion and damaged existing trees. However, nearly the
same number (13) made pains to explain that they protected
trees from fires by clearing grasses around them to a distance
of 4 or 5 metres. Five of the respondents stressed that native
trees survive burning. When asked what would happen were
burning to cease a large majority of households (18)
expected to see poor grass growth and a lack of material for
Figure 5. Preference scores for six tree species groups. Scores are based onthe number of times species in a particular group were mentioned asdesirable for planting and the number of existing trees of that group already
growing around the homes surveyed.
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
Table II. Summary of species preferences for use in tree planting and existing tree species found around participants homes. The table showsthe ten most frequently requested and the ten most common existing species (NB some species appeared in both lists). Linnaean, localChitonga and English names are given. Species are split into one of five categories: exotic fruits (EF), native fruits (NF), exotic timber (ET),native timber (NT) and grass (G). Timber is used here to indicate that the tree does not produce any edible products. ‘Existing’ shows thenumber of households (n¼ 20) that had a particular species within a c. 50 m radius around it. Accacia species recorded were all recentlyplanted exotics. Species of Combretum were not identified to species level during the survey but we recorded Combretum molle andCombretum zeyheri in the area, with the former by far the most important of the two. The local name appeared to apply to both species.
Linnaean Chitonga English Category Unprompted Prompted Existing
— — Fruit EF 7 3 —— — Native fruit NF 0 5 —Accacia spp. — — ET 1 1 7Afzelia quanzensis Msambafumu Pod mahogany NT 2 2 1Anacardium occidentale — Cashew EF 0 0 9Breonadia salicina Mung’ona — NT 5 1 0Carica papaya — Papaya EF 1 1 8Chrysopogon zizanoides — Vetiver G 10 1 4Citrus reticulata — Tangerine EF 8 3 0Citrus sinensis — Orange EF 11 3 2Combretum spp. Mlama Bush willow NT 0 0 5Eucalyptus spp. Blue gum Eucalyptus ET 9 4 15Gmelina indica — Melina ET 0 0 9Khaya anthotheca — Red mahogany NT 6 2 1Mangifera indica — Mango EF 3 0 16Musa spp. — Banana EF 0 0 3Persia americana — Avocado EF 3 3 3Psidium guajava — Guava EF 7 3 2Pterocarpus angolensis Mlombwa Bloodwood NT 1 0 6Rourea orientalis Ntantanyerere Short-pod NT 0 0 3Uapaca kirkiana Masuku Wild loquit NF 3 1 0
552 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.
thatching. It was made abundantly clear by all these
respondents that such a situation could not be entertained
despite the fact that seven of the twenty households had tin
roofs.
When discussion moved on to the subject of active fire
management 13 respondents made comments regarding the
ease of control of fires with the majority believing that this
was difficult. Elders, who were likely to have more
experience of setting fires, all stated that control was rather
Figure 6. Summary of respondents’ views on the effects of regular grassburning on vegetation and soil erosion. Negative effects are shown in dark
grey and benefits in white.
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
difficult. Men also tended to see fire control as difficult
whilst the split was more even amongst middle-aged and
young respondents. Five respondents were particularly
pessimistic about the potential for fire management and
stated that whatever was done, the land around the village
would burn anyway. Three male participants emphasised the
important traditional role of fire and two of these were rather
suspicious of suggestions that modifications to fire manage-
ment might be beneficial.
DISCUSSION
Land degradation: reality and perceptions
Management practices such as forest clearance, annual
burning and heavy footpath use are well known to be
important processes accelerating erosion (Sidle et al. 2005).
Such disturbances, and associated erosion and flooding,
have a severe impact on the landscape and livelihoods of the
people of Bandawe. Our results suggest that gully formation
is an ongoing problem and one that has existed for at least
three to four decades. Given the population density of the
area, and its sandy soils, a degree of footpath erosion is to be
expected and is probably inevitable. However, low
vegetation cover, largely due to frequent burning, means
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 553
that heavy rainfall strips topsoil and is channelled into
gullies initiated by the dense network of footpaths. This is
well illustrated by the response of one interviewee who
informed us that ‘..wherever people start to use a footpath,
soon there will be a gully there..’ Our survey agrees with this
and such processes can be clearly seen in the heavy erosion
and gullying where footpaths congregate at the top of the hill
near the church. Our mapping exercise revealed evidence of
gully/footpath braiding (Cole 2004) and associated incre-
mental, severe degradation of a number of areas. Where
gullies were particularly large, there were often secondary
and/or abandoned paths and the process of path formation,
gully erosion and the opening of a new path may partly
explain the frequent pattern of parallel gullies seen in the
more severely eroded areas (Figure 1, gullies 11, 13, 16 and
28–30).
Though we currently have no direct information on rates
of erosion across our project area, elsewhere low vegetation
cover and heavy levels of disturbance have been shown to
have a significant effect on slope hydrology and erosion
(Sidle et al. 2005; Descheemaeker et al. 2006; Deschee-
maeker et al. 2009). In our area the situation is exacerbated
by the removal of the herb layer before the rainy season and
the extremely sandy soil of high erosivity. Research on
perceptions of soil erosion elsewhere shows mixed results.
Often landowners are aware of even relatively subtle erosion
or changes in soil fertility (Okoba and Sterk 2006; Moges
and Holden 2007) whereas on other occasions they may only
be aware of larger problems such as gullying (Okoba and
Sterk 2006). Our survey revealed a significant direct effect of
flooding on local livelihoods through the destruction of
homes, and crops. People tended to be most aware of these
more obvious aspects of degradation. More pernicious
effects such as declining soil fertility or rill and inter-rill
erosion were less frequently mentioned possibly as the area
of main concern is not cropped or intensively managed.
Attitudes to fire management
For the people of Bandawe annual burning is deemed
necessary in order to provide a good crop of thatch grasses.
The thatched roofs of local homes are replaced every year,
prior to the burning season, and grass supply is crucial issue.
Fire is an integral part of the community’s management with
some interviewees asserting that it was a key part of their
culture and traditions. A number of individuals were notably
anti-burning and concerned about its impact on forests and
soil erosion. Such respondents tended to be from more
wealthy households and relative levels of education may
have a significant influence on opinions. Such households
are also more able to purchase tin roofs and are thus less
sensitive to reductions in the availability of thatch. There
was no significant gender-division in who actually sets fires,
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
rather this was seen to be the responsibility of elders under
the guidance of village chiefs.
Unlike previous, similar studies (e.g. Angassa and Oba
2008; Kassahun and Afsaw 2008), the community was well
aware of the potential links between fire and land-
degradation but did not display any significant attempts to
manage fire sustainably or to target their burning. A few
interviewees stressed that they try to protect existing trees
but stated that damage still frequently occurred. Previous
research (Dewees 1995; Fisher et al. 2005), in addition to the
persistence of Parninari curatellifolia, the proliferation of
Mangifera indica and the small number of culturally
significant trees (for example the wooded local graveyard
and the ‘chiefs’ meeting tree of Afzelia quanzensis on the
lakeshore) shows that people will retain and manage trees if
sufficient incentive exists. In nearly all these places it was,
however, apparent that most mature trees either do not
experience fire, as there is little fuel beneath their canopies,
or are species able to withstand regular burning. Nowhere
did we see any natural regeneration other than re-sprouting
of Combretum spp., Rourea orientalis and Strychnos
coculoides. Such observations are similar to previous
research in Miombo woodlands (Ngulube et al. 1995;
Luoga et al. 2004; Aerts et al. 2008). The little direct work
that has been done on Miombo recovery following burning
suggests that there will be no development of characteristic
dominant species without intervention (Williams et al.
2008).
In other areas where the use of fire is a traditional land-
management tool, it has been recognised that well-managed
burning can have significant benefits for productivity,
biodiversity and fire hazard management. These benefits
can however be all too easily counterbalanced by the
negative impacts of poorly planned fires (e.g. Davies et al.
2008; Kassahun and Afsaw 2008). A sustainable approach to
fire management requires that land managers have a good
understanding of fire behaviour and are able to target their
burning appropriately. There appeared to be no common
view on how easy it was to control fires but younger
individuals were more likely to see this as relatively simple.
The fact that respondents mostly suggested that fires were lit
by elders under the instructions of village chiefs means
younger respondents may have had relatively little
experience of actually setting fires. Throughout the Miombo
zone fire management is a key issue and our results highlight
the importance of identifying responsibility for, and the
cultural background to, fire management in order to target
training. Our community is aware that they have difficulties
with fire control but have not had the opportunity to develop
appropriate skills to tackle the problem. Fire is seen in rather
black and white, burn/no burn terms as a lack of ability to
control fires means targeted burning has not been widely
considered.
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
554 G. M. DAVIES ET AL.
Perceived solutions to land-degradation
Nearly all the people we spoke to emphasised the need for
tree planting as a means to tackle erosion. However,
preferences for what and where to plant did not necessarily
reflect the most effective approaches for erosion and flood
control. Respondents placed emphasis on plating exotic fruit
trees and vetiver grass hedges close to their homes, which
may offer a degree of protection, but does not tackle the root
causes of degradation.
Eucalyptus spp. were one of the most frequently
mentioned trees as they coppice readily, are fire tolerant
and can rapidly produce timber for construction. It was
interesting to note that another introduced timber species,
Gmelina indica, was extremely unpopular. Despite having
similar characteristics to Eucalyptus locals suggested it
impoverished soils and utilised water too heavily. Similar
criticisms have been made of Eucalyptus (Jagger and Pender
2003). Attitudes to restoration have also been heavily
influenced by recent extension work. The introduction of
new fruit trees and vetiver grasses has been met positively
and with some success but has also created demand for more
of these plants and for their use in situations where they may
not be most appropriate. Current ‘fashion’ and perceived
new opportunities may be driving attitudes in a way that
does not always mesh with priorities for ecological
restoration. There also seems to be a risk that, though a
potential impetus for change, the use of external gap-year
volunteers can potentially risk creating a perception that
restoration is something done by external groups to the
community rather than a process driven for and by the
community (Simpson, 2004).
Identifying trade-offs and constraints
The overwhelming constraint on attempting to manage land-
degradation in Bandawe is the need to shift the perceived
balance between the risks and returns from change.
Currently the risk of a lack of thatch is not seen to be
balanced by potential returns from improved fire manage-
ment. One of the most pernicious effects of rural poverty is
that it creates a ‘risk averse’ frame of mind in which there is
little room for experimentation. For example, communities’
response to a scarcity of forest products is often to invest
more time in collection or to substitute forest products rather
than to actively partake in forestry (Hyde and Kohlin 2000).
Proposals that have the potential to interrupt a resource
supply, that may be meagre but is at least somewhat reliable,
are unlikely to be met positively. Our community is
aware that current management is damaging but a change to
a new management regime cannot be easily taken when they
have no guarantee of success and no fall-back position. In
this context the focus on planting trees around homes may
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
represent a desire to secure resource use where ownership in
other areas is uncertain (Mwase et al. 2007) as well as to
prevent damage to property from flooding.
The importance of an economic return and ‘market value’
for the products of forestry (Hyde and Kohlin 2000) may
help to explain why the community tended to favour fruit
over slow-growing characteristic miombo trees, such as
Brachstegia utilis, that provide timber. Miombo woodlands
contain a number of native fruits of high nutritional quality,
for example Strychnos cocculoides (Saka et al. 2003),
Strychnos madagascariensis and Uapaca kirkiana (Ngulube
et al. 1995) and some have potential for domestication
(Akinnifesi et al. 2006). We might expect better perform-
ance and a greater contribution to ecological restoration
from them but they are not currently a priority for the
community.
Decisions about, and commitment to, participation are
largely a result of economic returns and impact on
livelihoods, though Patel et al. (1995) suggest that control
of soil erosion can also provide a strong incentive.
Demonstration and pilot studies are crucial in this context,
as is the need to target education at those most relevant to the
management practice of concern. In our case this means
working closely with village chiefs to improve fire
management practice as currently nearly the entire area
around the village burns every year. Considerable difficulty
lies in the fact that areas protected from burning will, in the
short to medium term, experience an increase in their
relative fire hazard due to increases in the biomass/fuel they
contain. Fuel management and the creation of firebreaks
within such areas are therefore important.
CONCLUSIONS
Forest clearance, annual burning and land-degradation are
closely linked and this is well understood by local people.
However, their preferences and efforts are directed to
tackling the symptoms of gullying and property damage
rather than the root causes of erosion: deforestation and
narrowly-focused objectives for fire management. Poverty,
labour-shortages and a reliance on a good crop of grasses for
thatching reduce the community’s willingness to experiment
with alternative land-management techniques. Changes to
fire regimes are necessary to help control erosion and
flooding but need to account for impacts on fire hazard and
the provision of essential products and services. This study
demonstrates the need to develop woodlands that are
dynamic, rapidly exploitable entities rather than attempting
to recreate ‘natural’ forests. Such an approach has proved
effective for gaining support for restoration efforts and for
protecting remaining forest resources elsewhere (Stone et al.
2008). Protecting existing woodland remnants from regular
burning and linking them together with targeted planting
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT, 21: 546–556 (2010)
PERCEPTIONS OF LAND-DEGRADATION AND FIRE MANAGEMENT IN MALAWI 555
may allow relatively rapid expansion of woodland albeit
relatively poor in species diversity. This requires community
level agreement on fire management policy and co-operative
application of prescribed fire to produce a network of
unburnt areas. It is unhelpful to view fire as bad or good but
rather to adopt an ecological management perspective that
utilises fire where appropriate to ensure productivity of
important resources such as thatch. Previous research
suggests that thresholds in the effects of fire return intervals
exist; miombo woodlands may persist where there is, on
average, more than 4–15 years between fires (Gambiza et al.
2000; Sankaran et al. 2008). A degree of disturbance in
miombo woodlands can actually help to maintain floral
diversity (Banda et al. 2006) and, used carefully prescribed
burning can help to manage fire hazard and develop fire
regimes that allow the restoration of woodlands. Further
research is required on fire behaviour and safe burning
conditions, successional pathways under different fire
regimes and grass productivity in burnt and unburnt areas.
Guaranteeing the long-term survival of forest manage-
ment or restoration projects is essential due to the slow
build-up of vegetation cover and soil nutrients and organic
matter (Walker and Desanker 2004; Williams et al. 2008).
Long-term persistence of secondary woodlands requires
however that local people perceive their woodlands as a
valuable resource and have the knowledge and experience to
effectively manage them. Understanding the desires and
preferences of local people is essential for building support
for forest management projects. Forests need to provide a
useful resource whose benefits outweigh the opportunities
created by clearing the land or allowing woodland to
degrade through burning or grazing. Education for, and
dialogue with, communities are thus crucial but can all
strongly influence communities preferences, perceptions
and priorities such that attempts at resource development,
poverty alleviation and ecological restoration may become
confused and difficult to integrate. Critiques of ‘doing
development’ to communities (Simpson 2004) suggest it is
vital to build community involvement to ensure the success
of projects. Our work demonstrates that it is important not to
treat development projects as something where the
community plays a passive role. The central role of fire
in the ecology of miombo woodlands, and communities’
good understanding of the relationship between fire and
degradation suggests that whilst fire bans may have little
success, providing training for fire management has a
significant role to play in developing sustainable land-
management practices and improving rural livelihoods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is dedicated to the late Chief Yakucha who, always
generous with his time, friendship and enthusiasm, was
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
instrumental in the success of so much of the The Trust’s
work. Thanks are due to the community of Bandawe for their
participation and warm hospitality. Elaine Boyd, Brett Pollard
and Carlos Longwe provided invaluable support for the project
throughout. Beth Chapman and Lee Schofield at Quest Over-
seas were instrumental in facilitating the voluntary placements
that enabled this work. The Shanti Trust is a voluntary
organisation and thanks its many donors for their support.
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APPENDIX 1
Starting questions used to initiate conversation during the
semi-structured interviews. Sub-questions were only asked
if important themes were not mentioned independently by
interviewees.
1) What changes in the landscape have you noticed in this
area?
a) Are you aware of any gullies in the surrounding area?
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gullies?
2) What are the main causes of soil erosion in this area?
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3) What impact has soil erosion had on you and your
family?
4) What would be the best ways to prevent soil erosion?
5) What tree species would you like to see planted to help
control erosion and where should they be planted?
6) Do you burn the grass on your land? If so, how much,
how often and when?
7) Does burning grass having an impact on erosion?
8) Does burning grass have an impact on trees?
9) What would happen if you stopped burning grass on your
land?
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