Maglev (transport) 1

Maglev (transport)

JR-Maglev at Yamanashi, Japan test track inNovember, 2005. 581 km/h. Guinness World

Records authorization.

Transrapid 09 at the Emsland test facility inGermany

Maglev, or magnetic levitation, is a system of transportation thatsuspends, guides and propels vehicles, predominantly trains, usingmagnetic levitation from a very large number of magnets for lift andpropulsion. This method has the potential to be faster, quieter andsmoother than wheeled mass transit systems. The power needed forlevitation is usually not a particularly large percentage of the overallconsumption; most of the power used is needed to overcome air drag,as with any other high speed train.

The highest recorded speed of a Maglev train is 581 kilometres perhour (361 mph), achieved in Japan in 2003, 6 kilometres per hour(3.7 mph) faster than the conventional TGV speed record.

The first commercial Maglev "people-mover" was officially opened in1984 in Birmingham, England. It operated on an elevated 600-metre(2000 ft) section of monorail track between Birmingham InternationalAirport and Birmingham International railway station, running atspeeds up to 42 km/h (26 mph); the system was eventually closed in1995 due to reliability and design problems.

Perhaps the most well known implementation of high-speed maglevtechnology currently operating commercially is the IOS (initialoperating segment) demonstration line of the German-built Transrapidtrain in Shanghai, China that transports people 30 km (18.6 miles) tothe airport in just 7 minutes 20 seconds, achieving a top speed of431 km/h (268 mph), averaging 250 km/h (160 mph).

History

First patents

High speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world.[1] Early United Statespatents for a linear motor propelled train were awarded to the inventor, Alfred Zehden (German). The inventor wasawarded U.S. Patent 782312 [2] (June 21, 1902) and U.S. Patent RE12700 [3] (August 21, 1907).[4] In 1907, anotherearly electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith.[5] A series of German patents formagnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[6]

An early modern type of maglev train was described in U.S. Patent 3158765 [7], Magnetic system of transportation,by G. R. Polgreen (August 25, 1959). The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitationguidance"[8] by Canadian Patents and Development Limited.

New York, United States 1968In 1961, when he was delayed during rush hour traffic on the Throgs Neck Bridge, James Powell, a researcher atBrookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation to solve the trafficproblem.[9] Powell and BNL colleague Gordon Danby jointly worked out a MagLev concept using static magnetsmounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops on aguideway.[10] [11]

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Hamburg, Germany 1979Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger transportation. In 1979 a908 m track was opened in Hamburg for the first International Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). There was somuch interest that operations had to be extended three months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than50,000 passengers. It was reassembled in Kassel in 1980.

Birmingham, United Kingdom 1984–1995In the late 1940s, Professor Eric Laithwaite of Imperial College in London developed the first full-size workingmodel of the linear induction motor. He became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor.[12] As the linear motor does not requirephysical contact between the vehicle and guideway, it became a common fixture on many advanced transportationsystems being developed in the 1960s and 70s. Laithwaite himself joined development of one such project, theTracked Hovercraft, although funding for this project was cancelled in 1973.[13]

The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s Laithwaite discovered anew arrangement of magnets that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift as well as forward thrust,allowing a maglev system to be built with a single set of magnets. Working at the British Rail Research Division inDerby, along with teams at several civil engineering firms, the "traverse-flux" system was developed into a workingsystem.The world's first commercial automated maglev system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran from the airportterminal of Birmingham International Airport to the nearby Birmingham International railway station between1984–1995.[14] The length of the track was 600 meters (1969 ft), and trains "flew" at an altitude of 15 millimeters(0.6 in). It was in operation for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made itunreliable in its later years and it has now been replaced with a Cable Liner.[15] One of the original cars is now ondisplay at Railworld in Peterborough, while the RTV31 hover train vehicle is preserved on the Nene Valley Railwayin Peterborough.Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:1. The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8 tonne vehicle was easy.2. Electrical power was easily available.3. The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.4. Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved5. Land was owned by the railway or airport6. Local industries and councils were supportive7. Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization was not high.After the original system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant.[16] The guideway was reused in 2003when the replacement cable-hauled AirRail Link people mover was opened.[17]

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Japan

JNR ML500 at Miyazaki, Japan test track inDecember 21, 1979. 517km/h. Guinness World

Records authorization at that time.

In Japan, there are two independently developed Maglev trains. One isHSST by Japan Airlines and the other, which is more well-known, isJR-Maglev by Japan Railways Group. The development of the latterstarted in 1969, and Miyazaki test track had regularly hit 517 km/h by1979, but after an accident that destroyed the train, a new design wasdecided upon. Tests through the 1980s continued in Miyazaki beforetransferring a far larger and elaborate test track (20 km long) inYamanashi in 1997. In that year,Development of HSST started in1974, based on technologies introduced from Germany. In Tsukuba,Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (Linimo) wins popularity in spite of being30 km/h slower at the Tsukuba World Exposition. In Okazaki, Japan(1987), the JR-Maglev took a test ride at the Okazaki exhibition. InSaitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition performed in Kumagaya. Its fastestrecorded speed was 30 km/h. In Yokohama, Japan (1989), the HSST-05 acquires a business driver's license atYokohama exhibition and carries out general test ride driving. Maximum speed 42 km/h.

Vancouver, Canada & Hamburg, Germany 1986-1988In Vancouver, Canada (1986), the JR-Maglev took a test ride at holding Vancouver traffic exhibition and runs. InHamburg, Germany (1988), the TR-07 in international traffic exhibition (IVA88) performed Hamburg.

Berlin, Germany 1989–1991In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in the late 1980s. It was a driverless maglev system with a 1.6 km trackconnecting three stations. Testing in passenger traffic started in August 1989, and regular operation started in July1991. Although the line largely followed a new elevated alignment, it terminated at the U-Bahn station Gleisdreieck,where it took over a platform that was then no longer in use; it was from a line that formerly ran to East Berlin. Afterthe fall of the Berlin Wall, plans were set in motion to reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of theM-Bahn line began only two months after regular service began that was called Pundai project and was completed inFebruary 1992.

Other patentsHigh speed transportation patents were also granted to various other inventors throughout the world.[1] Early UnitedStates patents for a linear motor propelled train were awarded to the inventor, Alfred Zehden (German). The inventorwas awarded U.S. Patent 782312 [2] (June 21, 1902) and U.S. Patent RE12700 [3] (August 21, 1907).[4] In 1907,another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith.[5] A series of German patents formagnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[6]

An early modern type of maglev train was described in U.S. Patent 3158765 [7], Magnetic system of transportation,by G. R. Polgreen (August 25, 1959). The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitationguidance"[8] by Canadian Patents and Development Limited.

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Technology

Overview

MLX01 maglev train Superconducting magnetBogie

The term "maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railwaysystem as well, specifically designed for magnetic levitation andpropulsion. All operational implementations of maglev technologyhave had minimal overlap with wheeled train technology and have notbeen compatible with conventional rail tracks. Because they cannotshare existing infrastructure, these maglev systems must be designed ascomplete transportation systems. The Applied Levitation SPM Maglevsystem is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglevvehicles and conventional trains to operate at the same time on thesame right of way. MAN in Germany also designed a maglev systemthat worked with conventional rails, but it was never fullydeveloped.[18]

See also JR-Maglev#Fundamental technology elements, Transrapid#Technology, Magnetic levitation

There are two particularly notable types of maglev technology:• For electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually

steel) track.• Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses electromagnets on both track and train to push the train away from the

rail.Another experimental technology, which was designed, proven mathematically, peer reviewed, and patented, but isyet to be built, is the magnetodynamic suspension (MDS), which uses the attractive magnetic force of a permanentmagnet array near a steel track to lift the train and hold it in place. Other technologies such as repulsive permanentmagnets and superconducting magnets have seen some research.

Electromagnetic suspension

In current electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail while electromagnets,attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically arranged on a series ofC-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing themagnets. The rail is situated between the upper and lower edges.Magnetic attraction varies with the cube of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the railproduce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable - if there is a slight divergence fromthe optimum position, the tendency will be to exacerbate this, and complex systems of feedback control are requiredto maintain a train at a constant distance from the track, (approximately 15 millimeters (0.6 in)).[19] [20]

The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systemswhich only work at a minimum speed of about 30 km/h. This eliminates the need for a separate low-speedsuspension system, and can simplify the track layout as a result. On the downside, the dynamic instability of thesystem demands high tolerances of the track, which can offset, or eliminate this advantage. Laithwaite, highlyskeptical of the concept, was concerned that in order to make a track with the required tolerances, the gap betweenthe magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large.[18] Inpractice, this problem was addressed through increased performance of the feedback systems, which allow thesystem to run with close tolerances.

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Electrodynamic suspension

EDS Maglev Propulsion via propulsion coils

In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the rail and the train exert amagnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive force betweenthese magnetic fields. The magnetic field in the train is produced byeither electromagnets (as in JR-Maglev) or by an array of permanentmagnets (as in Inductrack). The repulsive force in the track is createdby an induced magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in thetrack. A major advantage of the repulsive maglev systems is that theyare naturally stable - minor narrowing in distance between the track and the magnets create strong forces to repel themagnets back to their original position, while a slight increase in distance greatly reduced the force and again returnsthe vehicle to the right separation.[18] No feedback control is needed.

Repulsive systems have a major downside as well. At slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and theresultant magnetic flux is not large enough to support the weight of the train. For this reason the train must havewheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation.Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able tosupport both low-speed and high-speed operation. Another downside is that the repulsive system naturally creates afield in the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which act against the magnets and create a form of drag.This is generally only a concern at low speeds, at higher speeds the effect does not have time to build to its fullpotential and other forms of drag dominate.[18]

The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force in therails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a separate reaction plate, as inmost linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial Collegelab.[18] Alternately, propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and makethe train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: analternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forwardalong the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offsetbetween the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.

Pros and cons of different technologiesEach implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages anddisadvantages.

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Technology Pros Cons

EMS[21] [22]

(Electromagneticsuspension)

Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less thanEDS; proven, commercially available technology that canattain very high speeds (500 km/h); no wheels or secondarypropulsion system needed

The separation between the vehicle and the guideway mustbe constantly monitored and corrected by computer systemsto avoid collision due to the unstable nature ofelectromagnetic attraction; due to the system's inherentinstability and the required constant corrections by outsidesystems, vibration issues may occur.

EDS[23] [24]

(Electrodynamicsuspension)

Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and trainenable highest recorded train speeds (581 km/h) and heavyload capacity; has recently demonstrated (December 2005)successful operations using high temperaturesuperconductors in its onboard magnets, cooled withinexpensive liquid nitrogen

Strong magnetic fields onboard the train would make thetrain inaccessible to passengers with pacemakers or magneticdata storage media such as hard drives and credit cards,necessitating the use of magnetic shielding; limitations onguideway inductivity limit the maximum speed of thevehicle; vehicle must be wheeled for travel at low speeds.

InductrackSystem

[25] [26]

(Permanent MagnetEDS)

Failsafe Suspension - no power required to activatemagnets; Magnetic field is localized below the car; cangenerate enough force at low speeds (around 5 km/h) tolevitate maglev train; in case of power failure cars slowdown on their own safely; Halbach arrays of permanentmagnets may prove more cost-effective than electromagnets

Requires either wheels or track segments that move for whenthe vehicle is stopped. New technology that is still underdevelopment (as of 2008) and as yet has no commercialversion or full scale system prototype.

Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although Inductrackprovides levitation down to a much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-less.The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, withelectricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guidewaypower is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) speed, usingthe power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

Propulsion

An EDS system can provide both levitation and propulsion using an onboard linear motor. EMS systems can onlylevitate the train using the magnets onboard, not propel it forward. As such, vehicles need some other technology forpropulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances where thecost of propulsion coils could be prohibitive, a propeller or jet engine could be used.

Stability

Earnshaw's theorem shows that any combination of static magnets cannot be in a stable equilibrium.[27] However,the various levitation systems achieve stable levitation by violating the assumptions of Earnshaw's theorem.Earnshaw's theorem assumes that the magnets are static and unchanging in field strength and that the relativepermeability is constant and greater than 1 everywhere. EMS systems rely on active electronic stabilization. Suchsystems constantly measure the bearing distance and adjust the electromagnet current accordingly. All EDS systemsare moving systems (no EDS system can levitate the train unless it is in motion).Because Maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required by magnetic technology. Inaddition translations, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion) or heave (up and downmotions) can be problematic with some technologies.

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Guidance

Some systems use Null Flux systems, also known as Null Current systems,[28] these use a coil which is wound sothat it enters two opposing, alternating fields. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, butif it moves off-line this creates a changing flux that generates a field that pushes it back into line.

Evacuated tubesSome systems (notably the swissmetro system) propose the use of vactrains — evacuated (airless) tubes used intandem with maglev technology to minimize air drag. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly,as most of the energy for conventional Maglev trains is lost in air drag.[29]

One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the risk ofcabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the tube in the event of a trainmalfunction or accident. The Rand corporation has designed a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross theatlantic or the USA in 20 minutes.

Power and energy usageEnergy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train, and may be regained when the train slows down("regenerative braking"). It is also used to make the train levitate and to stabilise the movement of the train. Themain part of the energy is needed to force the train through the air ("air drag"). Also some energy is used for airconditioning, heating, lighting and other miscellaneous systems.At very low speeds the percentage of power (energy per time) used for levitation can be significant. Also for veryshort distances the energy used for acceleration might be considered. But the power used to overcome air dragincreases with the cube of the velocity, and hence dominates at high speed (note: the energy increases by the squareof the velocity and the time decreases linearly.).

Advantages and disadvantages

Compared to conventional trainsMajor comparative differences between the two technologies lie in backward-compatibility, rolling resistance,weight, noise, design constraints, and control systems.• Backwards Compatibility: Maglev trains currently in operation are not compatible with conventional track, and

therefore require all new infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high speed trains such asthe TGV are able to run at reduced speeds on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where newinfrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensionswhere traffic does not justify new infrastructure.

• Efficiency: Due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience norolling resistance, leaving only air resistance and electromagnetic drag, potentially improving powerefficiency.[30]

• Weight: The weight of the large electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs is a major design issue. A verystrong magnetic field is required to levitate a massive train. For this reason one research path is usingsuperconductors to improve the efficiency of the electromagnets, and the energy cost of maintaining the field.

• Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air, maglev trains produce lessnoise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev mayreduce this benefit: A study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic while conventionaltrains have a 5-10 dB "bonus" as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.[31] [32]

Maglev (transport) 8

• Design Comparisons: Braking and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360 railedShinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues. Magnet reliability at higher temperatures is a countervailingcomparative disadvantage (see suspension types), but new alloys and manufacturing techniques have resulted inmagnets that maintain their levitational force at higher temperatures.

As with many technologies, advances in linear motor design have addressed the limitations noted in early maglevsystems. As linear motors must fit within or straddle their track over the full length of the train, track design for someEDS and EMS maglev systems is challenging for anything other than point-to-point services. Curves must be gentle,while switches are very long and need care to avoid breaks in current. An SPM maglev system, in which the vehiclepermanently levitated over the tracks, can instantaneously switch tracks using electronic controls, with no movingparts in the track. A prototype SPM maglev train has also navigated curves with radius equal to the length of thetrain itself, which indciates that a full-scale train should be able to navigate curves with the same or narrower radiusas a conventional train.• Control Systems: EMS Maglev needs very fast-responding control systems to maintain a stable height above the

track; this needs careful design in the event of a failure in order to avoid crashing into the track during a powerfluctuation. Other maglev systems do not necessarily have this problem. For example, SPM maglev systems havea stable levitation gap of several centimeters.

Compared to aircraftFor many systems, it is possible to define a lift-to-drag ratio. For maglev systems these ratios can exceed that ofaircraft (for example Inductrack can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can makemaglev more efficient per kilometre. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger thanlift-induced drag. Jet transport aircraft take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce dragduring cruise, hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds thanmaglev trains that operate at sea level (this has been proposed to be fixed by the vactrain concept). Aircraft are alsomore flexible and can service more destinations with provision of suitable airport facilities.Unlike airplanes, maglev trains are powered by electricity and thus need not carry fuel. Aircraft fuel is a significantdanger during takeoff and landing accidents. Also, electric trains emit little carbon dioxide emissions, especiallywhen powered by nuclear or renewable sources.

EconomicsThe Shanghai maglev cost 9.93 billion yuan to build.[33] This total includes infrastructure capital costs such asmanufacturing and construction facilities, and operational training. At 50 yuan per passenger[34] and the current7,000 passengers per day, income from the system is incapable of recouping the capital costs (including interest onfinancing) over the expected lifetime of the system, even ignoring operating costs. This changes if capacityutilization increases from the current 20%.China aims to limit the cost of future construction extending the maglev line to approximately 200 million yuan perkilometer.[33]

The United States Federal Railroad Administration 2003 Draft Environmental Impact Statement for a proposedBaltimore-Washington Maglev project gives an estimated 2008 capital costs of 4.361 billion US dollars for 39.1miles, or 111.5 million US dollars per mile (69.3 million US dollars per kilometer). The Maryland TransitAdministration (MTA) conducted their own Environmental Impact Statement, and put the pricetag at 4.9 billiondollars for construction, and 53 million a year for operations.[35]

The proposed Chūō Shinkansen maglev in Japan is estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion to build, with aroute blasting long tunnels through mountains. A Tokaido maglev route replacing current Shinkansen would costsome 1/10th the cost, as no new tunnel blasting would be needed, but noise pollution issues would make it infeasible.

Maglev (transport) 9

The only low-speed maglev (100 km/h) currently operational, the Japanese Linimo HSST, cost approximatelyUS$100 million/km to build.[36] Besides offering improved operation and maintenance costs over other transitsystems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise andzero air pollution into dense urban settings.As maglev systems are deployed around the world, experts expect construction costs to drop as new constructionmethods are innovated along with economies of scale.

History of maximum speed record by a trial run• 1971 - West Germany - Prinzipfahrzeug - 90 km/h• 1971 - West Germany -TR-02(TSST)- 164 km/h• 1972 - Japan - ML100 – 60 km/h - (manned)• 1973 - West Germany - TR04 - 250 km/h (manned)• 1974 - West Germany - EET-01 - 230 km/h (unmanned)• 1975 - West Germany - Komet - 401.3 km/h (by steam rocket propulsion, unmanned)• 1978 - Japan - HSST-01 - 307.8 km/h (by supporting rockets propulsion, made in Nissan, unmanned)• 1978 - Japan - HSST-02 - 110 km/h (manned)• 1979-12-12 - Japan-ML-500R - 504 km/h (unmanned) It succeeds in operation over 500 km/h for the first time in

the world.• 1979-12-21 - Japan -ML-500R- 517 km/h (unmanned)• 1987 - West Germany - TR-06 - 406 km/h (manned)• 1987 - Japan - MLU001 - 400.8 km/h (manned)• 1988 - West Germany - TR-06 - 412.6 km/h (manned)• 1989 - West Germany - TR-07 - 436 km/h (manned)• 1993 - Germany - TR-07 - 450 km/h (manned)• 1994 - Japan - MLU002N - 431 km/h (unmanned)• 1997 - Japan - MLX01 - 531 km/h (manned)• 1997 - Japan - MLX01 - 550 km/h (unmanned)• 1999 - Japan - MLX01 - 548 km/h (unmanned)• 1999 - Japan - MLX01 - 552 km/h (manned/five formation). Guinness authorization.• 2003 - China - Transrapid SMT (built in Germany) - 501.5 km/h (manned/three formation)• 2003 - Japan - MLX01 - 581 km/h (manned/three formation). Guinness authorization.[37]

Maglev (transport) 10

Existing maglev systems

Testing tracks

San Diego, USA

General Atomics has a 120 meter test facility in San Diego, which is being used as the basis of Union Pacific's 8 kmfreight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), requiring no electromagnets for eitherlevitation or propulsion. General Atomics has received $90 million in research funding from the federal government.They are also looking to apply their technology to high speed passenger services as well.[38]

Emsland, Germany

Transrapid at the Emsland test facility

Transrapid, a German maglev company, has a test track in Emslandwith a total length of 31.5 km (19.6 mi). The single track line runsbetween Dörpen and Lathen with turning loops at each end. The trainsregularly run at up to 420 km/h (260 mph). The construction of the testfacility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.

JR-Maglev, Japan

Japan has a demonstration line in Yamanashi prefecture where testtrains JR-Maglev MLX01 have reached 581 kilometres per hour(361 mph), slightly faster than any wheeled trains (the current TGV speed record is 574.8 kilometres per hour(357.2 mph). A documentary video about the Japanese maglev can be viewed here [39].

These trains use superconducting magnets which allow for a larger gap, and repulsive-type electrodynamicsuspension (EDS). In comparison Transrapid uses conventional electromagnets and attractive-type electromagneticsuspension (EMS). These "Superconducting Maglev Shinkansen", developed by the Central Japan RailwayCompany (JR Central) and Kawasaki Heavy Industries, are currently the fastest trains in the world, achieving arecord speed of 581 kilometres per hour (361 mph) on December 2, 2003.[40] [41] Yamanashi Prefecture residents(and government officials) can sign up to ride this for free, and some 100,000 have done so already.

FTA's UMTD program

In the US, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program has fundedthe design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It has assessed HSST for the MarylandDepartment of Transportation and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA hasalso funded work by General Atomics at California University of Pennsylvania to demonstrate new maglev designs,the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglevdemonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.

Maglev (transport) 11

Southwest Jiaotong University, China

On December 31, 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully atSouthwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperaturesuperconductors can be levitated or suspended stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over 530 kg(1166 lb) and the levitation gap over 20 mm (0.79 in). The system uses liquid nitrogen, which is very cheap, to coolthe superconductor.

Operational systems servicing the public

Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan)

Linimo train approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen,towards Fujigaoka Station in March 2005

The commercial automated "Urban Maglev" system commencedoperation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. This is the nine-station8.9 km long Tobu-kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo. Theline has a minimum operating radius of 75 m and a maximum gradientof 6%. The linear-motor magnetic-levitated train has a top speed of100 kilometres per hour (62 mph). The line serves the local communityas well as the Expo 2005 fair site. The trains were designed by theChubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a testtrack in Nagoya.[42]

Shanghai Maglev Train

A maglev train coming out of the PudongInternational Airport.

Transrapid, in Germany, constructed the first operational high-speedconventional maglev railway in the world, the Shanghai Maglev Trainfrom downtown Shanghai (Shanghai Metro) to the PudongInternational Airport.[43] It was inaugurated in 2002. The highest speedachieved on the Shanghai track has been 501 km/h (311 mph), over atrack length of 30 km. Despite the speeds, the maglev has beencriticised as having few stops and a questionable commercialsuccess.[44] Construction of an extension to Hangzhou was planned tobe finished in 2010, but has been postponed in favour of a conventionalhigh speed railway running at 350 km/h. The Shanghai municipal government was considering building the maglevline extension underground to allay the public's fears of electromagnetic pollution;[45] this same report states that thefinal decision has to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.

Daejeon, Korea

The first maglev utilizing electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, which was made by HyundaiHeavy Industries, for Daejeon Expo in 1993 after five years of research and manufacturing two prototypes; HML-01and HML-02.[46] [47] [48] Research for urban maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994 by thegovernment.[48] The first urban maglev opened to public was UTM-02 in Daejeon on 21 April 2008 after 14 years ofdevelopment and building one prototype; UTM-01. The urban maglev runs on 1 km track between Expo Park andNational Science Museum.[49] [50] Meanwhile UTM-02 remarked an innovation by conducting the world's first evermaglev simulation.[51] [52] However UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The final UTM model ofRotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, is scheduled to debut at the end of 2012 in Incheon's Yeongjong island whereIncheon International Airport is located.[53]

Maglev (transport) 12

Under construction

Old Dominion UniversityTrack of less than a mile in length has been constructed at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia, USA.Although the system was initially built by AMT, problems caused the company to abandon the project and turn itover to the University.[54] [55] This system uses a "smart train, dumb track" that involves most of the sensors,magnets, and computation occurring on the train rather than the track.[56] This system will cost less to build per milethan existing systems. The $14 million originally planned did not allow for completion. The system is currently notoperational, but research has proved useful. In October 2006, the research team performed an unscheduled test of thecar that went smoothly. The whole system, unfortunately, was removed from the power grid for nearbyconstruction.[57] In February 2009, the team was able to retest the sled, or bogie, and was again successful despitepower outages on campus. Tests will continue, increasing both speed and distance. Meanwhile, ODU has partneredwith a Massachusetts-based company to test another maglev train on its campus. MagneMotion Inc. is expected tobring its prototype maglev vehicle, which is about the size of van, to the campus to test in early 2010.[58]

AMT Test Track - Powder Springs, GeorgiaThe same principle is involved in the construction of a second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia, USA,by American Maglev Technology, Inc [59].

Applied Levitation/Fastransit Test Track - Santa Barbara, CaliforniaApplied Levitation, Inc [60]. has built a levitating prototype on a short indoor track, and is now planning aquarter-mile outdoor track, with switches, in or near Santa Barbara.

Proposed systemsMany maglev systems have been proposed in various nations of North America, Asia, and Europe.[61] Many are stillin the early planning stages, or even mere speculation, as with the transatlantic tunnel. But a few of the followingexamples have progressed beyond that point.

Australia

Sydney-Illawarra Maglev Proposal

There is a current proposal for a Maglev route between Sydney and Wollongong.[62]

The proposal came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney - Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest inAustralia, with upwards of 20,000 people commuting from the Illawarra to Sydney for work each day. Current trainscrawl along the dated Illawarra line, between the cliff face of the Illawarra escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, withtravel times between two and three hours between Wollongong Station and Central. The proposed Maglev would cuttravel times to 20 minutes.

Maglev (transport) 13

Melbourne Maglev Proposal

The proposed Melbourne Maglev connecting thecity of Geelong through Metropolitan

Melbourne's outer suburban growth corridors,Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in and

international terminals in under 20 mins and on toFrankston, Victoria in under 30 minutes.

In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to the Government of Victoriato build a privately funded and operated Maglev line to service theGreater Melbourne metropolitan area in response to the EddingtonTransport Report which neglected to investigate above groundtransport options.[63] [64] The Maglev would service a population ofover 4 million and the proposal was costed at AUD $8 billion.

However despite relentless road congestion and the highest roadspaceper capita Australia, the government quickly dismissed the proposal infavour of road expansion including an AUD $8.5 billion road tunnel,$6 billion extension of the Eastlink to the Western Ring Road and a$700 million Frankston Bypass.

United Kingdom

The proposed UK Ultraspeed line map.

London – Glasgow: A maglev line was recently proposed in theUnited Kingdom from London to Glasgow with several route optionsthrough the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England and wasreported to be under favourable consideration by the government.[65]

But the technology was rejected for future planning in the GovernmentWhite Paper Delivering a Sustainable Railway published on July 24,2007.[66] Another high speed link is being planned between Glasgowand Edinburgh but there is no settled technology for it.[67] [68] [69]

Iran

Iran and a German company have reached an agreement on usingmaglev trains to link the cities of Tehran and Mashhad. The agreementwas signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between IranianMinistry of Roads and Transportation and the German company.Maglev trains can reduce the 900 km travel time between Tehran andMashhad to about 2.5 hours.[70] Munich-based Schlegel ConsultingEngineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry oftransport and the governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated tolead a German consortium in this project," a spokesman said. "We arein a preparatory phase." The next step will be assemble a consortium, aprocess that is expected to take place "in the coming months," thespokesman said. The project could be worth between 10 billion and 12 billion euros, the Schlegel spokesman said.Siemens and ThyssenKrupp, the developers of a high-speed maglev train, called the Transrapid, both said they were

Maglev (transport) 14

unaware of the proposal. The Schlegel spokesman said Siemens and ThyssenKrupp were currently "not involved." inthe consortium[71]

JapanTokyo — Nagoya — Osaka

Proposed Chuo Shinkansen route (gray) andexisting Tokaido Shinkansen route (gold).

The plan for the Chuo Shinkansen bullet train system was finalizedbased on the Law for Construction of Countrywide Shinkansen. TheLinear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to realize this plan using theSuperconductive Magnetically Levitated Train, which connects Tokyoand Osaka by way of Nagoya, the capital city of Aichi, inapproximately one hour at a speed of 500 km/h.[72] In April 2007, JRCentral President Masayuki Matsumoto said that JR Central aims tobegin commercial maglev service between Tokyo and Nagoya in theyear 2025.[73]

VenezuelaCaracas – La Guaira: A maglev train (TELMAGV) has been proposed to connect the capital city Caracas to themain port town of La Guaira and Simón Bolívar International Airport. No budget has been allocated, pendingdefinition of the route, although a route of between six and nine kilometres has been suggested. The proposalenvisages that, initially, a full-sized prototype train would be built with about one kilometre of test track.In proposing a maglev system, its improved life and performance over mechanical engines were cited as importantfactors, as well as improving comfort, safety, economics and environmental impact over conventional rail.[74]

ChinaShanghai – Hangzhou: China is planning to extend the existing Shanghai Maglev Train,[75] initially by some35 kilometers to Shanghai Hongqiao Airport and then 200 kilometers to the city of Hangzhou (Shanghai-HangzhouMaglev Train). If built, this would be the first inter-city maglev rail line in commercial service.The project has been controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by officials dueto concerns about radiation from the maglev system.[76] In January and February 2008 hundreds of residentsdemonstrated in downtown Shanghai against the line being built too close to their homes, citing concerns aboutsickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field, noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to thelines.[77] [78] Final approval to build the line was granted on August 18, 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready byExpo 2010,[79] current plans call for construction to start in 2010 for completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipalgovernment is considered multiple options, including building the line underground to allay the public's fear ofelectromagnetic pollution. This same report states that the final decision has to be approved by the NationalDevelopment and Reform Commission.[80]

China also intends to build a factory in Nanhui district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.[81]

Maglev (transport) 15

IndiaMumbai – Delhi: A maglev line project was presented to India's railway minister Lalu Prasad Yadav by anAmerican company. If approved, this line would serve between the cities of Mumbai and Delhi, the Prime MinisterManmohan Singh said that if the line project is successful the Indian government would build lines between othercities and also between Mumbai centre and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.[82]

The State of Maharashtra has also approved a feasibility study for a Maglev train between Mumbai (the commercialcapital of India as well as the State government capital) and Nagpur (the second State capital) about 1000 km away.It plans to connect the developed area of Mumbai and Pune with Nagpur via underdeveloped hinterland viaAhmednagar, Beed, Latur, Nanded and Yavatmal.[83]

United StatesUnion Pacific Freight Conveyor: Plans are under way by American rail road operator Union Pacific to build a4.9 mi (8 km) container shuttle between the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, with UP's Intermodal ContainerTransfer Facility. The system would be based on "passive" technology, especially well suited to freight transfer as nopower is needed on-board, simply a chassis which glides to its destination. The system is being designed by GeneralAtomics.[38]

Seattle-Vancouver International Maglev: The Seattle-Vancouver International Maglev corridor is proposed toextend part of an I-5 expansion plan, but the U.S. government has ruled it must be separated from public workprojects, while Canadian federal and provincial politicians have not been receptive to these proposals. Further studieshave been requested although no funding has yet been agreed. It is in demand for the area due to the high level ofcurrent traffic.California-Nevada Interstate Maglev: High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California andLas Vegas are also being studied via the California-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project.[84] This plan was originallysupposed to be part of an I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal government has ruled it must be separated frominterstate public work projects.Since the federal government decision, private groups from Nevada have proposed a line running from Las Vegas toLos Angeles with stops in Primm, Nevada; Baker, California; and points throughout San Bernardino County into LosAngeles. Southern California politicians have not been receptive to these proposals; many are concerned that a highspeed rail line out of state would drive out dollars that would be spent in state "on a rail" to Nevada.Baltimore-Washington D.C. Maglev: A 39.75 mi (64 km) project has been proposed linking Camden Yards inBaltimore and Baltimore-Washington International (BWI) Airport to Union Station in Washington, D.C.[85] It is saidto be in demand for the area due to its current traffic/congestion problems.The Pennsylvania Project: The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from the PittsburghInternational Airport to Greensburg, with intermediate stops in Downtown Pittsburgh and Monroeville. This initialproject will serve a population of approximately 2.4 million people in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. TheBaltimore proposal is competing with the Pittsburgh proposal for a $90 million federal grant. The purpose of theproject is to see if the maglev system can function properly in a U.S. city environment.[86]

San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006 San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a proposedairport located in Imperial County. SANDAG says that the concept would be an "airports without terminals",allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego ("satellite terminals") and take the maglev to Imperialairport and board the airplane there as if they went directly through the terminal in the Imperial location. In addition,the maglev would have the potential to carry high priority freight. Further studies have been requested although nofunding has yet been agreed.[87]

Atlanta – Chattanooga: The proposed maglev route would run from Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, run through Atlanta, continue to the northern suburbs of Atlanta, and possibly even extend to Chattanooga,

Maglev (transport) 16

Tennessee. If built, the maglev line would rival Atlanta's current subway system, the Metropolitan Atlanta RapidTransit Authority (MARTA), the rail system of which includes a major branch running from downtown Atlanta toHartsfield-Jackson airport.[88]

GermanyOn September 25, 2007, Bavaria announced it would build the high-speed maglev - rail service from Munich city toits airport. The Bavarian government signed contracts with Deutsche Bahn and Transrapid with Siemens andThyssenKrupp for the 1.85 billion euro project.[89]

On March 27, 2008, the German Transport minister announced the project had been cancelled due to rising costsassociated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between 3.2 and 3.4 billion euros.[90]

IndonesiaThere are plans to build a 683 km long Maglev rail service between Jakarta and Surabaya. This Maglev will have 7stations including Semarang. PT Maglev Indonesia working together with SNCF, Transrapid Deutschland, and othercorporations will begin this construction around 2010.

Significant incidentsThere have been two incidents involving fires. The Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completelyconsumed in a fire in 1991.[91] As a result of the fire, political opposition in Japan claimed maglev was a waste ofpublic money. On August 11, 2006 a fire broke out on the Shanghai commercial Transrapid, shortly after leaving theterminal in Longyang;[92] nobody was injured. The cause is believed to be a fault with the Maglev's electricalsystem,[93] it has been suggested to have been an onboard battery unit.[94]

On September 22, 2006 a Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle on a test/publicity run in Lathen(Lower Saxony / north-western Germany).[95] [96] Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured; these werethe first fatalities resulting from an accident on a Maglev system. The accident was caused by human error, chargeswere brought against three Transrapid employees after a year long investigation.[97]

See also• Ground effect train• Land speed record for railed vehicles• Launch loop would be a maglev system for launching to orbit or escape velocity• Mass driver• Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line• Oleg Tozoni is working on a published non linearly stabilised maglev design• Railway• SkyTrain (Vancouver)• StarTram - a maglev launch system• Tracked Hovercraft

Maglev (transport) 17

Further reading• Heller, Arnie (June 1998). "A New Approach for Magnetically Levitating Trains—and Rockets" [98]. Science &

Technology Review.• Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge.

ISBN 0-415-32052-6.• Moon, Francis C. (1994). Superconducting Levitation Applications to Bearings and Magnetic Transportation.

Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-55925-3.• Simmons, Jack; Biddle, Gordon (1997). The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the

1990s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 303. ISBN 0-19-211697-5.

External links• Urban Maglev [99]

• Windana Research [100]

• United States Federal Railroad Administration [101]

• Applied Levitation [60]

• Fastransit [102]

• Maglev Net - Maglev News & Information [103]

• The International Maglev Board [104]

• Transrapid [105]

• The UK Ultraspeed Project [106]

• Japanese Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) [107]

• Magnetic Levitation [108] at the Open Directory Project• AMLEV MDS System [109]

• Magnetic Levitation for Transportation [110]

• News of Brazil's Maglev project (in Portuguese) [111]

• Maglev Trains [112] Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory discusses magneticlevitation, the Meissner Effect, magnetic flux trapping and superconductivity

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Maglev (transport) 20

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[78] Kurtenbach, Elaine (2008-01-14). "Shanghai Residents Protest Maglev Train" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ wires/ 2008Jan14/0,4670,ChinaShanghaiProtest,00. html). Fox News. .

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[81] "Green light for Maglev factory" (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ government/ 232696. htm). Shanghai Daily. 2007-11-22. .[82] "Mumbai to Delhi: 3 hours by train" (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ news/ fullstory. php?newsid=48769). Express India. 2005-06-14. .[83] "6 routes identified for MagLev" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Mumbai/ 6_routes_identified_for_MagLev/ articleshow/ 2140367.

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23_dead_in_German_maglev_train_accident__Roundup_). M&C Europe. 2006-09-22. .[97] "German prosecutor charges three Transrapid employees over year-old disaster" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ feeds/ afx/ 2007/ 08/ 30/

afx4067784. html). AFX News. 2007-09-30. .[98] http:/ / www. llnl. gov/ str/ Post. html[99] http:/ / www. urbanmaglev. us[100] http:/ / www. windana. com[101] http:/ / www. fra. dot. gov/ us/ content/ 200[102] http:/ / www. fastransitinc. com/[103] http:/ / www. maglev. net[104] http:/ / magnetbahnforum. de/ index. php?en_aboutimb[105] http:/ / www. transrapid. de/[106] http:/ / www. 500kmh. com/[107] http:/ / www. rtri. or. jp/ index. html[108] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Physics/ Electromagnetism/ Magnetic_Levitation/[109] http:/ / www. amlevtrans. com[110] http:/ / www. railserve. com/ maglev. html[111] http:/ / www. planeta. coppe. ufrj. br/ artigo. php?artigo=891[112] http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ community/ slideshows/ maglev/ index. html

Article Sources and Contributors 21

Article Sources and ContributorsMaglev (transport)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=369203747  Contributors: (jarbarf), .:Ajvol:., 119, 13782tj, A bit iffy, A. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:JR-Maglev-MLX01-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JR-Maglev-MLX01-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:User:Yonatanh, User:YosemiteImage:Transrapid-emsland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transrapid-emsland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:ÁllatkaImage:JNR ML500 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JNR_ML500_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Doseiai2Image:JR Maglev-Model-truck.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JR_Maglev-Model-truck.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:YosemiteImage:Maglev Propulsion.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maglev_Propulsion.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:StanneredImage:Transrapid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transrapid.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User: StahlkocherImage:Linimo approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka Station.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Linimo_approaching_Banpaku_Kinen_Koen,_towards_Fujigaoka_Station.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Chris 73Image:A maglev train coming out, Pudong International Airport, Shanghai.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_maglev_train_coming_out,_Pudong_International_Airport,_Shanghai.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Alex Needham (ownphotography) on en.wikipediaFile:Melbourne maglev.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Melbourne_maglev.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Biatch2,User:DiliffImage:Ultraspeed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ultraspeed.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Cimex at en.wikipediaImage:Chuo-Shinkansen.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chuo-Shinkansen.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Sekicho at en.wikipedia

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