Transcript

World Journal of Social Sciences

Vol. 8. No. 2. June 2018. Pp. 43– 56

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Consumers’ Perceptions on Car Sharing: A Preliminary Study in Dhaka City

Syed Yusuf Saadat1, KaziSayeed Ahmed2, Akther Jahan3, Naureen Jahan4 and Tasnova Binte Zahed5

Car sharing occurs when two or more people travel to a particular destination by using the same car. Users can choose to use the service for a part of the journey or the entire trip. This study intends to evaluate the perceptions regarding a car sharing service of the students of North South University to see whether it can be presented as a viable alternative for their travelling needs. This research will aim to use this sample as a reference for the viewpoint of commuters who are currently in universities and the rest of Dhaka city, with regards to the commercial viability of a car sharing service. This research aims to represent the consumer perceptions on car sharing by looking at people’s existing travel patterns, their general attitude towards car sharing, and any incentives which can convince people to use a car sharing service. The findings of the study show that consumers are willing to use a formalized car sharing service in Dhaka. However, many consumers expressed their concerns regarding safety, and emphasized that security was the biggest obstacle to the success of a car sharing service. Since car sharing has the potential to act as a catalyst towards reducing congestion in Dhaka city, this research acts as a model for further work on this topic.

Field of Research: Marketing

1. Introduction Car sharing occurs when two or more people travel to a particular route or destination by using the same car. Users can choose to use the service for a part of the journey or the entire trip itself (Transport For London, 2007). Car sharing allows individuals the access to a car which is owned by an individual or an institution in exchange of some sort of monetary payment (Le Vine,et al, 2014). Dhaka city is a hub of congestion with it being the 7th most densely populated city in the world(Malone,2006).Since Dhaka has a population of nearly 17 million people and an area of 1.528 square kilometers (Asian Development Bank, 2011), the need for transporation will always be at a premium. In 2015, it was estimated that there were 930,990 registered vehicles in Dhaka city alone (Bangladesh Road Transport Authority, 2015) which was a figure estimated till October 2015, the actual figure may very well be higher. According to Bangladesh Road Transport Authority, every year around 37,000 vehicles are added to Dhaka roads, of which around 80 percentare ______________________________

1Department of Economics, North South University, Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]

2Department of Marketing & Int. Business, North South University, Bangladesh,

Email: [email protected] 3Department of Economics, North South University, Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]

4Department of Economics, North South University, Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]

5Department of Economics, North South University, Bangladesh, Email: [email protected]

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private cars.Commuters use various modes of transport to meet their travellling needs including buses, CNG’s, rickshaws and cars amongst other means of transport. As people’s incomes are increasing, the number of cars on the streets are also increasing, leading to more traffic congestion (Please refer to Figure 12 in Appendix 1). Thus, this research will look to get the views on car sharing of the respondents and their opinions regarding its ability to reduce traffic congestion in Dhaka city. To the best of our knowledge, no such study has been done regarding the users perceptions on car sharing amongst the university students of Bangladesh. The remaining paper is structured as follows. The literature review in Section 2 provides an overview of the secondary resources used to gather a theoretical background of the research. Section 3 details the research methodology of the paper. This is followed by the research findings in Section 4 and the conclusion in Section 5.

2. Literature Review

Car sharing services may be offered in two basic forms: static and dynamic car sharing.

• Static Car Sharing: In static car sharing, users can request to offer or demand a ride. Successful matchesbetween users occur when users find each other based on the request which was published. The application gathers a lot of data, helping users to narrow their search based on their preferences. However, it must be noted that it doesn’t work in real time and users can only communicate through emails which can cause gaps in exchange of information.

• Dynamic Car Sharing:Dynamic car sharing is a form of car sharing which is heavily reliant on technology and smartphones. It allows users access to the application in real time and the GPS tracker helps pinpoint the exact location of the fleet of vehicles. The application finds overlapping routes based on the inputs of the users. The users can choose to operate the application either as a driver or a passenger. The driver is the one responsible for deciding which routes are to be taken. He will enter the origin and destination, time of departure, car model, color and license plate numbers of the car. The driver will ultimately accept or reject the request of passengers to access the car. The passenger provides relevant data which includes his or her existing location, destination location and desired departure time. The passenger will request the driver for a ride. The passenger then meets the driver at a predetermined meeting point and time after the driver accepts his or her ride request(Haddad, et al,2013).

A sophisticated car sharing scheme will typically go through the following steps: • Users register in the system and go through a form of pre-qualification process

to be a part of the service in which they will go through a verificationof theiridentity and driver’s license so that they can be able to use the servicein the future without needing to interact with any member of the staff.

• The users will go on to use the vehicles on a personal basis or behalf of an employer.

• The user may be billed on the basis of minutes or hours driven or based on the distance covered.

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• Users may have to give an additional subscription fee to be a part of the service along with the charges on each usage.

• Users can spontaneously choose to use the service as per their needs or make advanced reservations ahead of time.

• The vehicles will be available in a range of locations across the area of the service’s coverage.

• Servicing of the cars is done by the car service operator’s staff on occasional basis. Users may be incentivized to refuel the car or clean it after use. (Le Vine, et al, 2014)

Technology utilized in the car-sharing system involves: • Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) technologies maybe utilized used to

improve three main areas of operations: 1) Vehicle access (smartcards) 2) Member reservations 3) Data collection

• Smartcards – Communicates user information to a central database which uses member ID’s to track activities of the users of the service in terms of billing and security. These cards also allow users to unlock and drive their desired vehicles.

• Automated reservations – This can be done online or through voice recognition or touch-tone telephone systems which facilitate quick and convenient customer scheduling.

• Automated vehicle locations – This is utilized to track location of the fleet of vehicles through some form of cellular network, radio frequency or satellite tracking which helps users to easily pinpoint car locations and also aids the company in terms of automated billing and increased security. (Shaheen, et al, 2003).

Car sharing targets a wide variety of customers groups who can range from commuters, students, and children (Bührmann, 2017). It has been seen that the users have a specific socio-economic profile. They tend to be well educated and predominantly male young adults (between the ages of 25-45). They live in urban neighbourhoods and are either single or are childless couples who are from middle or high income households. They either own a single car or no car at all and have been heavy users of non-car forms of transport such as public transport, cycling and walking (Le Vine, et al., 2014). It must be noted that motorization has been responsible for 72 percent of world carbon dioxide emissions. It has been estimated that transport may account for more than 50 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions by 2050 (Banister, et al., 2011). Automobiles are a prime source of carbon dioxide and other dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen carbons(Katzev, 2003).Efficient road traffic can only be brought about by decrease in the number of cars used in the roads. The increased number of occupancies in a particular vehicle will bring down the overall number of vehicles in the roads (Kuntzky, K. et al., 2013).

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3. Research Methodology The research will attempt to see the consumers’ perceptions of car sharing in Bangladesh by looking into the following research question: I. What is the perception that people have about car sharing in general? Hypothesis: It is expected that respondents will generally have a positive opinion about car sharing. The objective of this study is to analyze the perception of car sharing amongst users in Dhaka city. The purpose of this research is exploratory since it aims to probe into the notion of car sharing which is a relatively novel idea for Dhaka city. This research is based on the logic of inductive reasoning which goes from the specific to the general. The outcome of this research may be used to resolve a particular social problem, namely that of improving the process of commuting within Dhaka city. The topic of this research is sociological in nature, since car sharing is a phenomenon involving interaction between people. The mode of this research is observational, since phenomenon was observed without intervening in the existing environment. This research is based on mainly qualitative data and the methodology is qualitative. The ideology behind this research is objective, implying that the truth can be obtained simply through a general description of observations without requiring any interpretations or judgments. For our primary research, we conducted a questionnaire survey of a representative sample of 200 respondents comprising of North South University students as they are the target profile of users for a typical car sharing service. We performed a conclusive research in a bid to investigate the perceptions regarding car sharing service amongst North South University students, so that it can give a representative picture of the scenario with other student groups. We reinforced our survey with a focus group discussion involving 25 people and 50 in-depth interviews.For our secondary research, we used resources from the university library journal database and other sources available on the internet. We have used different sampling strategies depending on the data collection tool being used. For the questionnaire survey and focus group discussion, we have employed convenience sampling. The questionnaire survey was filled out mainly by students of North South University who were selected purely based on our convenience. The focus group discussion was also conducted at North South University, using several students as participants. Here again we selected students who were willing to participate and convenient for us to select. In order to get a broader perspective of opinions, students who had filled out the questionnaire were not allowed to participate in the focus group discussion. Students who filled out the questionnaire and participated in the focus group discussion were studying in various academic departments of North South University. On the other hand, for the in depth interview we have used purposive sampling. We selected experts and specialists in various fields in order to get valuable insights on our topic. The main motivation behind using convenience sampling was to tackle the limited time and resources that we had for conducting this research, whereas purposive sampling was used to obtain the most relevant information.

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4. Findings of the Research Questionnaire Survey The questionnaire used in the survey for the primary research consisted of the following sections:

• Section 1: Respondent’s profile

• Section 2: Respondent’s commute related information

• Section 3: Respondent’s ranking of

• Section 4: Respondent’s thoughts about car sharing The primary data has been presented and analyzed according to the sections in the questionnaire. Section 1: Respondent’s Profile 1. Gender of Respondents

Figure 1: Gender of

From our sample of 200 respondents, it was seen that 74were male and 26 percent were female.

2. Profession of Respondents

Figure

0

200

Male

Female

0

50

100

150

200

Student

Teacher

Analyst

Marketing Executive

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan & Zahed

esearch

The questionnaire used in the survey for the primary research consisted of the

Section 1: Respondent’s profile

Section 2: Respondent’s commute related information

Section 3: Respondent’s ranking of preferences

Section 4: Respondent’s thoughts about car sharing

The primary data has been presented and analyzed according to the sections in the

rofile

Figure 1: Gender of Respondents

From our sample of 200 respondents, it was seen that 74 percent of respondents were female.

ondents

Figure 2: Profession of Respondents

Male

Female

Gender

148

52

Profession

188

4

4

Marketing Executive 4

47

The questionnaire used in the survey for the primary research consisted of the

The primary data has been presented and analyzed according to the sections in the

of respondents

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan

Our target respondent group was well represented in our sample as group of students comprised of 94acting as outliers to our target number of respondents. 3. Age of Respondents

Figure

One target group for a car sharing business is students. This was well represented in our sample as 74percent of respondents fall within the 1924percent of the respondents fall within the 24most can be assumed to be students. This will allow the research to give a good representation of the perception of the target age groupsharing business.

Section 2: Respondent’s Commute Related Information 1. Mode of Transport Currently

Figure 4: Mode of Transport Currently Used by Respondents

The sample population largely shows that majority of the respondents (38use car as their primary mode of transport currently. This is followed by respondents who use a combination of the above listed options (34

020406080

100120140160

19-23

24-28

34 and above

01020304050607080

Car

CNG & Taxi

Bus

Rickshaw

Combination of Above

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan & Zahed

Our target respondent group was well represented in our sample as our target age group of students comprised of 94percent of respondents with only a mere 6acting as outliers to our target number of respondents.

Figure 3: Age of Respondents

target group for a car sharing business is students. This was well represented in of respondents fall within the 19-23 years age brackets.

of the respondents fall within the 24-28 years age category, among which be assumed to be students. This will allow the research to give a good

representation of the perception of the target age group, i.e. students

Commute Related Information

Transport Currently used by Respondents

of Transport Currently Used by Respondents

The sample population largely shows that majority of the respondents (38use car as their primary mode of transport currently. This is followed by respondents

use a combination of the above listed options (34 percent), a larger sample

Age of Respondents

148

48

4

Current Transport Mode

76

4

40

12

Combination of Above 17

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our target age of respondents with only a mere 6 percent

target group for a car sharing business is students. This was well represented in age brackets.

age category, among which be assumed to be students. This will allow the research to give a good

i.e. students, for a car

of Transport Currently Used by Respondents

The sample population largely shows that majority of the respondents (38percent) use car as their primary mode of transport currently. This is followed by respondents

), a larger sample

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan

might have led this figure to be higher as commuters in Dhaka city use various transport mediums to meet their transport needs. Although, the fact that majority of our respondents use cars to meet their transport needs can illustrate favorability with traveling using a car. 2. Have Respondents Previously Participated i

Figure 5: Respondents

62 percent of the respondents have previously participated in car sharing inthey are an appropriate sample to provide an opinion as users of the service. Section 3: Respondent’s Ranking o 1. The Factor Deemed the MService

Figure 6: Respondents Factors to Consider for Engaging in a Car Sharing

From the options provided to the respondents, a majority (38they felt that having a reliable set of travel companions would be the factor if they were to engage with a

No, 76

Inexpensive service

Wide destination outreach

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan & Zahed

might have led this figure to be higher as commuters in Dhaka city use various transport mediums to meet their transport needs. Although, the fact that majority of

use cars to meet their transport needs can illustrate rability with traveling using a car.

ndents Previously Participated in Car Sharing?

Respondents Prior Participation in Car Sharing

of the respondents have previously participated in car sharing inare an appropriate sample to provide an opinion as users of the service.

Ranking of Preferences

Factor Deemed the Most Important to Engage with a Car Sharing

Factors to Consider for Engaging in a Car Sharing

From the options provided to the respondents, a majority (38percent) mentionthey felt that having a reliable set of travel companions would be the most important

o engage with a car sharing service.

Yes, 124

No, 76

Factors to

consider for

engagement

52

7628

2420

Inexpensive service Trustworthy travel companions

Wide destination outreach Availability on short notice

49

might have led this figure to be higher as commuters in Dhaka city use various transport mediums to meet their transport needs. Although, the fact that majority of

use cars to meet their transport needs can illustrate their overall

Prior Participation in Car Sharing

of the respondents have previously participated in car sharing in. Thus, are an appropriate sample to provide an opinion as users of the service.

Car Sharing

Factors to Consider for Engaging in a Car Sharing

) mentioned that most important

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2. Problems Faced when using a Car Sharing Service

Figure7: Problems Faced by Respondents when using a Car Sharing Service

Our respondents have cited excess demand leading to car shortages as the most important (26 percent) obstacle that a car sharing business would have to face.Respondents have cited that possibility of vehicle breakdowns would represent the least important (38percent) obstacle that a car sharing business will have to face.This is contrary to the hypothesis in which it was assumed that lack of compatibility amongst travel companions would represent the most important obstacle for users.

40

40

32

40

48

52

52

28

44

24

40

44

68

36

12

24

44

40

52

40

44

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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Most Important

Important

Neutral

Less Important

Least Important

Vehicle Breakdowns

Overcoming People's Perception With the service

Lack of Compatability Amongst Travel Companions

Excess Demands Leading to Car Shortages

Technology Malfunctions

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan

3. The most Important Benefit

Figure 8: Most Important Benefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

The data shows that the respondents it was assumed they would cite the desire to save travel cost as the most important benefit. However, 44percent of respondents felt that saving travel time would be the most important benefit that they want from a car sharing service.

Section 4: Respondent’s Thoughts 1. Respondents’ Willingness to

Figure 9: Willingness

With 80 percent of respondents agreeing to be willing to use a car sharing service, the data shows consistency with the hypothesis

Most Important Benefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

Save Travel Time

Save Travel Cost

Reduced need to own a car

Protect Environment

Improve Socializing

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan & Zahed

enefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

Important Benefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

respondents did not agree with the prior hypotheswould cite the desire to save travel cost as the most important

of respondents felt that saving travel time would be the most important benefit that they want from a car sharing service.

Thoughts about the Aftermath of Car Sharing

illingness to use a Car Sharing Service

Willingness of Respondents to use a Car Sharing Service

of respondents agreeing to be willing to use a car sharing service, the data shows consistency with the hypothesis.

Save Travel TimeSave Travel Cost

Reduced need to own a carProtect Environment

Improve Socializing

0

20

40

60

80

100

Most Important Benefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

88

56

Reduced need to own a car 28

8

20

Yes, 160

No, 40

51

Important Benefit Sought from a Car Sharing Service

the prior hypothesis in which would cite the desire to save travel cost as the most important

of respondents felt that saving travel time would be the

Car Sharing

of Respondents to use a Car Sharing Service

of respondents agreeing to be willing to use a car sharing service,

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan

2. Respondents’ Preference to Use a Public Transport

Figure 10: Preference of Respondents

68 percent of the respondents stated their preference to use a car sharing service over other modes of public transport which is in line with the hypothesis in relation to people’s preference. 3. Success Prospects of a Car Sharing Business

Figure11: Views

Respondents felt that car sharing businesspercent responded favorably.that a car sharing business will be Focus Group Discussion Questions for Discussion The following questions were asked by the moderator during the focus group discussion: 1. How did you first come across 2. Do you feel that Dhaka is the right city for car sharing?3. Are Bangladeshi people ready to embrace car sharing?4. If car sharing is implemented successfully, will people buy less cars or sell

their existingcars? 5. Would you ever share your own car for paying customers?

No, 64

No, 68

Saadat, Ahmed, Jahan, Jahan & Zahed

reference to Use a Car Sharing Service over Other

of Respondents to use Car Sharing over Public Transport

of the respondents stated their preference to use a car sharing service over other modes of public transport which is in line with the hypothesis in relation to

Car Sharing Business

Views on Success for a Car Sharing Service

car sharing businesses in Bangladesh will be successful rably. On the other hand, only 34percent respondents felt

will be not besuccessful in Bangladesh.

The following questions were asked by the moderator during the focus group

How did you first come across the concept of car sharing? Do you feel that Dhaka is the right city for car sharing? Are Bangladeshi people ready to embrace car sharing? If car sharing is implemented successfully, will people buy less cars or sell

re your own car for paying customers?

Yes, 136

No, 64

Yes, 132

No, 68

52

ther Modes of

to use Car Sharing over Public

of the respondents stated their preference to use a car sharing service over other modes of public transport which is in line with the hypothesis in relation to

successful as 66 respondents felt

The following questions were asked by the moderator during the focus group

If car sharing is implemented successfully, will people buy less cars or sell

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Analysis of the Focus Group Discussion When asked how they came across the concept of car sharing, most of the participants mentioned Uber. From this it may be implied that the recent entry of Uber into the car sharing market of Dhaka city has been well publicized. Regarding whether Dhaka is the right city for car sharing, there were mixed responses from the participants. Some participants felt that car sharing had the potential to decrease traffic congestion in Dhaka, whilst others held the view that car sharing would increase the number of cars on the road and thus contribute to further traffic congestion. There were also concerns about the affordability of car sharing services. Some of the participants felt that Bangladeshi people were ready to embrace car sharing. They cited Uber and Pathao, a local bike sharing service, as examples. However, participants voiced their opinions regarding issues of security, especially for females. When asked if people will buy less cars or sell their cars if car sharing is successful, there was a consensus amongst the participants that car sharing would not lead to less cars being purchased or existing cars being sold off. A few participants broke into fits of laughter after hearing this question. It was obvious that the participants had strong opinions regarding this question. Finally, when the participants were asked if they would ever share their cars for paying customers, the participants displayed a generally negative attitude. This question provoked the most awkward reactions from the participants. Only a small fraction of the participants said that they would share their cars, and their conviction was weak. In Depth Interviews Questions in the In-Depth Interview 1. Do you feel that there is a potential market for a formal car sharing business inDhaka city? 2. Can car sharing improve traffic congestion in Dhaka city? 3. Can car sharing resolve the crisis of natural gas in Bangladesh? 4. Can car sharing reduce air pollution in Dhaka city? 5. Do you feel that car sharing can be a viable substitute for conventional public transport? 6. In general, are you in favor of “owning” or “sharing”? 7. Is there something you would like to add? Analysis of the In-Depth Interviews Apart from a few exceptions, there was an overwhelmingly positive response to the first question. Most of the interviewees felt that there is a market for a formal car sharing business in Dhaka. There were substantial positive responses to the second question as well. Many of the interviewees believed that car sharing could improve the traffic condition in Dhaka city. However, one interviewee cited that car sharing can only serve a small market segment so its impact may be inconsequential. One interviewee was so frustrated with the traffic condition in Dhaka that they said that nothing could solve the problem of traffic congestion in Dhaka city. The majority of the interviewees said that the car sharing could not solve the crisis of natural gas in Bangladesh. Whilst some interviewees were optimistic about this issue, one person said that cars consist of only a small proportion of the demand for natural gas so simply sharing cars would not affect the natural gas crisis significantly. The interviewees expressed hope that car sharing could possibly reduce air pollution.

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However, the general view was that car sharing alone would not be enough to resolve the problem of air pollution completely. A few interviewees pointed out that air pollution can have other causes apart from only cars. The fifth question led to a mixed bag of responses. Those who disagreed said that consumers have preferences biased toward public transport due to safety concerns and low price. An important insight from one our experts was that any megacity needs a stable mass transit system in order to be fully functional. In that sense, there cannot be any substitute for public transport; alternative means of transportation, such as car sharing, can merely be complements for public transport. A substantial fraction of the interviewees said that they would want to own a car first, even if they share eventually. The urge for ownership was evident, and it was justified on the grounds of convenience, comfort, and privacy. The final question was completely open ended, which led to a variety of interesting responses from the interviewees. Overall, the interviewees seemed receptive to the idea of car sharing.

5. Conclusion Car sharing is a relatively new concept for Bangladesh. It has provided a range of benefits to different groups of people all over the world.The research tried to give an insight asto whether the sample population indicated that the relatively novel concept of car sharing can help reduce congestion in Dhaka city. This research primarily shows that respondents have taken part in car sharing usage and have a positive perception regarding the service. However, many expressed that security concerns would act as an obstacle for the successful commercialization of the service. The findings do not provide sufficient evidence to suggest that the sample is a proper representation of the entire population of Dhaka city. The limited sample size and lack of substantial experience of the researchers cannot help provide a definite answer on the users’ perceptions of car sharing especiallyamongst North South University studentsand in Dhaka city overall. Further research should be conducted especially in conjunction with a sample size that includes corporate and student commuters toget a more inclusive analysis of the perception of car sharing amongst consumers.

References Asian Development Bank, 2011,Preparing The Greater Dhaka Sustainable Urban

Transport Corridor Project,Manilla. Bangladesh Road Transport Authority 2015,Numberof Registered Motor Vehicles In

Dhaka (Yearwise), Viewed at 16 November2015,<http://www.Brta.Gov.Bd/Images/Files/Statistics/Stat_Dhk_10-15.Pdf>

Banister, D., Anderton,K.,&Bonilla, D.,2011, ‘Transportation and The Environment’, The Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Vol.36, Pp.249, 254, 265.

Bardhi, F.,&Giana, M.E., 2012.‘Access-Based Consumption: The Case of Car Sharing’,Journalof Consumer Research. Vol. 39, No.4, Pp.881, 882, 886.

Bührmann, S.,New Seamless Mobility Services: Urban Lift Sharing Service. Niches, European Commission, viewed 6 April 2017, <http://www.rupprecht-consult.eu/uploads/tx_rupprecht/3_Urban_lift_sharing_services.pdf>.

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Haddad, Y., Cohen, Y., & Goldsmith, R., 2013,‘A Dynamic Real Time Car Sharing System’, Proceedings on International Conference on Soft Computing and Software Engineering, San Francisco, USA.

Katzev, R., 2003,‘Car Sharing: A New Approach to Urban Transportation Problems’,Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy,Vol. 3, No.1, P.67.

Kuntzky, K, Wittke,S&Herrmann,C 2013, Car and Ride Sharing Concept as a Product Service System – Simulation as a Tool to Reduce Environmental Impacts, The Philosopher's Stone for Sustainability, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Lane, SF 2012,‘Promoting A Culture Of Driving: Rationing, Car Sharing, and Propaganda In World War II’, Journal of American Studies,Vol.46, No.2, Pp.347-348.

Le Vine, S., Zolfaghari, A.,&Polak, J., 2014,Car Sharing: Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities, Center For Transport Studies, Imperial College, London.

Malone, R 2006, World's Most Congested Cities, Viewed on 16 November 2015,<http://www.Forbes.Com/2006/12/20/Worlds-Most-Congested-Cities-Biz-Energy-Cx_Rm_1221congested_Slide_7.Html>

Shaheen, S. A., Meyn, M., &Wipyewski, K., 2003.U.S. Shared-use Vehicle Survey Findings: Opportunities and Obstacles for Carsharing and Station, California: UC Berkley.

Transport for London 2007, Car Share Guide, Mayor of London, London.

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Appendix

Figure 12: Relationship

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Relationship between Number of Vehicles and Income

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between Number of Vehicles and Income


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