English(es) in West English(es) in West AfricaAfrica
West West AfricaAfrica
Precolonial historyPrecolonial history
Trade between equal partners:Trade between equal partners:
The first Europeans in West Africa – the Portuguese: the secondThe first Europeans in West Africa – the Portuguese: the second
half of the 15half of the 15thth century: Ca’ da Mosto (the Gambia River in 1455) century: Ca’ da Mosto (the Gambia River in 1455)
and Fernão do Pó (modern Nigeria in 1472)and Fernão do Pó (modern Nigeria in 1472)
The first English trading stations in the 1620s (Sierra Leone) andThe first English trading stations in the 1620s (Sierra Leone) and
1630s (Ghana), more followed in the second half of the century 1630s (Ghana), more followed in the second half of the century
The boom of the trans-Atlantic slave trade of the 17th and 18The boom of the trans-Atlantic slave trade of the 17th and 18 thth
centuries: centuries: massive structural changes in the West African societiesmassive structural changes in the West African societies
Colonial historyColonial history
Settlement projects in anglophone West Africa aimed at Settlement projects in anglophone West Africa aimed at thethe
““repatriation” of freed slaves from the New Worldrepatriation” of freed slaves from the New World
The rise of large scale migration streams within but also The rise of large scale migration streams within but also between the different territories between the different territories
Expansion of the domains where English was used:Expansion of the domains where English was used:
• government and of all official transactionsgovernment and of all official transactions• education (after the first three years of primary education)education (after the first three years of primary education)• the medium of expression of a new literature as well as the medium of expression of a new literature as well as
that of interpersonal interaction among bilinguals in that of interpersonal interaction among bilinguals in practically all conceivable situationspractically all conceivable situations
Postcolonial timePostcolonial time
Gaining their independence: Ghana 1957, Nigeria 1960, Sierra LeoneGaining their independence: Ghana 1957, Nigeria 1960, Sierra Leoneand the anglophone part of Cameroon in 1961 (the francophone part and the anglophone part of Cameroon in 1961 (the francophone part
hadhadbecome independent in the previous year) and The Gambia 1965become independent in the previous year) and The Gambia 1965
English is the official language in all of these countries, (in CameroonEnglish is the official language in all of these countries, (in Cameroontogether with French), though in some cases (like The Gambia and together with French), though in some cases (like The Gambia and
Ghana)Ghana)this has never been formally acknowledged in the constitution. The this has never been formally acknowledged in the constitution. The
reasons:reasons:
• English is a major world languageEnglish is a major world language • English is a neutral language that is thought to provide unity in English is a neutral language that is thought to provide unity in
ethnically and linguistically diverse political entitiesethnically and linguistically diverse political entities
three main types of English spoken in West Africa:three main types of English spoken in West Africa:
1.1. ENL (English as a native language)ENL (English as a native language)2.2. pidginized/creolized language pidginized/creolized language 3.3. ESL (English as a second language)ESL (English as a second language)
Standard EnglishStandard English
- Only a fraction of the population actually has a knowledge of - Only a fraction of the population actually has a knowledge of English, aEnglish, a
smaller part uses the language on a regular basis, and an even smaller part uses the language on a regular basis, and an even smaller onesmaller one
speaks it as a native languagespeaks it as a native language
- English is first and foremost acquired in school, but it is hard to - English is first and foremost acquired in school, but it is hard to say whatsay what
proportion of the population has a command of the language:proportion of the population has a command of the language:
• no reliable figures exist no reliable figures exist • there is a continuum ranging from broken varieties to (near-) native there is a continuum ranging from broken varieties to (near-) native
competencecompetence
- Thus, only - Thus, only about 10–20 %about 10–20 % of “anglophone” West Africans of “anglophone” West Africans actuallyactually
speak a form of Standard West African English (Wolf 2001, 195)speak a form of Standard West African English (Wolf 2001, 195)
The varieties of EnglishThe varieties of English
The native variety of non-Standard English: the creole language Krio inThe native variety of non-Standard English: the creole language Krio inSierraLeone (473000 speakers) with its small offshoot Aku in The GambiaSierraLeone (473000 speakers) with its small offshoot Aku in The Gambia(8000) and Liberian Settler English in Liberia (69000). The speakers:(8000) and Liberian Settler English in Liberia (69000). The speakers:
- Descend from 19th century: ex-slave immigrants, mainly slaves- Descend from 19th century: ex-slave immigrants, mainly slavesfreed in the United States and from slavers off the Guinea Coastfreed in the United States and from slavers off the Guinea Coast
- Held most of the influential positions in the government, administration - Held most of the influential positions in the government, administration and the more westernized parts of society due to their close associationand the more westernized parts of society due to their close associationwith the US and Britain during the 19th centurywith the US and Britain during the 19th century
English-related Pidgin Languages such as Ghanaian, Nigerian, andEnglish-related Pidgin Languages such as Ghanaian, Nigerian, andCameroonian Pidgin English, which are structurally complex and related Cameroonian Pidgin English, which are structurally complex and related
totoSierra Leonean Krio Sierra Leonean Krio
Language choiceLanguage choice
A rough macrolinguistic generalization:A rough macrolinguistic generalization:
English is used for formal settings, indigenous languages are for informal English is used for formal settings, indigenous languages are for informal settingssettings
Multilingualism is very widespread in West Africa. What qualifies as Multilingualism is very widespread in West Africa. What qualifies as aa
lingua franca depends on:lingua franca depends on:
• the functional rangethe functional range• the area covered by the languagethe area covered by the language
The pidginized and creolized varieties of English as well as StandardThe pidginized and creolized varieties of English as well as StandardEnglish serve as a national and supranational lingua francaEnglish serve as a national and supranational lingua franca
The hierarchy of language choice: The hierarchy of language choice:
native/local language > native/local language > local lingua franca > regional lingua franca local lingua franca > regional lingua franca > > national language/Englishnational language/English
1. Sierra Leone:1. Sierra Leone:
bordered by Guinea, bordered by Guinea, Liberia and the Atlantic Liberia and the Atlantic OceanOcean
areaarea: 71 740 m²: 71 740 m² populationpopulation: about : about
4.976.871 (2004 4.976.871 (2004 Population and Housing Population and Housing Census of Sierra LeoneCensus of Sierra Leone[1]))
capitalcapital: Freetown: Freetown languageslanguages: English as : English as
official language, lingua official language, lingua franca Krio spoken by franca Krio spoken by 97% of the population; 97% of the population; 21 other languages21 other languages
The “Creoles” or “Krio” The “Creoles” or “Krio” as first Western Black as first Western Black community (about 2% of community (about 2% of the population) consist the population) consist of the following groupsof the following groups
The groups of the “Creoles” The groups of the “Creoles” or “Krio”:or “Krio”:
a) a) the the Granville Sharp Granville Sharp group: group: - consisting of 411 settlers who left Britain, - consisting of 411 settlers who left Britain,
returned to Africa and founded Freetown in 1787returned to Africa and founded Freetown in 1787 - named after Granville Sharp, who fought for the - named after Granville Sharp, who fought for the
abolition of slave tradeabolition of slave trade
b) b) the the NovaNova Scotians: Scotians: - - about 1131 former slaves who had fought for the about 1131 former slaves who had fought for the British in the American War of Independence British in the American War of Independence
- came to Sierra Leone in 1792- came to Sierra Leone in 1792
c) c) the the Maroons: Maroons: - - about 550 slaves who had escaped from Jamaica about 550 slaves who had escaped from Jamaica
and were deported to Sierra Leone in 1800and were deported to Sierra Leone in 1800
Sierra Leone: the historic Sierra Leone: the historic overviewoverview
in 1807 Britain formally abolished slave tradein 1807 Britain formally abolished slave trade in 1808 Sierra Leone was declared a British in 1808 Sierra Leone was declared a British
colonycolony Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961 the Creoles as an educated Christian elite who the Creoles as an educated Christian elite who
had great influence on other English settlements had great influence on other English settlements along the coastalong the coast
Krio was thus of great importance for the spread Krio was thus of great importance for the spread of Pidgin in West Africa and spread as lingua of Pidgin in West Africa and spread as lingua franca throughout Sierra Leone (e.g. through franca throughout Sierra Leone (e.g. through media)media)
Krio spread as lingua franca throughout the Krio spread as lingua franca throughout the country and is a fully fledged creole language that country and is a fully fledged creole language that derives some 80% of its vocabulary from Englishderives some 80% of its vocabulary from English
West African Krio clipWest African Krio clip
Sierra-Leone English soundfileSierra-Leone English soundfile
2. Liberia2. Liberia
bordered by Sierra bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire and the Atlantic d'Ivoire and the Atlantic OceanOcean
areaarea: 111 369 m²: 111 369 m² populationpopulation: 3 476 608: 3 476 608 capitalcapital: Monrovia: Monrovia languageslanguages: English : English
(official language) and (official language) and 34 other languages 34 other languages (incl. Liberian Standard (incl. Liberian Standard English and Liberian English and Liberian Pidgin English)Pidgin English)
has a special status has a special status among the English among the English speaking countries in speaking countries in West Africa and a West Africa and a unique history because:unique history because:
LiberiaLiberia
a)a) it was the first modern independent state in Africa it was the first modern independent state in Africa (independence proclaimed in 1847)(independence proclaimed in 1847)
b)b) its historical and political ties to the US largely its historical and political ties to the US largely influenced the English spoken in Liberia (modeled on influenced the English spoken in Liberia (modeled on AmE) and thus made it distinct from other English AmE) and thus made it distinct from other English speaking African countries (modeled on BrE)speaking African countries (modeled on BrE)
c)c) e it is the only African state where English is spoken e it is the only African state where English is spoken as a mother tongue by 20% of the populationas a mother tongue by 20% of the population
LiberiaLiberia
5% of Liberia's population are so-called Americo 5% of Liberia's population are so-called Americo Liberian, who descended from American black Liberian, who descended from American black expatriatesexpatriates
those expatriates ruled and dominated the countrythose expatriates ruled and dominated the country
““[...] they carried with them American ways of life, [...] they carried with them American ways of life, including the language and the concept of racial including the language and the concept of racial differences. They also felt superior to their wild and differences. They also felt superior to their wild and uncivilized African brothers, and the leading group uncivilized African brothers, and the leading group preserved this distance well into the 20th century [...]preserved this distance well into the 20th century [...]
Görlach, M.: “Studies in Varieties of English” Görlach, M.: “Studies in Varieties of English”
Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1991. p. 127Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1991. p. 127
LiberiaLiberia
““The love of liberty brought us here”The love of liberty brought us here”
““Good” English in Liberia is geared to Good” English in Liberia is geared to American phonologyAmerican phonology
Different varieties of Liberian English can be Different varieties of Liberian English can be distinguished:distinguished:
Standard LEStandard LEVernacular LEVernacular LEKru Pidgin EnglishKru Pidgin English
Liberian English basilectal sound Liberian English basilectal sound samplesample
The Gambia: Common The Gambia: Common factsfacts neighbouring country neighbouring country
is Senegal (French!)is Senegal (French!) area:area: 11,295 km 11,295 km22 population:population: app. app.
1,700,0001,700,000 capital:capital: Banjul Banjul official language:official language:
EnglishEnglish further languages:further languages:
Fula, Mandinka, Fula, Mandinka, Wolof, Djola, FulfuldeWolof, Djola, Fulfulde
The Gambia: Historical The Gambia: Historical overviewoverview
15881588 given as present to merchants given as present to merchants by Elizabeth Iby Elizabeth I
16181618 given as present to a company given as present to a company by James Iby James I
17th century17th century several European several European countries occupy the areacountries occupy the area
18881888 Senegambia becomes British Senegambia becomes British Crown Colony Crown Colony
19651965 The Gambia becomes The Gambia becomes independent from UKindependent from UK
The Gambia: Linguistic The Gambia: Linguistic featuresfeatures
Creole variety spoken in The Gambia is Creole variety spoken in The Gambia is called Aku (related to Krio) called Aku (related to Krio)
linguistic influences of refugees from linguistic influences of refugees from Senegal, Guinea and Sierra LeoneSenegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone
frequent code-switching between frequent code-switching between English and Gambian languagesEnglish and Gambian languages
Wolof gains prestige because it is the Wolof gains prestige because it is the language of economylanguage of economy
it also serves as a it also serves as a lingua francalingua franca between French-speaking Senegal and between French-speaking Senegal and The GambiaThe Gambia
Gambian president clipGambian president clip
Ghana: Common factsGhana: Common facts
neighbouring countries neighbouring countries are Ivory Coast, Burkina are Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso and TogoFaso and Togo
area:area: 238, 540 km 238, 540 km22 population:population: app. app.
24,000,00024,000,000 capital:capital: Accra Accra official language:official language: English English further languages:further languages: Akan, Akan,
Dagaare/Waale, Dangbe, Dagaare/Waale, Dangbe, Dagbane, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Dagbane, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, Nzema plus Kasem, Nzema plus another 26 non-another 26 non-government sponsored government sponsored languageslanguages
Ghana – historical Ghana – historical overviewoverview Middle Ages: Middle Ages: early development of feudalism, early development of feudalism,
subdivision in kingdomssubdivision in kingdoms 14711471 the Portuguese arrive and find the area the Portuguese arrive and find the area
rich in goldrich in gold 16th century16th century slave trade as main economic slave trade as main economic
factorfactor 18741874 Gold Coast is made British Crown Colony Gold Coast is made British Crown Colony 19th century19th century Asante wars, Britain remains Asante wars, Britain remains
victoriousvictorious 19571957 Gold Coast is named Ghana and becomes Gold Coast is named Ghana and becomes
independentindependent 19941994 ethnic clashes between the Konkomba ethnic clashes between the Konkomba
and the Nanumba due to quarrels over landand the Nanumba due to quarrels over land
Ghana – sociolinguistic Ghana – sociolinguistic aspects:aspects:
lower levels: English as subjectlower levels: English as subject higher levels: English as a medium to higher levels: English as a medium to
teachteach 30% English speakers, related to 30% English speakers, related to
educationeducation clear influence of Ghanaian mother clear influence of Ghanaian mother
tongues and Nigerian Englishtongues and Nigerian English
West Africa (Cameroon & West Africa (Cameroon & Nigeria)Nigeria)
1. Language History1. Language History
4 African language 4 African language families:families:
• Afro-Asiatic (250 Afro-Asiatic (250 mio)mio)
• Niger-Congo (260 Niger-Congo (260 mio)mio)
• Nilo-Saharan (30 Nilo-Saharan (30 mio)mio)
• Khoisan Khoisan (considered as (considered as ‚first languages‚first languages‘‘ of of Africa)Africa)
1.1 Nigerian 1.1 Nigerian (Pre-)colonial History (Pre-)colonial History until 1945 & the Pidginuntil 1945 & the PidginPre-colonial History of the AreaPre-colonial History of the Area 1472: Portuguese landed1472: Portuguese landed 15th century: British arrival on the coast15th century: British arrival on the coast 17th/18th century: slave trade17th/18th century: slave trade Slave trade slowly replaced by palm-oil tradeSlave trade slowly replaced by palm-oil trade 18401840‘‘s: missionaries arrive, teaching English s: missionaries arrive, teaching English
mainlymainly Pidgin-English developed as main means of Pidgin-English developed as main means of
communicationcommunication
Colonial Nigeria Colonial Nigeria
1861: British occupy Lagos, make it 1861: British occupy Lagos, make it colonycolony
Moves into hinterland & Niger-DeltaMoves into hinterland & Niger-Delta 1900: North & South Nigerian 1900: North & South Nigerian
ProtectorateProtectorate 1906: Colony of Lagos & South Nigeria 1906: Colony of Lagos & South Nigeria
were joinedwere joined 1914: Colony and Protectorate of 1914: Colony and Protectorate of
NigeriaNigeria
Language PolicyLanguage Policy
„„indirect policyindirect policy““ of colonial rule practised of colonial rule practised in Northern protectorate, while in South in Northern protectorate, while in South missionaries employed an Anglicist policymissionaries employed an Anglicist policy
At same time standardization of At same time standardization of indigenous languages for evangelizationindigenous languages for evangelization
1914: indirect rule creates an indigenous 1914: indirect rule creates an indigenous elite for governing countryelite for governing country
Population held powerless, but not in Population held powerless, but not in ignorance: prestige of English creates a ignorance: prestige of English creates a demand for it, employed in Pidgin Englishdemand for it, employed in Pidgin English
Nigerian Pidgin Nigerian Pidgin EnglishEnglish Pidgins are „Pidgins are „‘‘incidentalincidental‘‘ modes of modes of
communication that usually arise in communication that usually arise in situations where people from three different situations where people from three different language communities [...] need to language communities [...] need to communicate with one another [...] Pidgins communicate with one another [...] Pidgins are not spoken as first or primary languages, are not spoken as first or primary languages, and they are nobodyand they are nobody‘‘s mother tongue.s mother tongue.““ (Webb & Sure: 29)(Webb & Sure: 29)
In Nigeria, contrary to definition, it In Nigeria, contrary to definition, it isis first first language to many!language to many!
50% of population speak it, partly 50% of population speak it, partly „bidialectical„bidialectical““ situation situation
Nigerian Pidgin Nigerian Pidgin English ctd.English ctd. Language of markets, police, army, sports, Language of markets, police, army, sports,
campuses, playgrounds, in taxis etc...campuses, playgrounds, in taxis etc... Stigmatised by elite as „brokenStigmatised by elite as „broken““ For average people only English they know, For average people only English they know,
enjoys prestige for its ethnic neutrality enjoys prestige for its ethnic neutrality (same for „Standard(same for „Standard““ English) English)
Different grammar, structural innovations, Different grammar, structural innovations, word borrowing from indigenous languages word borrowing from indigenous languages more extensively, it influences Nigerian more extensively, it influences Nigerian English by contact, constantly changingEnglish by contact, constantly changing
Carrier of IdentityCarrier of Identity
1.2 Cameroonian 1.2 Cameroonian Language HistoryLanguage HistoryColonial Period:Colonial Period: 1884 German Protectorate 1884 German Protectorate No colonial language policy, No colonial language policy,
commercial exploitation of the area commercial exploitation of the area via private companiesvia private companies
English & PE still strong: English & PE still strong: Kurzes Kurzes Handbuch für Neger-Englisch an der Handbuch für Neger-Englisch an der Westküste Afrikas unter besonderer Westküste Afrikas unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Kamerun, Berücksichtigung von Kamerun, 19081908
German rule ctd.German rule ctd.
Hauptmann Hutter über PEHauptmann Hutter über PE:: ““ein ein Gemisch aus verdorbenem Englisch und Gemisch aus verdorbenem Englisch und Portugiesisch in das sich einzelne Worte Portugiesisch in das sich einzelne Worte verschiedener Negersprachen oder verschiedener Negersprachen oder richtiger die den Negern eigene konkrete richtiger die den Negern eigene konkrete Ausdrucksform darein mischen. Es ist Ausdrucksform darein mischen. Es ist das sog. Beach (Küsten)–Englischdas sog. Beach (Küsten)–Englisch““ ( (Deu- Deu- tsche Kolonialzeitung, 17/1898 in: Wolf tsche Kolonialzeitung, 17/1898 in: Wolf 2001)2001)
1907: direct rule, language policy:1907: direct rule, language policy:– German language of instruction from grade 3German language of instruction from grade 3– German rule is remembered with high German rule is remembered with high
prestige, though language vanishes laterprestige, though language vanishes later
Colonial Period ctd.Colonial Period ctd.
1916/ 1919: partition into British and French 1916/ 1919: partition into British and French „Cameroons„Cameroons““ entails linguistic and cultural entails linguistic and cultural cleavage (GB about one fifth of area)cleavage (GB about one fifth of area)
Britain integrates her two small strips of land Britain integrates her two small strips of land into Nigeria, with same language policyinto Nigeria, with same language policy
Illiteracy remains high (80-90% in 1948) until Illiteracy remains high (80-90% in 1948) until demand of people after WWII leads to demand of people after WWII leads to broader educationbroader education
France pursues assimilation & direct ruleFrance pursues assimilation & direct rule
Post-colonial PeriodPost-colonial Period
1960: Independence1960: Independence 1961: Referendum in anglophone areas, 1961: Referendum in anglophone areas,
with northern part remaining with Nigeria, with northern part remaining with Nigeria, southern area joining Cameroon southern area joining Cameroon
““Federal Republic of Cameroon” until Federal Republic of Cameroon” until 1972, when “Federal1972, when “Federal”” was dropped was dropped (French dominance shows)(French dominance shows)
Authoritarian rule of Ahidjo and Biya Authoritarian rule of Ahidjo and Biya (French Cameroonians) until 1990(French Cameroonians) until 1990
Conflict between “Francophones” and Conflict between “Francophones” and “Anglophones” “Anglophones”
2.1 2.1 “Frenchification”“Frenchification”
French dominanceFrench dominance Political: administration, electoral Political: administration, electoral
system, the army/police/fire brigade, system, the army/police/fire brigade, university university
Economically: dependency on Economically: dependency on France as a foreign investor and in France as a foreign investor and in export/importexport/import
Culturally: language, dress, food etc.Culturally: language, dress, food etc.
2.2 Languages and 2.2 Languages and Lingua Franca Areas in Lingua Franca Areas in CameroonCameroon Population: 18.470.000 Population: 18.470.000 Area: 475.000km²Area: 475.000km² Capital: YaoundéCapital: Yaoundé 3 of the 4 major African language families3 of the 4 major African language families about 248 languagesabout 248 languages Official languages: English and FrenchOfficial languages: English and French ““A lingua franca zone is an area where one A lingua franca zone is an area where one
can communicate in most of the daily can communicate in most of the daily encounters with most of the people using a encounters with most of the people using a language spoken in that area”language spoken in that area” (Wolf 2001, (Wolf 2001, p.155)p.155)
Lingua Franca ZonesLingua Franca Zones
North-West, North-West, South- West South- West provinces and provinces and bordering: PEbordering: PE
Central and Central and Southern Zone: Southern Zone: FrenchFrench
North: FulfuldeNorth: Fulfulde
Fulfulde ZoneFulfulde Zone
Speakers: 668.700 L1, 5.000.000 L2Speakers: 668.700 L1, 5.000.000 L2 People are called Fulbe, traditional People are called Fulbe, traditional
religion Islamreligion Islam trend away from Fulfulde as lingua trend away from Fulfulde as lingua
franca, French is taught in government franca, French is taught in government schoolsschools
but Fulfulde is most widely spoken but Fulfulde is most widely spoken lingua franca in the Northlingua franca in the North
the North is culturally homogenous due the North is culturally homogenous due to the strength of the Islam to the strength of the Islam
PE ZonePE Zone
only 2.000.000 mainly L2 users of PEonly 2.000.000 mainly L2 users of PE In respect to number of speakers and In respect to number of speakers and
territorial dominance Fulfulde area is territorial dominance Fulfulde area is more solid more solid
roots in the anglophone part of the roots in the anglophone part of the countrycountry
means of communication between means of communication between Anglophones and Francophones (work, Anglophones and Francophones (work, official business, talk to strangers) and official business, talk to strangers) and between Anglophones from different between Anglophones from different ethnic and social statusethnic and social status
prestige of PE seems to be low in the prestige of PE seems to be low in the anglophone areaanglophone area
French ZoneFrench Zone
Ewondo as a strong lingua franca in the Ewondo as a strong lingua franca in the francophone part, only if indigenous francophone part, only if indigenous languages and rural areas are consideredlanguages and rural areas are considered
French overwhelmingly used in most of the French overwhelmingly used in most of the towns in most situationstowns in most situations
Prestigous status as official language, but Prestigous status as official language, but not as an identity carriernot as an identity carrier
French has no roots in the Francophone French has no roots in the Francophone part, as English has in the Anglophone part part, as English has in the Anglophone part via PE via PE
2.3 The Status of English 2.3 The Status of English in Cameroonin Cameroon
““The official languages of the The official languages of the Republic of Cameroon shall be Republic of Cameroon shall be English and French. The state shall English and French. The state shall guarantee the promotion of guarantee the promotion of bilingualism throughout the bilingualism throughout the country.” country.” (Republic of Cameroon in Wolf 2001)(Republic of Cameroon in Wolf 2001)
linguistic imbalance between French linguistic imbalance between French and Englishand English
prominent status of French even in prominent status of French even in domains that are supposed to be domains that are supposed to be bilingual bilingual
Factors for French Factors for French DominanceDominance Demographic Advantage:Demographic Advantage: Anglophone Cameroon constitutes Anglophone Cameroon constitutes
only 20% of the population and 10% of only 20% of the population and 10% of the land area of Cameroonthe land area of Cameroon
Political Factor:Political Factor: majority of top ranking government majority of top ranking government
officials have been French speakingofficials have been French speaking French is exclusive language in the French is exclusive language in the
army, parliamentary debates and army, parliamentary debates and policy statements are in Frenchpolicy statements are in French
Factors for French Factors for French DominanceDominance Lack of effective language policy:Lack of effective language policy: To guarantee linguistic rights of To guarantee linguistic rights of
the minority the minority Encourage the francophone Encourage the francophone
majority to learn Englishmajority to learn English
Potent Factors for the Potent Factors for the English LanguageEnglish Language
international importance and prestige international importance and prestige of English is acknowledged by the of English is acknowledged by the Cameroonian governmentCameroonian government
Cultural institutions like the British Cultural institutions like the British Council or American Cultural CenterCouncil or American Cultural Center
American hegemony in international American hegemony in international relations, media, science, relations, media, science, international travel and international travel and communicationscommunications
Play intelligibility clip – where and Play intelligibility clip – where and why do misunderstandings occur?why do misunderstandings occur?
Questions for discussion:Questions for discussion:
What are the consequences of the settlement policy BritainWhat are the consequences of the settlement policy Britainand the USA held in West Africa in the 19th century?and the USA held in West Africa in the 19th century?
Does English as lingua franca pose a danger for the Does English as lingua franca pose a danger for the existenceexistence
of indigeous African languages?of indigeous African languages?
Will a Standard African English (for theWill a Standard African English (for thewhole continent) be possible?whole continent) be possible?
There has always been some measure of antagonism There has always been some measure of antagonism betweenbetween
the settler communities and the indigenous peoples in thesethe settler communities and the indigenous peoples in thesecountries. Why is that? countries. Why is that?
What is the relation between English and social equality in What is the relation between English and social equality in African society? African society?
Discussion ctd.Discussion ctd.
““French is the language of French is the language of Cameroon” (Wolf 2001, 179) – As Cameroon” (Wolf 2001, 179) – As English and French legally co-English and French legally co-exist as official languages of exist as official languages of Cameroon how could the status of Cameroon how could the status of English be promoted? What would English be promoted? What would you do? (If you had the political you do? (If you had the political power or financial means)power or financial means)
DiscussionDiscussion
““Pidgin is that language that you Pidgin is that language that you have taken from the colonizers and have taken from the colonizers and you have made it your own” you have made it your own” (Deuber in: Schneider 2007) – Thus, (Deuber in: Schneider 2007) – Thus, it symbolizes it symbolizes (Nigerian/Cameroonian) identity (Nigerian/Cameroonian) identity and has an advantage to and has an advantage to “Standard” English. Should PE be “Standard” English. Should PE be granted official status? granted official status?
Sources:Sources:
Apter, David E. 1959: Apter, David E. 1959: The Gold Coast in TransitionThe Gold Coast in Transition, Princeton: Princeton University Press., Princeton: Princeton University Press. Auswärtiges Amt: Auswärtiges Amt:
http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Laenderinformationen/LaenderReiseinformationenhttp://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Laenderinformationen/LaenderReiseinformationenA-Z.jsp (accessed on 2009-11-15)A-Z.jsp (accessed on 2009-11-15)
Görlach, Manfred. 1991. Görlach, Manfred. 1991. Studies in Varieties of EnglishStudies in Varieties of English. Amsterdam: Benjamins.. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Görlach, Manfred. 1995. Görlach, Manfred. 1995. More Englishes: New Studies in Varieties of English 1988-1994. More Englishes: New Studies in Varieties of English 1988-1994.
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