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CS 6502 Operating Systems Dr. J.. Garrido

Device Management

(Lecture 7b)

CS5002 Operating SystemsDr. Jose M. Garrido


Disk Drive Mechanism


Disk Structure

• Disk drives are addressed as large 1-dimensional arrays of logical blocks, where the logical block is the smallest unit of transfer.

• The 1-dimensional array of logical blocks is mapped into the sectors of the disk sequentially.– Sector 0 is the first sector of the first track on the

outermost cylinder.– Mapping proceeds in order through that track,

then the rest of the tracks in that cylinder, and then through the rest of the cylinders from outermost to innermost.


Direct Access Storage Devices

• Otherwise known as DASDs– Devices that can directly read or write to

a specific place on a disk or drum– Also called random access storage

devices• Grouped into two major categories

– fixed read/write heads– movable read/write heads


Disk Characteristics

• Moving-head disk - one head per surface

• Fixed-head disk - one head per track• Data on a disk is addressed by:

– Cylinder– Surface– Sector


Timings in a Disk Request

The disk request timing is the sum of:• Seek time - arm positioning delay• Latency time - rotational delay• Data transfer time


Read/Write

• To read or write data, disk device must move the arm to the appropriate track.

• The time to carry this out this is called Seek Time.

• Then, the disk device must wait for the desired data to rotate into position under the head (rotational latency).

• Each track is recorded in units called Sectors. A sector is the smallest amount of data that can be physically read or written.


Disk Track Format


Disk Access Time

The disk access time can be calculated as follows:

Disk Access time = Seek time + Rotational Latency


I/O Requests

• In general, there may be many I/O requests for a device at the same time.

• These requests may come from multiple processes or the same process.


I/O Device Handling

• A Queue of Pending Requests• A Resource Scheduler that determines the

next request to execute• A Mechanism to initiate the next request

whenever a request completes.


I/O Request Queueing


I/O Performance Optimization

• I/O processing is much slower than CPU processing. Every physical disk I/O has a dramatic impact on system performance

• To improve I/O performance:– Reduce the number of I/O requests– Carry out buffering and/or caching– I/O Scheduling


Buffering

• The I/O system should make the physical I/O requests as big as possible.

• This will reduce the number of physical I/O requests by the buffering factor used.

• The application's logical I/O requests should copy data to/from a large memory buffer. The physical I/O requests then transfer the entire buffer.


Context Switching in I/O Scheduling

• In CPU scheduling, the context-switch time is relatively small with respect to the service time

• In I/O scheduling the context-switch time is relatively large with respect to the service time

The time to move the head between cylinders is much greater than the time it takes to read or write to a cylinder


Analogy

• Traveling service person, a technician who has to service requests from several clients in a geographical area

• The service person spends more time driving than actually carrying out the service tasks


Context Switching

• In CPU scheduling, the context-switch time is relatively small with respect to the service time

• In I/O scheduling the context-switch time is relatively large with respect to the service time

The time to move the head between cylinders is much greater than the time it takes to read or write to a cylinder


Purpose of I/O Scheduling

• Select the next I/O request from the I/O queue– Minimize seek time


Goal of Disk Scheduling

• In any disk system with a moving read/write head, the seek time between cylinders takes a significant amount of time

• This traveling head time should be minimized


Disk Scheduling Algorithms

For moving-head disk, disk scheduling algorithms are needed to minimize seek time

• FCFS scheduling: first-come-first-served• SSTF scheduling: shortest-seek-time-first• SCAN scheduling• C-SCAN scheduling: circular SCAN• LOOK scheduling• C-LOOK scheduling


Issues in Disk Scheduling

• Throughput - the number of disk requests that are completed in some period

• Fairness - some disk requests may have to wait a long time before being served.

A totally fair system would ensure that the mean response time of the disk requests is the same for all processes


Goal of Disk Scheduling?

There is a trade-off between total system throughput and fairness


State-Dependent Behavior

The position of the read/write head (i.e., the state of the disk) affects the response time of the next request


Disk Scheduling Algorithms

• Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests.

• Given the following disk request sequence for a disk with (0-199 tracks):

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53 (current position of R/W heads)


FCFS

Illustration shows total head movement of 640 cylinders.


SSTF

• Selects the request with the minimum seek time from the current head position.

• SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling; may cause starvation of some requests.

• Illustration shows total head movement of 236 cylinders.


SSTF (Cont.)


SCAN

• The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing requests until it gets to the other end of the disk, where the head movement is reversed and servicing continues.

• Sometimes called the elevator algorithm.• Illustration shows total head movement of

208 cylinders.


SCAN (Cont.)


C-SCAN

• Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN.• The head moves from one end of the disk to the

other. servicing requests as it goes. When it reaches the other end, however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the return trip.

• Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps around from the last cylinder to the first one.


C-SCAN (Cont.)


C-LOOK

• Version of C-SCAN• Arm only goes as far as the last request in

each direction, then reverses direction immediately, without first going all the way to the end of the disk.


C-LOOK (Cont.)


Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm

• SSTF is common and has a natural appeal• SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that

place a heavy load on the disk.• Performance depends on the number and types of

requests.• Requests for disk service can be influenced by the

file-allocation method.• The disk-scheduling algorithm should be written as

a separate module of the operating system, allowing it to be replaced with a different algorithm if necessary.

• Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default algorithm.


Disk Management

• Low-level formatting, or physical formatting — Dividing a disk into sectors that the disk controller can read and write.

• To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own data structures on the disk.– Partition the disk into one or more groups of

cylinders.– Logical formatting or “making a file system”.

• Boot block initializes system.– The bootstrap is stored in ROM.– Bootstrap loader program.

• Methods such as sector sparing used to handle bad blocks.


Swap-Space Management

• Swap-space — Virtual memory uses disk space as an extension of main memory.

• Swap-space can be carved out of the normal file system,or, more commonly, it can be in a separate disk partition.

• Swap-space management– 4.3BSD allocates swap space when process

starts; holds text segment (the program) and data segment.

– Kernel uses swap maps to track swap-space use.– Solaris 2 allocates swap space only when a page

is forced out of physical memory, not when the virtual memory page is first created.


Disk Reliability

• Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve the use of multiple disks working cooperatively.

• Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit.• RAID schemes improve performance and improve the

reliability of the storage system by storing redundant data.– Mirroring or shadowing keeps duplicate of each disk.– Block interleaved parity uses much less redundancy.


Stable-Storage Implementation

• Write-ahead log scheme requires stable storage.

• To implement stable storage:– Replicate information on more than one

nonvolatile storage media with independent failure modes.

– Update information in a controlled manner to ensure that we can recover the stable data after any failure during data transfer or recovery.


Tertiary Storage Devices

• Low cost is the defining characteristic of tertiary storage.

• Generally, tertiary storage is built using removable media

• Common examples of removable media are floppy disks and CD-ROMs; other types are available.


Removable Disks

• Floppy disk — thin flexible disk coated with magnetic material, enclosed in a protective plastic case.– Most floppies hold about 1 MB; similar

technology is used for removable disks that hold more than 1 GB.

– Removable magnetic disks can be nearly as fast as hard disks, but they are at a greater risk of damage from exposure.


Assignment #6

The following source C++ files implement simulation models for disk scheduling techniques mentioned:

• dsfcfsn.cpp • dscsstfn.cpp • dscann.cpp

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