Landmark of empirical communication study I

Lazarsfeld and Katz: The people’s Choice (1948)

2. Method:

Big sample, representative

Interview - re-interview - any changes?

Control groups - avoid contamination by interviews

3. Findings:

a. Activate 14%, convert 8%

b. selective attention - high socio-economic status, the already decided

c. source of influence - face-to-face-ties

Propaganda - minimal effect

1. Question

Propaganda voting decision?

Applying the scientific methods

Magic bullet theory Two step flow theory

wrong confirmed

Landmark of empirical communication study II

Lazarsfeld and Katz Personal Influence (1955)

1. Question: media and personal decision - 4 areas

fashion, buying, movie choice, public affairs

Media powerful?

Single source of influence?

2. Method: Smaller sample. Personal interview

3. Findings: two step flow model of influence

local level Opinion leaders influence choice

non-overlapping opinion leaders

4. Political evaluation:

Main source of influence not from central power - media or government

Instead from local sources of diffuse influence

NO concentration of power - plural centres of influence -

Pluralism alive and well in America

Two Step Flow Model

• Paul Lazarsfeld & Elihu Katz

• Mass media information is channeled to the "masses" through opinion leadership. The people with most access to media, and having a more literate understanding of media content, explain and diffuse the content to others.

• They pass on their opinions and interpretations.

TWO-STEP-FLOW -Lazarsfeld

Opinion LeadersOpinion Leaders

DecisionsDecisionsPersonsPersons

MediaMedia1 Step1 Step

2 Step2 Step

ConsumptioConsumptionn

VotingVoting

ActingActingBuyinBuyingg

Pay attention to

Seek out

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The two step flow theory

• The two step flow theory was first introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet in the People’s Choice,

• a 1948 study focused on the process of decision-making during Presidential election campaign

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The two step flow theory

• This theory argued that • Ideas often flow from the mass media to the

opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of the population

From the Two-Step Flow Model to Limited Effects Theory

Paul Lazarsfeld

and

the Two-Step Flow Model of Communication

The Two-Step Flow of The Two-Step Flow of CommunicationCommunication

Lecture Outline• background;• Erie County voting study;• the two-step flow model;• the decision-making process;• key factors;• limited effects model;• contingency theory.

The Two-Step Flow Model

SenderSender MessageMessage ReceiverReceiver EffectEffect

SS MM RR RR11(S/N)(S/N)

Decision-Making ProcessDecision-Making Process

• Exists on a continuum;• depends on two factors:

– personal psyche or disposition;

– the information itself.

Early AdoptersEarly Adopters ConvertsConverts

WaverersWaverers CrystallizersCrystallizers

Key Factors in Decision-Making Key Factors in Decision-Making ProcessProcess

• socio-economic status (class);

• religion;

• gender;

• intra-familial status.

Limited Effects ModelLimited Effects Model

• Limited set of assumptions;

• interested in specific processes;

• needs to be integrated into larger theoretical framework;

• is sufficiently empirical to allow for testing.

social contacts

• The one who regularly interacts with many people will have more opportunities to serve as an opinion leader.

• Index of gregariousness