Land transport policy and public transport in Singapore
SOI HOI LAM* & TRINH DINH TOANSchool of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Blk N1 #1A-29, 639798, Singapore
(*Author for correspondence, E-mail: [email protected])
Key words: integration, land transport policy, multi-modal transit, road pricing, traffic
management, transport planning
Abstract. Singapore has a sophisticated and efficient system of land transport to serve a
growing demand for transportation. Constrained by limited space, a comprehensive set of
land transport policies has been in place to balance the growth in transport demand and
the effectiveness and efficiency of the land transport system. A multi-pronged approach has
been used to achieve the objective of a world-class transportation system. These include
integration of urban and transport planning, expansion of the road network and
improvement of the transport infrastructure, harnessing the latest technology in network
and traffic management, managing vehicle ownership and usage, and improvement and
regulations of public transport (Ministry of Transport (MOT) (2003) Policy and Regula-
tions, Land Transport, Available: www.mot.gov.sg, Date of Access: 15 September 2003).
Singapore was the first country in the world to introduce various new techniques, notably
the Area License Scheme (ALS) in 1975 and the Vehicle Quota System (VQS) in 1990. An
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system replaced the ALS in 1998 to take the role of con-
gestion management, the experience of which has also drawn particular attention from
many large cities in the world. In 2003, the world’s first and only fully automatic heavy rail
Mass Rapid Transit system was opened to the public, marking a new chapter in Singa-
pore’s innovative approach to solving its land transport problem. This paper reviews the
land transport policy implemented in Singapore and pays special emphasis to its public
transportation systems.
Abbreviation: ALS – Area Licensing Scheme; ARF – Additional Registration Fee; COE – Certif-
icate of Entitlement; ERP – Electronic Road Pricing; HDB – Housing and Development Board;
MRT – Mass Rapid Transit; OMV – Open Market Value; VQS – Vehicle Quota System
1. Introduction
With almost 4 million people living on an island of about 650 km2, Singapore
faces challenges in meeting the daily needs of commuting by its population.
Transport land use now already covers 12% of the island, about the same per-
centage as residential areas. If the current trend continued, roads alone would
occupy 16% of Singapore’s land area by the year 2010. In 2001, an average of
Transportation (2006) 33: 171–188 � Springer 2006DOI: 10.1007/s11116-005-3049-z
7.7 million motorized trips were made in a day. The estimated number of trips
may grow beyond 10 million by 2010 (MOT 2002). The limited land area on
the island has constrained the development of road networks.
The majority of the working population needs a motorized transport
means to get to work. About 60% of them use public transport such as
buses, Mass Rapid Transport (MRT) or Light Rapid Transit (LRT). In the
year 2002, there were 3144 km of roads. Eight expressways with a total
length of 150 km constitute the back bone of the road infrastructure in the
island, the longest of which is the Pan Island Expressway (PIE) 42 km long.
By the end of 2002, the total motorized car population registered in Singa-
pore was 405,797 and about 19,007 taxis (MOT 2003). There were about
132,607 goods vehicles and buses.
To maintain a sustainable transportation system to support the growth of
the economy and activities, an integrated and comprehensive approach has
been taken to managing the demand and plans for the provision of transpor-
tation systems. The formation of a Land Transport Authority in 1996 and
the subsequent publication of the land transport white paper (LTA 1996)
outlined the multi-pronged land transport policy which achieved a world-
class land transportation system in Singapore. In the area of public trans-
port, as stated in the white paper (LTA 1996), it will continue to be a major
mode of land transport, and the vision of a seamless and integrated multi-
modal public transportation system was illustrated.
In this paper, the land transport policy implemented by Singapore to
achieve its objectives will be reviewed. This is followed by a discussion of the
components that make up the multi-modal transit system in Singapore.
Finally, the infrastructure and strategies to integrate the multi-modal transit
services are discussed, as these strategies have profound impact on the way
the multi-modal transit system in Singapore is planned and modelled.
2. Land transport policies in Singapore
Since the 1970s, when the first comprehensive transportation for Singapore
was completed (Wilber Smith and Associates 1974), the alleviation of traffic
congestion has been the main objective of land transport policy. In a land-
scarce island like Singapore, it was recognized ever since early days that a
comprehensive land transport network, which meets people’s needs and
expectations and supports economic and environmental goals, is much nee-
ded. To achieve the above objectives, based on MOT (2003), a multi-pron-
ged strategy has been adopted as early as the 1970s. The comprehensive
policy comprises the following five main components:
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• Integration of town and transport planning
• Expansion of road network and improvement of transport infrastructure
• Harnessing the latest technology in network and traffic management
• Managing vehicle ownership and usage
• Improvement and regulations of public transport.
3. Integration of town and transport planning
In Singapore, the planning practice shows that careful consideration has been
given to integration of transport planning into the master plan, called the
Development Guide Plan (URA 2003). The physical provision of transport
infrastructure has been made in such a manner that the system delivers a high
level of service for the population. Urban areas, including industrial, residen-
tial and social infrastructure, are normally located in close proximity, within a
walking distance of bus stops and MRT stations, making travel by public
transport more convenient. In public housing, or the Housing Development
Board (HDB) estates throughout the island, the road network is designed in
such a way that the placement of bus stops and routing of bus services provide
the greatest accessibility to the public. Island-wide covered walkways linking
the estates together with the bus stops in the vicinity also provides greater con-
venience and protection against weather conditions for residents travelling by
public transport. In certain new developments on the island, the town plan-
ning has provisions for LRT and/or mass rapid transit. It is planned that in
the next 10–15 years, commuter facilities and housing development will be
fully integrated so as to create a ‘‘seamless’’ transport system. Building more
homes near work places and more work places in residential areas will moder-
ate the demand for transport.
4. Expansion of road network and improvement of transport infrastructure
Among various supply-side tactics for reducing congestion, building more
roads or expanding the existing infrastructure seems unavoidable for accom-
modating vehicles in a city that has experienced such rapid growth as Singa-
pore, which has already devoted about 15% of its extremely scarce land to
roads and road related infrastructure. Although the whole island has an
integrated and comprehensive system of streets and highways, the construc-
tion of new roads/expressways is still considered necessary to provide better
connectivity to new or established areas. An example is the current construc-
tion of the Kallang–Paya–Lebar expressway which is designed to serve the
increasingly congested northeast corridor and intersects with a number of
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existing expressways. Targeted to be completed in 2005, the most part of this
new expressway will be built underground, reflecting the fact that land space
in Singapore is scarce. Apart from this, major intersections have been con-
verted into interchanges to relieve the congestion at arterials, in addition to
the widening of roads due to increased demand for road space. Some of
these new interchanges are multi-tiered serving not only roadways but also
other facilities such as MRT tunnels.
5. Harnessing the latest technology in network and traffic management
Advanced technologies have been used to improve road capacity and to
smooth traffic flow. These are parts of the Intelligent Transportation System
(ITS) solutions deployed by LTA (LTA 2002b) to raise the standards of tra-
vel in Singapore. Currently, the deployment of ITS technologies is mainly
focused on the Advanced Traveller Information Systems (ATIS), Advanced
Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) and Advanced Public Transportation
Systems (APTS). In ATIS, the main component is Traffic.smart, which is a
web-based system that provides one-stop comprehensive real-time traffic
information. The main sources of real-time traffic information are from the
TrafficScan, for travel time information using taxis as probed vehicles, and
the Expressway Monitoring and Advisory System (EMAS), which uses cam-
eras to monitor and detect traffic conditions on expressways. Information is
available on the website, which is updated every 5 min; and travel time –
every 2 min – is accessible by the public in a 24/7 manner. EMAS also dis-
seminates real-time traffic information through the variable message signs
installed at strategic locations along expressways.
There are two main applications of ATMS in Singapore. Firstly, the road
network in the island is fully signalized and highly coordinated in arterial
streets to minimize delay. The Green Link Determining (GLIDE) system,
implemented since 1988 to regulate traffic signals, has been expanded to
cover all of the 1600 road intersections of the entire island. This computer-
ized-coordinated traffic light system creates ‘‘green waves’’ to increase the
capacity of junctions and to facilitate the smooth flow of traffic. Secondly,
linked to the EMAS system, an ITS centre has been established to monitor
and manage incidents on expressways. At critical junctions, the ‘‘Junction
Eye’’ system is used to monitor traffic conditions to help relieve congestion
due to traffic incidents.
On the APTS, an Electronic Fare Integration System (EFIS) has been in
place since December 2003, to integrate and automate the collection of transit
fares. Passengers board and alight buses or trains with the use of contactless
cash cards, called EZ Link Cards. Charging the full fare for a journey when a
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passenger boards a vehicle, the balance from the exact fare will be refunded
to the EZ Link card once the passenger alights. The system allows the transit
operators to collect the right fares from the passengers, who are able to travel
in a more convenient way. Operationally, the buses can spend less time at the
bus stops as passengers can now board the vehicles within a shorter time
frame. The two transit operators will equip automatic vehicle location identi-
fication technology in all the buses. Once this is completed, the updating of
fare stages will be automated and this will further enhance the accuracy of
fare collection for bus services in Singapore. The ridership data also provides
a valuable source of information for transit planning.
6. Travel demand management – managing vehicle ownership and usage
The demand-side strategies seek to regulate demand for travel, particularly
trips made during peak hours. For Singapore, due to the constraints that it
faced, this approach has proven to be an essential and feasible approach.
This has been proved by the respectable speeds along the city roads and
expressways that are 20–30 and 45–65 km/h respectively, during rush hours
(Menon 2002).
Travel demand management in Singapore encompasses two methods:
vehicle ownership control and usage control. Initially, the policy on vehicle
ownership control involved the use of a Vehicle Quota System (VQS, see
below) as well as road taxes. The program has for many years kept the num-
ber of vehicles at a sustainable level. Recently, the approach has shifted to
emphasis on usage control, on congestion pricing, the Electronic Road Pric-
ing (ERP) system.
6.1. Vehicle Quota Scheme (VQS) and Certificate of Entitlement (COE)
The VQS was started in May 1990. It is a quota system of new car licences,
called COE, in order to sustain a manageable size of vehicle population con-
sidering factors such as growth in road network and annual attrition of vehi-
cles (MOT 2003). Each month, through a bidding system, bidders (or car
buyers) pay for the lowest successful bid price, which is called the quota pre-
mium and is equal to the medium price of all the bids submitted, in order to
purchase a vehicle. The COE then stays for 10 years from the date of regis-
tration of the vehicle. The working of the COE Scheme relies upon the mar-
ket forces to determine the acceptable prices by the public in order to keep it
in line with the road capacity and traffic conditions to avoid traffic conges-
tion. An electronic open-bidding system has been in place since April 2002.
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Under such a system the bidding process becomes transparent as any bidder
is able to view the bids put up by other bidders. The system has been fine
tuned over the years and is now operated via an on-line open bidding system
that allows bidders to view bids from other parties. The prices of the COE
change with time and has recently been stabilized at the levels shown in
Figure 1. The quota for a particular year depends on the net allowed
increase of 3% and the number of vehicles to be de-registered in that year.
The major impact of VQS is the high car prices as a direct result of add-
ing the cost of COE to the prices of cars, in addition to the Additional Reg-
istration Fee (ARF) applicable, which has successfully reduced the car
ownership. The ARF was originally set as 150% of the Open Market Value
(OMV) of a vehicle. It was subsequently raised through various stages to
peak at 175% in 1983 and eventually lowered to 150% in 2003, partly
reflecting the tendency to control car usage through congestion pricing
rather than car ownership. Phang (1993) reported a car-to-per-capita-indige-
nous-income ratio of 4.48 in 1994 in Singapore. Foo (1998) illustrated the
affordability of cars in Singapore by the use of an example, which is the
financial cost of a brand new compact car costing S$110,000. Considering a
7 year loan on 70% of the car price, the monthly car loan repayment of
S$1109 (at 1998 prices) was 23% of the average monthly household income
at that time. Chin and Smith (1997) developed an automobile ownership
model with the consideration of the effects of VQS and concluded that the
policy of both regulating car ownership and usage should be complimentary
to each other. Foo (1998) also suggested that car owners may tend to drive
more given the higher car prices and limited life of their vehicles. On the
average, a vehicle in Singapore was used to travel 18,600 km in a year (LTA
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov.
Car
Quo
ta
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
CO
E P
rice
(S$)
Quota (cars)
Weighed Price
Figure 1. Quota and COE prices for cars in 2003 (Source: One.Motoring 2003).
176
1996). On the positive side, the traffic congestion seems to be contained
because of the ‘‘finite’’ demand for travel on roads, based roughly on a 3%
annual growth in number of vehicles and road length (LTA 1996). Menon
et al. (1993) showed that with the increase in vehicle numbers, the traffic
inbound and outbound of the CBD in Singapore stayed about the same.
Looking at the same phenomena, Foo (1998) concluded that without VQS
the traffic volumes would have been much higher in the CBD.
6.2. Congestion pricing
Congestion pricing offers an effective means of influencing travel behaviour
in congested areas. In Singapore, congestion pricing is a scheme to provide a
disincentive to drivers by imposing usage fees that varies depending on
location and time. By doing so, it encourages travelers to shift their travel to
off-peak periods, travel routes to less congested routes and travel modes to
public transport. The price makes motorists more aware of the true cost of
the congestion imposed on the living environment, hence motivating them to
consciously plan their trips or consider alternatives to travel.
Depending on methods and scope, congestion pricing can be employed in
three ways: facility pricing, regional network pricing and cordon pricing. The
ERP system in Singapore is a cordon pricing system in which vehicles are
charged on entering the CBD, or designated restricted zone, during hours of
congestion, or designated restricted hours. Prices may vary with the time of
day, by vehicle categories, on the grounds that it motivates effective use of
transport facilities. However the system tends to induce a ‘‘spilling effect’’ of
traffic into the neighbourhood areas which have no charges, and create bot-
tleneck at gantries where vehicles enter and exit the area. Menon and Lam
(1992) compared the traffic condition between a bypass ring road and a
major arterial road (within the restricted zone) connected to the ring road
during the restricted hour (7.30–8.30 am). Volume to capacity ratio during
the periods of comparison was about 50% for the major arterial road while
the bypass ring road was saturated with traffic. The average speed of traffic
was 31 km/h inside the restricted area, whereas it was 19 km/h for nearby
areas outside the restricted area. The spilling effect was clearly seen from
these observations.
The ERP system was evolved from a manual system, called the Manual
Road Pricing System (RPS), or the Area licensing scheme in its earliest
form, since 1975. Menon et al. (1993) gave a detailed review of this develop-
ment. The ALS worked by managing the four major components: area
(restricted zone, or RZ), time (restricted hours, or RH), vehicles (restricted
vehicles) and charges (ALS fees). The RZ, which is essentially the CBD area,
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covered an area of about 610 ha initially and 710 ha by 1986 when the sys-
tem stabilized. The RH was originally the 7:30–10:15 am period, which was
then extended to cover both morning and evening (4:30–6:30 pm) period.
The restricted vehicles were originally cars and taxis. All vehicles except
scheduled buses were included after 1989. The charges, the ALS fees, ranged
from $1 to $6 depending upon the types of vehicles and the requirements of
the scheme.
The ALS was very successful in reducing traffic flow, thereby relieving
traffic congestion in the restricted areas. Traffic flow during peak hours had
fallen by 44.5%, including a dramatic decline of 70% in the number of cars
entering the CBD right after the imposition of charges (Menon et al., 1993).
Even after more than 10 years’ operations in 1989 and despite an increase of
more than 30% in employment with the RZ at that time, the total inbound
traffic during the RH remained below 70% of the 1975 pre-ALS level. The
observed average speed inside the RZ was 33 kilometres per hour (km/h) in
the morning and 32 km/h in the evening, in 1990, which showed a 30%
increase alone in the evening travel speed. In terms of modal split, the share
of transit modes in work trips to RZ increased from 33% to 69% in 1983.
This composition has remained roughly the same since then. Menon and
Lam (1992) reported that the total cost (without adjusting for inflation) over
the 14 year period from 1975 to 1989 was about S$16.6 million (of which 6.6
millions were the total capital costs), while the total revenue was over S$150
millions during the same period.
In 1995, the RPS was initiated to relieve morning peak-hour congestion
on expressways in the direction going to the CBD area. In 1997, road pric-
ing charges were started on the East Coast Parkway (ECP) and subsequently
extended to the Central Tunnel Expressways (CTE) and PIEs. The charges
were relatively low with fees of S$0.50 for motorcycles and S$1.00 for other
types of vehicles, but applicable only for the period between 7.30 and 8.30
am on working days (Menon & Lam 2000). The scheme achieved a consider-
able reduction in traffic volume by 40% while the average speed increased
significantly, from 40 to 67 km per hour. It was subsequently extended in
time and scope to other expressways near downtown Singapore.
ERP came into operation in April 1998, based on a pay-per-use principle.
It covered all the areas which had previously been covered by ALS and
RPS, then extended to bottlenecks on other expressways and major roads
which suffer severe congestion. The system operates at 29 gantries in the pre-
vious ALS and 12 gantries at expressways and major roads that have con-
gestion problems (Menon 2002). The system is flexible since charges depend
on location, vehicle type and the time of day. The charges are set higher
during busy periods and lower outside those periods and are reviewed every
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three months based on the levels of services observed on the roads. The
principle in reviewing the ERP rates is based on the information obtained
from speed-flow relationships on Singapore roads. It was determined from
this information that the optimum speed range in roads within CBD should
be between 20 and 30 km/h, while that on expressways should be 45–65 km/
h (Chin 2002). The ERP rates are revised downward once the road speeds
remain at or above the upper bound of the speed range, indicating that
more vehicles should be attracted to use the respective roads. In August
2005, the ERP was for the first time in its history extended in order to man-
age the outbound CBD traffic in the evenings. The traffic on the usually con-
gested Northbound CTE during evening periods was relieved due to an S$1
charge after 1 week’s operation.
7. Improvement and regulation of public transport
Public transport is the backbone of Singapore’s land transport system. Pol-
icy on public transport systems determines that the operating companies
maintain full recovery of operating costs and depreciation, while the capital
investment in infrastructure, rolling stock and equipment, are carried by the
government. Commuters are given a wide range of choices in terms of
modes of travel. Normally a journey on transit comprises more than one
mode – bus, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) and LRT. These are also the
modes that constitute a multi-modal transit system in Singapore. Run by
two competing multi-modal transit operators, the development of a multi-
modal transit system is the result of the careful planning and regulating of
transit services in Singapore.
7.1. Multi-modal transit systems in Singapore
The multi-modal transit systems in Singapore consist of four major systems:
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), LRT, buses and taxis, operated by two major
multi-modal transit operators. Currently, out of a total of 7.7 million trips
made each day, about 60% of the daily journeys are made using the multi-
modal transit system (MOT 2002). The long term plan is to increase the
share to 75% through expansion of the network and service (LTA 1996). In
the rail transit master plan by LTA, as shown in Figure 2, the MRT services
will provide the major trunk services, while LRT and buses will function as
feeder modes in the integrated and multi-modal transit system envisaged.
The planning models of the rapid transit services estimate that they will
serve mainly medium to long distance journeys, while LRT and buses will
facilitate the short journeys to home.
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On the road system, buses and taxis supplement the rapid transit system
network and provide an alternative means of travel. Currently, there are two
major operators of the bus services, SBS Transit and Trans Island Bus Ser-
vices (TIBS), with a total fleet size of about 3800 buses (SBS: 2602 buses and
TIBS: 787 buses). The two companies operate a total of 282 trunk and fee-
der services (SBS: 172 routes and TIBS: 56 routes). Each day there are about
3.2 million bus passengers, of which 75% use SBS services. The total one-
way route length is 3579 km, of which SBS Transit operates 2535 km and
TIBS operates 1044 km (PTC 2003). The bus services are required to satisfy
the Basic Bus Service Specifications and Standards (PTC 2003), which regu-
lates the directness, accessibility, route length, headways, bus loading, hours
of operations, affordability, route information, and bus timing. In the devel-
opment of a multi-modal transit system, the role of the buses is set to com-
plement the rapid transit systems. In places where there is no rapid
transport, trunk bus services will fill the gap.
Bus operations in Singapore are generally safe, reliable, efficient and com-
fortable, and these are the main objectives of governing how the services are
operated. In 2002, bus services carried about 40% of the total journeys to
work in the modal split (MOT 2002). In line with the policy on the public
transport system, the bus service strives to maintain profitability in major
routes while cross subsidizing less profitable routes. Buses enjoy partial
Figure 2. The backbone of the multi-modal transit system in Singapore – the planned and exist-
ing MRT network (Source: LTA (2002b)).
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exemption from road tax payments on their vehicles and ERP charges. Bus
lanes are provided in some particularly heavily utilized routes and buses
have priorities at certain traffic junctions. Traffic lights with B-signals have
been installed at selected junctions to give buses an early start and late cut-
off. In 2002, the bus system, operated by two private companies, had a total
of 261 lines served by about 3400 buses during the regular schedule (MOT
2003). The services include trunk, feeder and express services, supplemented
by a ‘‘Bus Plus’’ scheme which provides minibus services during peak hours.
Special night buses for commuters who travel after the normal services are
also available. They normally run along the MRT lines.
The Mass Rapid Transit System (MRT) consists of three main lines: the
East–West, the North–East and the North–South lines of a total length of
111 km, of which 39 km are underground. There are 65 stations, of which 31
stations are underground, 33 stations are elevated and 1 station is at ground
level (Statistics Singapore 2002). The system serves about 1.2 million passen-
gers a day (MOT 2003). The MRT network is a conventional, electrically
driven railway system, which provides a high frequency trunk service and
represents the backbone of the land transport system. Figure 2 illustrates the
existing MRT network. The North East Line (NEL) was opened in June 2003
and has added an additional 20 km to the network length. The lines radiate
from the centre of the city to facilitate travel on the major corridors from all
corners of the island. By 2010 the rail network will be expanded to 100 km
with the completion of phases 1 and 2 of the Circle Line, which will surround
the island and intersect with all the radial lines at mid-point stations. This will
greatly enhance the connectivity and accessibility of the system. In the longer
term, plans exist to expand the rail system to 160 km within 10–15 years.
The MRT system is complemented by LRT systems at various residential
townships as feeder services to enhance the accessibility of the rail network.
The system, 7.8 km long with 14 stations, is driverless, operating at 3 min-
interval during peak hours (Statistics Singapore 2002), provides accessible ser-
vices to residents along its route by having stations close to people’s homes.
In 2003, there were a total of two lines in operation, one in construction and a
number of other lines at the planning stage. By 2006, there will be a total of
three LRT lines in operation and they are in new towns such as Bukit Panj-
ang, Sengkang and Punggol, with a total length of 27 km.
Singapore currently has a total taxi population of approximately 19,000
vehicles operated by 4 taxi companies: Comfort Transportation, City Cab,
TIBS and the Yellow-Top. Almost all the taxis are equipped with
GPS-based automated dispatching systems which keep track, monitor and
navigate the vehicles (MOT 2003). With total daily trips of about 580,000,
the taxi service in Singapore plays an important role in providing rapid,
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convenient and personal transport for middle and upper income groups,
compatible with other high-income countries. As an important flexible means
of transport, taxis bridge the gap between public and private transport.
7.2. Multi-modal transit system integration
The multi-modal transit systems are not planned and operated as individual
systems. They are integrated to facilitate the convenience and efficiency of
travel using multiple modes, which have become the norm for transit travel-
ling in Singapore. The ultimate goal is to enhance the integration between
different systems in a seamless manner. This can only be achieved by careful
consideration of infrastructure integration and most importantly of the inte-
gration of the services.
In Singapore, the forms of integration can be classified into three main
categories: basic connectivity, establishment of transit place, and creation of
a destination (Tong 2002). To provide for basic connectivity, stations are
connected with other developments and/or other forms of transit to provide
shielded access in all weather conditions. The establishment of a transit place
is through the integration of amenities within the premises of transit sta-
tions, for example, the Woodlands interchange with a three-level design to
facilitate the transfers between MRT, buses, cars and taxis, as shown in
Figure 3. For a multi-modal transit station to become a destination, it needs
to be integrated with the developments such that it forms an integral part of
the developments, which in fact becomes a ‘‘transport-integrated’’ property
(Tong 2002). An example of this can be found in Novena station, as shown
in Figure 4, which shows the integrated development of the stations within a
Figure 3. A vertically integrated interchange – The Woodland Interchange (Source: Tong 2002).
182
commercial and office development. There are two other similar develop-
ments at Toa Payoh and Sengkang interchanges. When a transit station
becomes a destination, the implication for the modelling process is that trips
will be attracted to the destination, which is itself a station.
The facilities provided to facilitate integration include bus interchanges, bus
shelters, covered linkways, taxi shelters, passenger pick-up and drop-off
points, pedestrian underpasses, overhead bridges, and bicycle stands.
The main strategies for achieving a multi-modal transit system can be
summarized as follows (Segaram 1994; Konopatzki 2002; Tong 2002):
(i) Institutional integration: It was first achieved through the formation of
TransitLink, which is an inter-agency organization to facilitate the inte-
gration of services by different companies. The second major step is the
formation of a Land Transport Authority, which integrates all relevant
areas in land transportation. The third major step is the formation of
multi-modal transit operators, for example, the merger between the Sin-
gapore Mass Rapid Transit (SMRT) and TIBS that gave birth to the
first multi-modal transit operator in Singapore in 2001. The contract to
maintain and operate the NES and Punggol and Sengkang LRT was
awarded to the Singapore Bus Services (SBS) as an initiative to speed up
the transformation of uni-modal transportation operators into multi-
modal ones in order to achieve the vision of seamless connection with a
multi-modal network. Figure 2 shows the service coverage of SBS Tran-
sit and SMRT/TIBS.
(ii) Physical integration: This includes providing infrastructure to facilitate
the transfers between different modes of transit: for example, the vertical
Figure 4. The Novena station (Source: Tong 2002).
183
integration of MRT stations and bus interchanges; integration of stations
with commercial and office developments; or simply by providing cov-
ered linkways.
(iii) Fare integration: Since 1986, the TransitLink fare card has been the
main mode of fare payment for both MRT and bus services. Fares on
multi-modal trips involving both bus and MRT can receive discounts,
which are given to the commuters using the fare card in the form of
rebates at each transaction. In 2002, the contactless smart card: EZ
Link, was launched. The EZ Link speeds up the payment of multi-mod-
al transit services when passengers board the vehicle. The convenience
of using the EZ Link card has rapidly made it the major mode of pay-
ment, replacing the fare card.
(iv) Network integration: The first stage of network integration is achieved
through the integration of the MRT-bus network, due to the duplication
of services offered to the public since the operation of MRT during the
late 1980s. The second stage of integration follows the formation of the
two multi-modal transit operators, whence integration between rail lines,
bus routes and rail lines becomes a reality. This allows the transit system
integration to be expanded into the integration of services. Already, the
merged SMRT and TIBS are in the process of integrating their services.
Since the operations of the NES in 2003, the SBS Transit has been in
the process of planning for service integration in their service areas in
the northeast corridor of Singapore.
7.3. Regulation of the multi-modal transit
Public transport in Singapore is regulated to ensure that the commuters can
have their demand for services met in terms of spatial and temporal cover-
age, affordable fares, efficient and high levels of services, and choices for tra-
vel, while maintaining a competitive market condition for different
operators. The public transport council (PTC) takes charge of the regulation
of the routes and fares of the public transport services. The bus services are
required to satisfy the standards and specifications, cover route planning and
design efficiency of service, operating hours, affordability and service infor-
mation, as set by the PTC (MOT 2003). Operations audits are carried out
annually to check on the compliancy bus services with these standards. The
latest round of audit shows that both bus operators are able to satisfy the
requirements more than 95% of the time in mandatory standards, although
it was found that during peak periods over capacity and delays were common
in certain services (PTC 2003). The audit also shows some general character-
istics and performance indicators of bus services in Singapore, as shown in
184
Table 1. In terms of competition between operators, currently they operate
in geographic areas that are largely not completely overlapping, while there
may be certain corridors that both the operators serve. Since transit prices
are regulated, the competition between operators is mainly in terms of the
level of their services, in both MRT and buses, e.g., between a trunk bus ser-
vice with an MRT line operated by different operators. This situation might
change when, in the near future, there will be more MRT lines operated by
both operators and more overlapping service areas as a result.
In an effort to make the public transit services affordable to the general
public, the public transport infrastructure, as mentioned before, is funded
entirely by the Singapore Government (PTC 2003). This is in addition to the
exemption that public buses receive in terms of COE payment and ERP
charges. The operators only need to invest for their operating and mainte-
nance, as well as in service improvements. As a result of this policy, public
transit operators have been able to maintain their profitability and provide
affordable services to the public at the same time. Nevertheless, the transit
fares are reviewed annually to allow operators to keep up with inflation and
the need for service improvements. A ‘‘CPI+X’’ formula has been used to
consider the fare-hike requests by operators. The ‘‘CPI+X’’ formula
requires that the annual transit fare increases should not be more than the
change in consumer price index (CPI) plus X, which is a small percentage to
account for the cost factors affecting fares, e.g., wages. X has been set to 1.5
Table 1. General characteristics and performance indicators of bus services in Singapore
(Source: PTC (2003)).
Route planning
and designs
Direct connections from HDB estates to CBD,
nearby towns
Accessibility At least one bus stop every 400 m
Trunk services for every 3000–3500 dwelling units
Direct connection from each HDB neighborhood to
MRT stations
Bi-directional feeder services
Maximum walking distances of 150 m to MRT stations or
a major transfer stop from bus stops
Route length Maximum 20% of the services with round trip distance above 50 km
Maximum 5% of the routes are more than 60 km
Headways Minimum 70% of trunk services with morning headways less than
10 min; 100% of residential feeder services with peak headways
less than 10 min
Schedule adherence 84% of the services with 80% of the headways within 5 min of the
scheduled headways
Maximum load The licenced capacities of trunk services are less than 80% utilized
while those of feeder services are less than 90% utilized at all
time periods
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for years 2001–2005 (PTC 2003). In 2004, the maximum fares for various
transit services are shown in Table 2.
To examine the affordability of transit fares, one can consider a typical
commuting trip which involves a transfer of bus to MRT of average length.
The average fare for such journey would cost about S$0.63 (Feeder) +
S$1.34 (MRT) ) S$0.25 (transfer rebate), which is about S$1.72. Assuming
similar returned trip costs and five working days a week, the total cost for
work trips for an adult is about S$68.8 per month. The overall monthly
average earning per working person was about S$3605 in 2003 (Singapore
Statistics 2004a). The cost for average commuting work trips using transit is
less than 2% of the monthly earning of an individual. This indicates that
public transit in Singapore is affordable to most of its working population.
This is in contrast to an overall average of 22.8% expenditure on transporta-
tion and communication, as reported in Singapore Statistics (2004b), in
1998. The comparison illustrates the effects of policies on vehicle ownership
and usage, as discussed in previous sections.
8. Conclusions
Singapore has a sophisticated and efficient system of land transport to serve
a growing demand for transportation. Constrained by a limited physical
space, a comprehensive set of land transport policy has been in place to bal-
ance the growth in transport demand and the effectiveness and efficiency of
the land transport system. In this paper, the land transport policy of a mul-
ti-pronged approach to achieve the objectives of a world-class transportation
system has been discussed. The policy includes integration of urban and
transport planning, expansion of road network and improvement of trans-
port infrastructure, harnessing the latest technology in network and traffic
management, managing vehicle ownership and usage, and improvement and
regulation of public transport (MOT 2003).
The effects of the comprehensive set of policies are evidenced in the level
of performances achieved on Singapore roads and public transportation
Table 2. Transit fares (in S$) (Source: PTC (2003)) (Numbers within parenthesis are fares on
air-conditioned buses).
Type of services EZ Link fare (in S$)
Maximum Average
Trunk bus services 1.28 (1.53) 0.98 (1.23)
Feeder bus services 0.58 (0.63) 0.58 (0.63)
MRT 1.69 1.34
LRT 0.84 0.74
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systems. The other approaches taken in the development of public transport
include the development of a seamlessly integrated multi-modal transit
system which is aimed at serving a growing number of commuters. The four
major forms of integration have been discussed in this paper. In addition to
the investments in transport infrastructure and improvement in transit
services, the transit operators are regulated to ensure that the services are
affordable and sufficient, and choices are available, for the public.
In conclusion, Singapore’s experience in developing and implementing its
land transport policy over the past 30 years has been a successful and rather
unique case in Asia. The innovative and bold approach in formulating poli-
cies, the determination to implement them, and the flexibility to change in
response to a variety of circumstances, are important factors that lead to
such success.
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About the authors
Dr. Soi Hoi Lam is currently an Associate Professor in Transportation and Logistics
at the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. He received his Master’s degree and Ph.D. (1992) from the
University of Texas at Austin.
Trinh Dinh Toan was born in 1963 in Vietnam. He received his B.S. degree in
Highway Engineering at the University of Transportation in 1985 in Hanoi, a
Postgraduate Diploma in International Highway Engineering in the UK, 1997, and a
Master’s Degree in Infrastructure Planning in Germany, 1999. He is now a Ph.D.
candidate in Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.
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