Download - Chinese and Japanese development co-operation: South–South, North–South, or what?

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Journal of Contemporary AfricanStudiesPublication details including instructions for authors andsubscription informationhttpwwwtandfonlinecomloicjca20

Chinese and Japanese development co-operation SouthndashSouth NorthndashSouthor whatPedro Amakasu Raposo a amp David M Potter aa Nanzan University Graduate School of Policy Studies JapanPublished online 20 May 2010

To cite this article Pedro Amakasu Raposo amp David M Potter (2010) Chinese and Japanesedevelopment co-operation SouthndashSouth NorthndashSouth or what Journal of Contemporary AfricanStudies 282 177-202 DOI 10108002589001003736819

To link to this article httpdxdoiorg10108002589001003736819

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor amp Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (theldquoContentrdquo) contained in the publications on our platform However Taylor amp Francisour agents and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy completeness or suitability for any purpose of the Content Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authorsand are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor amp Francis The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses actions claimsproceedings demands costs expenses damages and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content

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Chinese and Japanese development co-operation SouthSouthNorthSouth or what

Pedro Amakasu Raposo and David M Potter

Nanzan University Graduate School of Policy Studies Japan

This article compares the evolution and characteristics of Chinese and Japaneseaid assessing the impact of their aid policies in sub-Saharan Africa from the1950s to the present It argues that China and Japanrsquos aid programmes share moresimilarities than dissimilarities Both pursue aid strategies that spread allocationsacross a region rather than concentrating upon specific countries The articleseeks to clarify the following questions In what way are Chinese and Japanese aidstrategies different from each other and Western donors Should their aid be seenas a form of SouthSouth co-operation that provides an alternative to the Westrsquoshegemony in Africa Or is aid from these donors simply another strategy tocontrol African resources and state elites in the guise of a partnership of equals

Keywords Japan China foreign policy Africa aid development

In recent years the re-emergence of China as an economic power has spurred debate

about its consequences for the international economy and the neo-liberal system of

globalisation Part of that debate concerns itself with the consequences of Chinarsquos

renewed use of economic co-operation instruments to promote relations with African

countries One approach argues that in lsquoa new scramble for Africarsquo (Southall and

Melber 2009) Chinarsquos partnership with Africa is no more and no less self-interested

than similar Western involvements considering the subordination and dependent

relationships that historically have characterised interactions between African

capitalists and foreign capital (Melber 2009 75 Southall and Comninos 2009

357) Western donors and Bretton-Woods institutions have criticised Chinarsquos

practices in Africa for ignoring human rights problems and for undermining

transparency and good governance in Africa through unconditional aid and loans

(Mugumya 2008 6) Meanwhile Alden (2007 5) has summarised the debate over

China as a lsquodevelopment partnerrsquo lsquoeconomic competitorrsquo or lsquocoloniserrsquo This interest

in China is also part of a broader discussion of renewed AfricaAsia ties in the wake

of robust economic growth in Asia A recent study by the World Bank for example

compares the economic relations of China and India with the continent under the

title lsquoAfricarsquos Silk Roadrsquo (Broadman 2007) Yet strangely Japan is left out of this

discussion of Asia-Africa economic relations even though it is the main foreign aid

donor in Asia and its presence in Africa is substantial

This article compares the aid policies and practices of China and Japan in Africa

Section I surveys the main features of Chinese and Japanese foreign aid and traces

the evolution of their aid policies Section II compares the two aid programmes

Corresponding author Email amakasuraposogmailcom

Journal of Contemporary African Studies

Vol 28 No 2 April 2010 177202

ISSN 0258-9001 printISSN 1469-9397 online

2010 The Institute of Social and Economic Research

DOI 10108002589001003736819

httpwwwinformaworldcom

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3

Section III examines the differences and similarities between Chinese and Japanese

foreign aid policy to Africa Section IV examines their aid characteristics to Africa

such as regional distributions and major recipients Section V evaluates new regional

frameworks the relation between poverty reduction and the Millennium Develop-

ment Goals (MDGs) and SouthSouth and NorthSouth linkages

Chinese aid terminology is inexact and not consistent with the Development

Assistance Committee (DAC) definition but is close to the Japanese notion of

economic co-operation used in the past (White 1964 7) Because there is no reliableofficial data on Chinarsquos aid flows statistics are given to illustrate the character of

arguments rather than concentrating on the actual values of Chinese aid

Characteristics of Chinese and Japanese foreign aid

For geopolitical social and cultural reasons both countries during the Cold War

showed a preference for Asia followed by Africa The end of the Cold War and the

withdrawal of strategic assistance from Africa along with aid fatigue in the major

donors created greater opportunities for China and Japan to engage Africa (Payne

and Veney 1998 867 Grant and Nijman 1998 57)

Unlike other donors China and Japanrsquos aid both espouse non-interference and

self-help as fundamental principles in foreign and aid policy (Law 1984 45-6 Rix

1993 33) Chinarsquos lsquoFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistencersquo enunciated by Zhou

Enlai in 1954 still influences Chinarsquos aid strategy Hence China respects thesovereignty of the recipient countries and limits political conditions when providing

aid to lsquothe one China policyrsquo ie non- recognition of Taiwan China stresses that aid

to the Third World should be designed to make the recipient economically

independent of China (Brautigam 1998 41) Similarly Japanrsquos Official Development

Assistance (ODA) Charter declares the value of sovereign equality and non-

intervention in the domestic affairs of recipient countries

Accordingly their programmes emphasise loans over grants with priority on the

growth-oriented co-operation through trade-related infrastructures as a complement

to aid (Grant and Nijman 1998 45 Wang 2007 21) Both support Africarsquos

endeavours to strengthen solidarity and self-reliance through the implementation of

the New Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) within the framework of

SouthSouth co-operation Critics accuse both countries of using aid as a foreign

policy tool to achieve national interests that are not always consistent with poverty

reduction (Morikawa 2006 45-6 Davies 2007 74) Yet poverty reduction by Japan

and social development by China are treated as priorities in regional initiatives the

Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD) and the Forum

on ChinaAfrica Co-operation (FOCAC)

Evolution and development of China and Japanrsquos aid policy

Japanrsquos recent involvement with Africa is shorter than that of China by two decades

Allowing for this difference one can discern five phases in the evolution of each

donorrsquos aid relationship with the continent

Chinarsquos first phase (19501955) of foreign aid was politically and ideologically

driven Initially Chinarsquos foreign aid was concentrated in Asia namely to consolidate

internal control caused by the war to protect China from a perceived threat from the

178 PA Raposo and DM Potter

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3

West and to solidify relations with the communist countries on Chinarsquos borders

(Cooper 1976 120) In exchange China received international recognition and

support against American hegemony (Weinstein and Henriksen 1980 118) At the

Bandung Conference (1955) Beijing initiated its first post-revolution linkages with

Africa particularly with Egypt leading to a trade agreement between them in

August that year (Taylor 2006 20)

In the second phase (19561978) Beijing began to use aid as part of cultural

diplomacy to change its image among Afro-Asian nations (Cooper 1976 15) With

the outbreak of the Sino-Soviet dispute Beijing moved away from ideological

motives to concentrate more on economic co-operation with non-communist

countries and expanded its aid programme beyond Asia to Africa It reversed its

earlier policy of supplying liberation organisations like the anti-French rebels in

Algeria and began supporting African national independence against Soviet

imperialism (Taylor 2006 21 28)

Chinarsquos first real impact on Africa came in 1964 when Zhou Enlairsquos enunciated in

Mali the eight principles governing Chinese aid policy confirming its aid as an

alternative to Western aid (Arnold 1979 119 Law 1984 54) The objective was

threefold to show support for revolution to establish diplomatic relations in Africa

and support Chinarsquos bid for admission to the United Nations (Cooper 1976 16)

In its third phase (19791982) China was more pragmatic than ideological Unity

and self-reliance of African nations through peaceful co-existence and promotion of

economic development was stressed (Weinstein and Henriksen 1980 119 173)

Under the post-Mao reforms the aid offices of most ministries provinces and

municipalities that carried out aid activities assigned by the central government were

transferred to state-owned corporations encouraged to seek contracts through

design contracting and joint ventures (Brautigam 2009 10) Today Chinese

companies in Africa largely reflect the economic reforms of the early 1980sThe fourth phase (19831999) of Chinarsquos foreign aid policy began after the visit

to Africa of Chinese Premier Deng Xiaoping in December of 1982 Chinarsquos new

foreign aid policy was to benefit both sides economically strive for economic

feasibility and practical results with focus on diversity in form and common

development By emphasising co-operation rather than one-sided aid Deng

proclaimed Chinarsquos concept of SouthSouth co-operation that respects sovereignty

does not interfere in recipientsrsquo internal affairs attaches no political conditions and

asks for no privileges (Brautigam 1998 4950)

Chinarsquos last phase (2000-present) began with the FOCAC conferences In 2006

the FOCAC adopted a specific African policy aiming at a lsquonew type of strategic

partnershiprsquo between China and Africa This is described as a multidimensional

approach embracing all strategies previously pursued by China through co-operation

in political and international affairs economic commercial cultural co-operation in

social development (Alden 2007 27 Davies 2007 38)

The first phase (19541972) of Japanese aid diplomacy began in 1954 when Japan

became a member state of the Colombo Plan However Japanrsquos entry into the United

Nations (UN) (1956) and the Bandung Conference awoke Japan to the importance

of the Afro-Asian bloc as a means to improve its image in the international

community Yet Japan tended to align itself with the former colonial powers

(Ampiah 1997 39 45) and aid to Africa was restricted until the 1960s by the priority

Journal of Contemporary African Studies 179

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3

given to Asia Some tied aid was provided for infrastructure projects to facilitate the

promotion and export of primary products (Oda and Aoki 1985 154)

Japanrsquos second phase (19731980) following the 1973 oil crisis saw the expansion

of its aid beyond Asia to reduce resource vulnerability Securing access to Africarsquos

raw materials became a critical policy objective (Ampiah 1997 46) Moreover

beyond economic security considerations African political support for its UN policy

gradually increased in importance (Sato 2005 74)Like China Japanrsquos third phase (19811988) toward Africa also includes dual

diplomacy ODA was provided to Africa to lsquofightrsquo Africarsquos economic and famine

crisis to recycle some of its trade surplus and simultaneously to accommodate the

protests by African countries about Japanrsquos support of South Africa (Ampiah 1997

567) Japan aimed to improve its image in sub-Saharan Africa in order to gain

access to those countriesrsquo natural resources and to bolster its diplomatic influence at

the United Nations (Morikawa 1997 17071)

Japanrsquos fourth phase (19892000) began with the end of the Cold War aid fatigue

among the donor countries and the failure of structural adjustment Having clarified

the political and development purposes of its aid in the 1992 ODA Charter Japan

organised TICAD I and II in 1993 and 1998 to prevent the marginalisation of Africa

(JICA 2007 25) These were the first-ever international conferences on African

development and marked a significant political commitment by a leading donor to

create a system to harmonise policies on African development (TCSF 2005 8)

Japanrsquos last phase (2001present) is marked by the revision of the ODA Charterin 2003 and TICAD III and IV where lsquoconsolidation of peacersquo lsquohuman-centred

developmentrsquo and lsquopoverty reduction through economic growthrsquo were priority issues

The signing of the TICAD-NEPAD for the promotion of Trade and Investment

between Africa and Asia the reforms of Japan International Cooperation Agency

(JICA) toward higher aid effectiveness in 2006 and the TICAD IV in 2008 to boost

economic growth in Africa ensuring lsquohuman securityrsquo and addressing environmental

issues are key areas (JICA 2007 2 TCSF 2008 38)

Characteristics of Chinese and Japanese aid programmes

Both countries emphasise aid for economic infrastructure and services Japan for

many years has financed major infrastructure projects Chinarsquos aid until the 1980s

was mostly highly labour-intensive project assistance and stressed the use of

intermediate technology (Arnold 1979 12425) China mainly supported mediumand small-sized projects in light industry agricultural development infrastructure

and training In comparison to Western aid Chinarsquos aid projects were not designed

to produce long-range economic development or economic growth (Cooper 1976

14043) Since the 1990s Chinarsquos economic co-operation has covered all the

production sectors such as construction and engineering followed by manufacturing

wholesale and trade mining and quarrying telecommunications power plants

finance and services (Davies 2007 55)

During the 1970s Japanese aid programme emphasised projects related to public

utilities such as bridges roads and dams In the 1980s Japan favoured large yen loan-

funded infrastructure development projects and also agriculture development in

recipient countries to diminish the gap between rich and poor In the 1990s and

based on the ODA Charter revised in 2003 Japan increased the share of assistance to


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so-called basic human needs such as social infrastructure and services agriculture

and emergency aid largely extended by grants and technical co-operation (OECD

1999 44)

A major difference between the donors has to do with use of aid personnel

Labour export has been an important element of Chinarsquos overseas development co-

operation This is quite different from the technical assistance missions used by DAC

donors In 1988 China was involved in 1540 aid projects involving 470000personnel with 5500 Chinese experts working in developing countries (Wheeler

1989 182) In contrast there were 489 Japanese aid staff in 1987 of which 335 were

overseas (OECD 2004 54) The shortage of personnel heavy private sector

involvement and economic emphasis characterise Japanese aid activities which are

also less labour intensive than social assistance projects China assumes total

responsibility for completed projects by providing senior management or by turning

them into joint ventures (Brautigam 1998 51)

Aid type and administrative structure

The quantity of economic assistance provided to the developing countries is not the

only consideration in assessing the adequacy and equity of aid flows Of equal

importance is the manner whereby such aid is rendered Like Japan Chinarsquos

approach to development assistance is mostly bilateral and mainly composed ofgrants loans and technical assistance Yet both channel aid via multilateral

institutions including UN agencies and the African Development Bank Japan

much more than China

Internal coordination of aid policy presents problems for both donors because

their bureaucratic structures prevent unity of purpose However it seems that China

solves conflicts in the bureaucratic structure better than Japan because its state

council which is the highest executive organ in Chinese government takes major

policy decisions on aid and has more decision power than any of the main Japanese

aid agencies had in the early years Ultimately aid decision-making in China is a

political decision and not an administrative one as in Japan

The responsibility for managing Chinese bilateral aid rests primarily with the

Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) after it makes proposals to the Finance

Ministry It also coordinates aid policies with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and

with other government ministries such as the health and education ministries that

also provide aidThe Export-Import Bank of China (Eximbank) established in 1994 is mandated

to implement state policies in industry finance foreign trade and economic co-

operation In 1995 Eximbank acquired the operation of concessional loans

previously undertaken by China Foreign Economic and Trade Trust and Investment

Corporation and is now the only on-lending bank for Chinarsquos official development

aid loans in accordance with the international practice (Eximbank 2005 467) It

supports Chinarsquos foreign aid programme in Africa through the governmentrsquos

concessional loans by supporting enterprises in establishing factories and winning

contracting projects (Eximbank 2005 17 Lancaster 2007 4)

Until 1965 most Chinese aid toward Africa was in the form of non-repayable

grants to emphasise the differences between Chinese aid and Western aid (Cooper

1976 137) By substituting loans for grants Beijing discovered that recipient


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ober

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3

countries supported its foreign policy goals as much or more so than grants Chinarsquos

forms of assistance are grants in kind and zero interest loans often converted into

debt cancellations provided by the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) The

Eximbank provides Chinarsquos concessional loans which carry no interest and are for

social sectors and to industries related to the economic development of the recipient

countries such as electric power transportation and telecommunications (Eximbank

2005 45) As of 2007 Chinarsquos Eximbank loans approvals reached USD 189 billion

with on-lending loan agreements with a total value of USD 950 million for 47projects while the Japan Bank for International Co-operationrsquos (JBIC) total budget

for ODA loans in 2007 was 9012 billion yen or USD 93 billion (Eximbank 2007 26

JBIC 2008 2)

Similar to China today Japanrsquos aid for many years was linked to the purchase of

goods and services and was criticised for the low concessionality of its aid Aid tying

was a product of the Ministry of International Trade and Industryrsquos (MITI) influence

on aid policy However Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) assumed a stronger co-

ordinating role within the development co-operation system and MITI (now METI)

lost decision-making power particularly concerning aid to Africa

In the last 20 years Japan has simplified the management of aid policy merging

the former Overseas Economic Co-operation Fund (OECF) with the Export-Import

Bank of Japan into the Japan Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC) in 1999

In 2008 JBIC was taken over by JICA which now coordinates Japanrsquos three types of

aid in an integrated manner (JICA 2007 24) Nonetheless JICA answers to MOFA

which has become the de jure co-ordinating body for the diverse implementing

institutions of ODA a sign of MOFArsquos greater influence in aid administrationJapanese assistance (like Chinarsquos) has long emphasised the centrality of self-help

efforts on the part of developing countries through yen loans The low-income level

of African countries restricts the sectors that can receive Japanese loans (Omuruyi

2001 111) Therefore the grant proportion of Japanese aid to Africa is much higher

than Chinarsquos and well above the average for Japanrsquos worldwide assistance

Japanese ODA loans are normally untied while in China the basic condition for

concessional loans is that no less than 50 of materials technology or services be

procured from China This tied aid tends to raise project costs for recipient countries

The politics of Chinese and Japanese foreign aid

The rhetoric of anti-hegemonism against the superpowers has been a guiding force inChinarsquos policy formulation towards the developing world and Southern Africa

(Taylor 2006 200) During the Cold War China emphasised the convergence of

African interests with its own Chinarsquos anti-colonial and anti-minority rule campaign

in Africa was founded on political solidarity aiming a hegemonic role in its rivalry

with the Soviet Union (Melber 2009 73) Actual aid to liberation movements

however was limited in part due to its insistence that indigenous movements remain

self-reliant (Taylor 2006 31)

Japan tried to avoid direct competition with the interests of the former colonial

powers (Payne and Veney 1998 870 Morikawa 2006 18) Tokyo argued that the

absence of lsquohistoricalrsquo or colonial ties with Africa gives an advantage in distributing

development assistance according to each countryrsquos specific development needs (Orr

1990 94 Ishikawa 1999 37) Japanrsquos demonstrations of friendship with Africa such


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as relief to UN southern Africa funds and displays of sympathy for the cause of

African national liberation movements are best understood as attempts to neutralise

the criticism of its pro-Pretoria policy and anti-communist African diplomacy

through (Morikawa 1997 813)

One difference between them is that Chinarsquos aid through obligations inherent in

internationalism pursued an active and independent foreign policy while in Japan

the pressure by other DAC members particularly the US was critical in providing aid

to Africa (Ampiah 1997 174 Law 1984 292)

After the Cold War Beijing retained its anti-hegemonic core against other powers

arguing that Africarsquos democratic experiment failed because the West imposed it

(Taylor 2006 66) China stresses that it too had suffered from colonialism and

foreign aggression a reason for supporting the African peoplersquos national rights and

interests through unity and co-operation (Payne and Veney 1998 870) Japan

conveys the contemporary message that the guiding principles of its African

diplomacy have always been anti-racism and anti-colonialism Yet in the past

Japanrsquos support of the white regimes and also the regimes of Mobutu in Zaire the

Moi in Kenya and the Banda in Malawi belie this (Morikawa 2006 47 53)

The end of apartheid afforded both donors new policy opportunities in southern

Africa Africarsquos raw materials oil resources and markets continue to be attractive for

both donors At the same time the introduction of good governance and human

rights into OECD principles of foreign aid on one hand and the wave of democratic

and economic reforms in Africa that promised growth and development on the other

pushed them to adapt to new aid realities in the region (Southall 2009 20 Alden

2002 36869)

The launching of regional development forums the Tokyo International

Conference on African Development (TICAD) and the Forum on China-Africa

Cooperation (FOCAC) are examples of these new policy opportunities Both of these

initiatives are informed by hard-headed foreign policy objectives For Japan courting

the substantial African bloc vote for its campaign for a permanent seat at the UN

Security Council is a prime motive Consolidating its diplomatic and economic

position in Africa and the developing world is an important objective for China By

emphasising an Asian model supported by exports and Africansrsquo individual and

collective self-help efforts before they can expect aid both have boosted their prestige

in Africa at little cost for these policies are rhetorical and need little physical

commitment (Taylor 2006 669 Morikawa 2006 47 63 Alden 2002 369)

The depth of the commitment to Africa is not necessarily even China and Japanrsquos

total trade with African countries came to 735 and 266 billion dollars respectively

in 2007 In November 2009 the Chinese government announced it would allocate

$100 million in low-interest loans to the continent over three years (Chugoku 2009

6) At the same time Japanrsquos ODA budget already shrinking was being scrutinised

by the new government for programmes to be scaled back or eliminated At TICAD

IV in 2008 Tanzanian president Kikwete speaking on behalf of 52 African

governments welcomed Japanrsquos announcement of more ODA to Africa but stated

that Africans need an increased trade with Japan and more Japanese investment and

involvement of its private sector in Africa He also stressed that Japan measures need

to take into account all of Africa and not only South Africa and Egypt which absorb

85 of Japanese investments on the continent (Jaura 2008 2)


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Chinese and Japanese aid to Africa

Tables 1 and 2 show regional distributions of economic assistance from China and

Japan Table 1 makes it clear that Africa has long held an important position in

Chinarsquos allocations of economic co-operation According to Law (1984 184) between

1956 and 1982 447 of Chinese aid went to Africa and 232 to Asia

Furthermore the re-emergence of Taiwan in the 1990s as a donor to Malawi Niger

South Africa Gambia Senegal and the Central African Republic (Brautigam 1998

43) threatened Chinarsquos interests in Africa and prompted President Jiang Zemin to

visit several African countries in 1996 reinforcing a new aid policy aimed at a lsquo21st

centuryrsquo relationship As a result Chinarsquos aid flows increased from US$ 198 million

in 1998 to US$ 625 million in 2007 (Brautigam 2009 12 20) Yet they still do not

match Japanese aid flows of $US 1115 million and US$1 766 million in 1998 and

2007 respectively

Chinarsquos continuing preference for Africa reflects an ideological and political

commitment that did not necessarily develop in Japan The fact that most Japanese

reparations payments were focused on southeast Asian countries and close political

and economic relations subsequently strengthened the regional bias of aid (Orr 1990

53) However after the oil shocks the Japanese share of aid to Africa jumped above

those to the Middle East and Latin America reaching 102 of its global aid

allocation in 1985 compared with 1 in 1972 (Sautman 2006 8 TCSF 2005 24)

Japanrsquos aid in the 1990s decreased due to the heavy debt accumulation of African

countries and the suspension of aid to politically unstable countries (JICA 2000 41)

This explains the higher share of China compared to Japan both in total aid amount

and percentage share from 1992 until 2004 However Japanrsquos allocations to Africa

increased from 109 in 2004 to 342 in 2006 overcoming Chinarsquos for the first time

This is significant as since the beginning of their aid programmes proportionally

Japan never had a higher share of economic co-operation to Africa than China

Several factors explain this trend First Japan began to implement debt relief to

Africa after 2004 (TCSF 2008 38) Second it is responding to requests from African

governments to improve large-scale infrastructure development (TCSF 2008 50)

Improvement of the administration of loan aid co-financed with the African

Development Bank (AfDB) to countries that had not received loans previously

such as Mozambique or Namibia (JBIC 2006 2007) led to increases in aid Third it

is also responding to the emergence of new donors such as China Politicians and

business leaders argue that Japan should make more efforts in comparison with

China to increase its presence in resource-producing countries like Sudan or Angola

(Mochizuki 2007 FASIDMOFA 2006 78) Finally this shift combined with the

expansion of China through export credits and tied aid to support oil acquisition to

Africa demanded a response from Japan (Evans 2006 2)

Recipient allocation

Both donors have tended to spread their aid widely across Africa In 2007 for

example Japan gave some form of aid to 48 countries in the continent (Gaimusho

2008 1835) While not strictly comparable to aid China provided economic co-

operation for 53 countries in the same year (Bureau of Statistics of China 2009 7557) Tables 1 and 2 also show that geographical distributions of aid to major recipients


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3

Table 1 Chinese Economic Cooperation by Region 19922006 (selected years and share) Units USD 10000

Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

() Region (Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

Asia 150452 696 Asia 337947 749 Asia 480696 424 Asia 675559 316 Asia 1527564 428

Africa 43456 201 Africa 80999 179 Africa 128721 114 Africa 402013 188 Africa 954933 268

1 Algeria 5488 25 1 Nigeria 8545 19 1 Sudan 11882 10 1 Algeria 82996 39 1 Sudan 175465 49

2 Zimbabwe 5633 26 2 Botswana 6696 15 2 Mali 10505 09 2 Sudan 74828 35 2 Algeria 170724 48

3 Botswana 4604 21 3 Mauriti 6097 14 3 Mauritius 9048 08 3 Nigeria 49902 23 3 Nigeria 114105 32

4 Kenya 3629 17 4 Mauritania 5460 12 4 Zimbabwe 8756 08 4 Botswana 23096 11 4 Angola 100826 28

5 Mali 2787 13 5 Kenya 5017 11 5 Botswana 6636 06 5Ethiopia 20485 10 5 Egypt 33932 10

6 Sudan 1495 07 6 Zimbabwe 4725 10 6 Kenya 6247 06 6 Zambia 10581 05 6 Ethiopia 31874 09

7 Tunisia 1266 06 7 Uganda 3446 08 7 Nigeria 6139 05 7 Mali 9650 05 7 Tanzania 26311 07

8 Burundi 1242 06 8 Ivory Coast 2913 06 8 Ivory Coast 5351 05 8 Mauritius 8525 04 8 Libya 22971 06

9 Rwanda 1240 06 9 Sudan 2843 06 9 Tanzania 5127 05 9 Angola 8210 04 9 Morocco 22886 06

10 Tanzania 1178 05 10 Guinea B 2340 05 10 Ethiopia 4760 04 10 Egypt 7386 03 10 Bostwana 22044 06

Europe 13311 62 Europe 11024 24 Europe 54239 48 Europe 164469 77 Europe 381062 107

Latin America 2322 11 Latin America 3961 09 Latin America 23216 20 Latin America 87370 41 Latin America 197042 55

North America 4653 22 North America 5229 12 North

America

36421 32 North America 37160 17 North

America

128640 36

Oceania 1326 06 Oceania 5368 12 Oceania 16616 15 Oceania 11460 05 Oceania 32118 09

Others 560 03 Others 6952 15 Others 7249 06 Others 8595 04 Others 4796 01

Total 216080 100 Total 451480 100 Total 1132536 100 Total 2136998 100 Total 3569497 100

Notes (a) Middle East is included in Asia (b) The countries in italics are both recipients of China and Japan (c) Guinea B-Guinea BissauSources National Bureau of Statistics of China China Foreign Economic Statistical Yearbook (selected years) 1996 2001 20032005 and 2007

Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

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ober

201

3

Table 2 Japanese Aid by Region 19922006 (selected years and share) (Unit USD millions)

Region

(Country) 1992 Share ()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()



1 Kenya 129 15 1 Ghana 110 13 1 Tanzania 217 23 1 Ghana 115 19 1 Nigeria 1631 218

2 Zambia 117 14 2 Tanzania 106 13 2 Ghana 103 11 2 Kenya 71 12 2 Mozambique 107 14

3 Tanzania 73 09 3 Kenya 93 11 3 Kenya 67 07 3 Tanzania 53 09 3 Kenya 106 14

4 Ghana 71 08 4 Malawi 64 08 4 Zimbabwe 62 06 4 Senegal 50 08 4 Sierra Leone 63 08

5 Senegal 65 08 5 Ivory Coast 58 07 5 Senegal 48 05 5 Congo DR 48 08 5 Ethiopia 58 08

6 Zimbabwe 50 06 6 Senegal 58 07 6 Malawi 39 04 6 Ethiopia 33 06 6 Madagascar 44 06

7 Nigeria 43 05 7 Madagascar 50 06 7 Ethiopia 34 04 7 Madagascar 28 05 7 Ghana 44 06

8 Mozambique 39 05 8 Ethiopia 50 06 8 Zambia 32 03 8 Angola 25 04 8 Sudan 43 06

9 Guinea 29 03 9 Benin 45 05 9 Mali 32 03 9 Mozambique 19 03 9 Tanzania 39 05

10 Malawi 24 03 10 Zambia 42 05 10 Mauritania 310 03 10 Malawi 19 03 10 Zambia 32 04


CS America 772 91 CS America 986 118 Latin America 800 83 Latin America 309 52 Latin America 432 58

Middle East 364 43 Middle East 561 67 Middle East 727 75 Middle East 1031 173 Middle East 1049 140

1 Jordan 126 15 1 Egypt 201 24 1 Turkey 144 15 1 Iraq 662 111 1 Iraq 781 104

2 Egypt 111 13 2 Jordan 124 15 2 Jordan 105 11 2 Afghanistan 173 29 2 Afghanistan 107 14

3 Saudi Arabia 42 05 3 Iran 58 07 3 Morocco 103 11 3 Morocco 66 11 3 Palestina 78 10

4 Morocco 36 04 4 Morocco 46 06 4 Egypt 86 09 4 Egypt 65 11 4 Morocco 61 08

5 Yemen 31 04 5 Syria 35 04 5 Tunisia 72 07 5 Tunisia 60 10 5 Turkey 62 08


Unallocable 696 82 Unallocable 1200 144 Unallocable 1592 165 Unallocable 1240 208 Unallocable 1146 153


Note (a) Congo DR- Congo Democratic Republic (b) The countries in italics are both recipients of China and JapanSources Japanrsquos International Cooperation ODA White Paper (selected years) 1993 1997 2001 2004 2007

18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

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ober

201

3

within Africa are similar Top recipients during the period 19922006 can be divided

into three categories a group of recipients that overlap both donors due to their long

histories of exchange like Tanzania Kenya Zambia and Ethiopia major economic

markets and oil-rich countries like Nigeria and recipients like Algeria Libya Sudan

Angola Zimbabwe or Mozambique that assume different priority in the donorsrsquo aid

allocations depending on their humanitarian needs strategic importance economic

potential or political benefitsChinese and Japanese aid patterns to Africa after the Cold War show two trends

First the similar degree of dispersion in both donors indicates foreign aid behaviour

to maximise aspirations to attain great power status (Omuruyi 2001 123) Second

Japanrsquos assistance to Sudan Angola Zimbabwe and Mozambique is mostly focused

on humanitarian aid and basic human needs Chinarsquos assistance focuses mostly on

the natural resources of Sudan Angola Libya and Algeria in exchange for loans to

infrastructures projects (Xu 2008 29) Third China-Africa economic relations are

commercial rather than aid-driven as aid is a gateway to African raw materials to be

exported in finished products to Africa (Wang 2007 23) and to secure commodity

assets at source thus bypassing international market pricing (AFRODAD 2008 8)

Finally China now puts its growing economy ahead of ideological solidarity as its

main foreign policy goal In contrast Japanrsquos investment in Africa is marginal It

gives most of its aid in the form of grants suggesting that one main goal of Japanese

aid policy is poverty alleviation (Tuman and Ayoub 2004 50)

Chinese and Japanese objectives and aid policies in Africa

Until recently China did not have economic power commensurate with Japanrsquos nor

could it use its economic wealth for national strategies in international relations

Chinarsquos objectives were overtly political while Japanrsquos until the mid-1980s were

economic and strategic (Sautman 2006 13) For many years ideologically and

politically China was closer to countries of the South than Japan was This created

an idealistic and positive impression between Africa and China while Japanrsquos

promotion of aid to resource-rich African countries created the opposite impression

(Ochiai 2001 40)

The end of the Cold War marked a turning point in both countriesrsquo African aid

policies President Jiang announced that China would shift the relationship with

Africa to one centred on the economy away from the cold war emphasis on ideology

It is clear that underlying this new policy was the expectation of Africarsquos vastresources To safeguard its position China decided to engage deeply with Africa

using its status as a permanent member of the Security Council (Payne and Veney

1998 871)

1989 marked a turning point in Japanrsquos diplomatic relations with Africa (Ochiai

2001 40) Japan was determined to show the world that its interest in Africa

transcended economic matters and was ready to share the political costs of being a

great power First sending the Self Defense Force (SDF) to Mozambique showed its

commitment to international peace and its qualifications for permanent membership

on the Security Council Second by organising TICAD Japan joined its economic

power with collective international assistance to change the humanitarian situation

in Africa Third TICAD is a tool to position itself as a major Asian power in Africa

(Lehman 2005 427)


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ober

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3

Table 3 Chinese Top 10 Recipients of Economic Cooperation in 2006

Suppport for Democracy Poverty Reduction

Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003

Economical political cultural

and strategic considerations

1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of

petrochemical industries FDI

humanitarian aid military

cooperation Support of Sudan at

the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103

Oil natural gas amp petrochemical

industry road construction

nuclear reactor appproved

destination status for tourism

3 Nigeria 4 4 Partly

Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158

Railroad construction oil

electrical manufacture and

selling of military aircraft

satellite cooperation and also

approved destination status

(ADS) by China for tourism

4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160

Oil road infrastructure

construction and railways social

services rehabilitation phone

networking mine and quarring

(diamonds) military

cooperation trade and business

cooperation with PALOP

5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119

Egypt is the gateway to the

Middle East mutual bilateral

trade and technology

transference and military

cooperation as well

6 Ethiopia 5 5 Partly

Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170

Military assistance road bridge

schools construction and

pharmaceutical industry tourism

cooperation

7 Tanzania 4 3 Partly

Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164

After the Tanzam Railway coal

iron and military assistance and

rehabilitation of agricultural

projects and farms Yet in 1995 a

Chinese ship with weapons was

refused permission to unload in

Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58

Oil interests and cooperation in

energy development Libya sticks

to One China policy on the

question of Taiwan In October

1982 the two countries signed an

Agreement on Economic Trade

Scientific and Technological

Cooperation


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ober

201

3

This is also true of the Forum on China-Africa Co-operation (FOCAC) While

incorporating the rhetoric of pan-Africanism (Alden 2007 32) the Forum bolsters

Chinarsquos diplomatic capacity to direct external investment to Africa by coordinating

new Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) with Africarsquos regional structures like

NEPAD Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Southern

Africa Development Community (SADC) and the East African Community

New regional frameworks

The 1990s represent a major shift in rethinking the central role of infrastructure for

development because globalisation constrained the integration of Africa into the

global trade environment as aid largely overlooked infrastructure in favour of the

social sectors

TICAD and FOCAC share two features First they view trade and investment as

crucial to achieve sustained growth in Africa Second the neo-liberal approach to

development based on the Washington consensus does not call for mutual

interaction as equal members to solve African problems (Lehman 2005 430)

TICAD and FOCAC espouse a different approach through SouthSouth cooperation

Both support NEPAD initiated in 2001 which recognises that African countries must

establish regional co-operation and integration to accelerate intra-African trade

Table 3 (Continued )


Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



9 Morocco 5 4 Partly

Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124

Geopolitical determinant as a

member of Arab-Islamic and

leader for the francophone

Africa Morocco has good

diplomatic relations with the EU

and the USA construction of

dam

10 Bostwana 2 2 Free US$4372

MHD

0565

131

Aidsoft loans for rehabilitation

of railway line and construction

of the Letlhakeng-Kang Road

military assistanceeconomic

cooperation-FDI and trade

(diamonds) and special tourism

relations

Notes (a) Countries in italics are both recipients of China and Japan (b) China GNPcapita in 2003 wasUS$1100 HDI 0755 ranking 85 (c) According to the Freedom Press China status is Not Free (PR-political rights 7 and CL-civil liberties) (d) PALOP-African Countries of Portuguese Official LanguageAngola Cape Verde Guinea Bissau S Tom and Prrsquoncipe and Mozambique (Portuguese ParsquosesAfricanos de Lrsquongua Oficial Portugesa PALOP) (f) LHD Low Human Development MHD Medium Human Development and HDI Human Development Index Sources Trindade (2006 130)Freedom House httpafricanelectionstripodcomfh2006html (accessed at July 7 2008) Xu (2008)Wang (2007) Alden (2007 25) Taylor (2006 187) Botswana and China available at httpbwchina-embassyorgengsbgxt631203htm


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ober

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3

China sees SouthSouth cooperation on a bilateral basis to enhance co-operation

and mutual benefit between China and Africa Japanrsquos SouthSouth co-operation

promoted at TICAD I (1993) emphasises the transfer of Asian experience to Africa

whether putting emphasis on economic growth through the development of

economic infrastructures and key industries and supporting the social sector to

satisfy the basic human needs (Tokyo Declaration 1993)

Japan and China have been non-regional members of the African DevelopmentBank (AfDB) since the early 1980s where for many years Japanrsquos contribution to the

African Development Fund was far larger than Chinarsquos Recently both countries

have placed the AfDB at the core of their partnerships in African development

China though not eligible to borrow from the AfDB is certainly competing with the

institution in the African development (Guttal 2008 19) Furthermore China is

already a rival of Japanrsquos role as the growth engine of southeast Asia and now aims

to consolidate its position as the emerging Asian power in Africa (Corkin 2008 135)

To catch up with China Japan through JBIC in 2005 signed several ODA loan

agreements in co-operation with the AfDB of USD$12 billion under the Enhanced

Private Sector Assistance (ESPA) for Africa (JBIC 2007) The aim is to support

African private sector development and promote regional integration focused on

transborder road construction (development corridors) between Zambia and

Mozambique via Malawi (Ogata 2008 58) Japan also announced at TICAD IV

(May 2008) that it would double its aid and investments to Africa

Poverty reduction through development

Tables 3 and 4 compare Chinarsquos and Japanrsquos aid policies and objectives such as

support for poverty reduction (using recipient country GNPcapita Human

Development Index (HDI) rank) their support for democraticnon-democratic

regimes (using the rate of civil liberties and political rights) and strategic

considerations in Africa for the top 10 recipients of aid in 2006 These tables

illustrate some similar patterns between both donors

First Nigeria Ethiopia Sudan and Tanzania appear among both countriesrsquo top

10 recipients Four of them have higher per capita GNP Thus China as a developing

country makes more economic sacrifices than Japan Also among the 10 recipients

only four are ranked as low human development countries in the UNDP Human

Development Index (HDI) in 2005 suggesting that the first concern of China is not

the reduction of poverty (see Table 3)

As for Japan the concern for poverty is higher as seven in 10 countries are

ranked low in terms of HDI between 158th and 176th place Of course the lsquosacrificersquo

that China makes is higher than Japanrsquos when measured by each donorrsquos GNP percapita (see Table 4)

Third China is criticised for supporting authoritarian and pariah regimes like

Sudan or Libya at the expense of lsquodemocracyrsquo and lsquohuman rightsrsquo It is true that in

the top 10 recipients of China half are lsquoNot Freersquo while in Japanrsquos case only one Sudan is lsquoNot Freersquo which illustrates Japanrsquos greater willingness to consider human

rights democracy and freedoms in making aid allocations

Fourth looking at the right-hand side of both tables it is evident that underlying

Chinese and Japanese aid policy to Africa besides development concerns is resource

diplomacy commercial geopolitical and strategic interests However there is one


Dow

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ober

201

3

Table 4 Japanese Top 10 Recipients of Economic Cooperation in 2006

Support for Democracy

Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003

Economical political cultural and

strategic considerations


Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158

Crude oil trade market foreign

direct investments cultural

exchanges and largest recipient of

Japanese aid in 2006

2 Mozambique 3 4 Partly

Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168

Interesting market for Japan with

strong relations with South Africa

private investment in Mozal

Aluminium Smelter increasing trade

relations PKOpeacebuilding loan

assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154

Gateway to EastAfrica occupies an

important geographic position

therefore an extremely important

country for Japan diplomatic

relations in East Africa one of the

largest recipients of Japanese ODA

therefore a key player in the TICAD

Process

4 Sierra Leone 4 3 Partly

Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176

Trade (machinery vehicles) Japan is

attempting to have a cultural

exchange with Freetown support for

democracy through the use of ODA

in the field of DDR in support of

peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170

A key member of the AU Japanrsquos

assistance is concentrated in the

consolidation of human security

centered on food security advocated

in Japanrsquos new ODA Charter Strong

cultural exchanges

6 Madagascar 3 3 Partly

Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146

Madagascar stands as a model of

Asia-African cooperation by intro

ducing Asian economic dynamism

into the African continent Japanrsquos

assistance is provided for BHN

infrastructure development

agriculturefisheriesenvironment

and human resource development

7 Ghana 1 2 Free US$368

MHD

0520

138

Ghana is a priority country in

Japanlaquos aid policy toward Africa

and has a pioneering role for West

African democracy In this light

Japan considers Ghana a priority

country in the TICAD Process


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ober

201

3

difference While Japan provides no military assistance to any of the 10 countries

China has military relations with six This is consistent with Japanrsquos ODA Charter

However Japanese imports of oil from Sudan puts it in a difficult position

concerning the human rights issues and accusations that China gives aid purely to

secure oil supplies and other natural resources can also be applied to JapanA puzzling similarity appears in the respective top 10 lists if we examine them in

light of the Carnegie Endowmentrsquos Failed States Index Five of Chinarsquos top 10

recipients Four of Japanrsquos were countries ranked in the top 40 failed states (in order

of severity Sudan Nigeria Ethiopia Egypt and Angola in Chinarsquos case and Sudan

Sierra Leone Nigeria and Ethiopia in Japanrsquos case)

In fact the majority of African states are not democratic and many still have

ethnic or civil conflicts China by stating that it does not interfere in the internal

affairs of recipient countries with an aid policy of lsquono conditions attachedrsquo becomes

part of the problem (Askouri 2008 153) Chinarsquos economic co-operation will

strengthen the position of the political elite that controls the government and other

state institutions Following TICAD I Japan started to focus on political conditions



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003



8 Sudan 7 7 Not Free US$290

MHD

0512

141

Trade relations in petroleum and

petroleum products Students and

academic exchange between Japan

and Sudan Peacebuilding assistance

(refugees) and humanitarian aid


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164

Tanzania is a priority country in

Japanrsquos African diplomacy and one

of its oldest recipients Tanzania is

always cooperative towards TICAD

and a strong partner between

NEPAD and TICAD

10 Zambia 4 4 Partly

Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166

Zambia is said to have been pro-

Japanese since the Kaunda

Administration Japan exports

copper and cobalt and imports

vehicles Zambia is regarded by

Japan as a priority assistance

country due to Zambiarsquos role as a

stabilising element in the region

Notes (a) Countries in italics are both recipients of China and Japan (b) Japan GNPcapita in 2003 US$33713 HDI 0943 ranking 11 (c) According to the Freedom House Japan ranks 1 in Political Rights(PR)-and 2 in Civil Liberties (CL) and has the status of Free (d) HDI Human Development IndexLHD Low Human Development and MDH Medium Human Development (e) DDR disarmament demobilization and reintegration AU-African Union Sources MOFA lsquoRelations withCountries and Regions of the Worldrsquo Available at httpwwwmofagojpregionafrica (accessed July 82008) TICAD Civil Society Forum (2008)


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ober

201

3

in the recipient country including human rights away from its old practice of

approaching Africa through the continentrsquos former colonial powers

Fifth that does not mean that both countries are not committed to development

and poverty eradication in TICAD and FOCAC to reach the lsquoUN Millennium

Development Goalsrsquo (MDGs) in Africa Mutual benefit is possible particularly in

the field of economic co-operation like TICAD and FOCAC play But geographical

geopolitical and natural resource characteristics of the region cannot be neglected

The MDGs

The MDGs adopted at the UN Millennium Summit September 2000 set targets on

poverty reduction education gender health reduction of child mortality the

environment and partnership for development with completion dates to be met by

2015 According to the African Development Bank (African Development Report

2006 62) increased aid and debt relief are seen as fundamental in reducing Africarsquos

poverty and in attaining the MDGs

Poverty reduction is a top priority both in TICAD and FOCAC In this case

China has followed the Japanese lead Japan made a substantial contribution to

drawing up the lsquoInternational Development Goalsrsquo (IDGs) such as lsquohalving absolutepoverty by 2015rsquo which has become the basis of the MDGs (JICA 2005 5)

Additionally 15 out of the MDG 18 targets were included in the Tokyo Agenda for

Action of TICAD II (JICA 2007 39)

Chinarsquos commitment to the MDGs was formally declared at the FOCAC 2006

much later than Japan However Chinarsquos aid and economic engagement already

meets many of these goals for instance in the use of lsquoownershiprsquo as a central principle

guiding the recipients strategies for effective use of aid and other development

resources to achieve the MDGs similar to the 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid

Effectiveness (Brautigam 2009 21 OECD 2005 1-3) Moreover China is keen to

emphasise that its debt relief programme is independent of the standard of Paris

Club and of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Plan (FOCAC 2000)

Furthermore Chinarsquos debt relief programme is formulated according to specific

conditions of China and African countries within the framework of SouthSouth

co-operation and mutual assistance among developing countries (ibid)

For their part Japan and the G8 at the Kananaskis Summit (Canada) in 2002

adopted the Africa Action Plan in support of NEPADrsquos goal of mobilising resources

for poverty reduction and development with commitments to debt relief and supportto gender education health agriculture and water resource development issues

(G8 Action Plan 2002) At the Kananaski Summit Japan announced the lsquoBasic

Education for Growth Initiative (BEGIN)rsquo to support developing countries efforts to

promote basic education Later at the G8 Gleneagles Summit (Scotland) in 2005 the

G8 freed additional resources to assist countries to reach the MDGs and reaffirmed

the cancellation proposal of HIPCs owed to the Worldrsquos Bank International

Development Association (IDA) the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the

African Development Fund (AFD) As of March 2007 only 18 countries have

achieved the HIPC conditions with these institutions Japan has cancelled

approximately USD 3 billion in debts which represented 21 of the total G8

contribution and Chinarsquos USD 12 billion in debts to 31 less developed countries

(LDCs) and HIPC in Africa thus fulfilling their commitments made at TICAD II


Dow

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ity o

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

(1998) and FOCAC Action Plan (20042006) This is perhaps their most

visible result to influence poverty reduction and the achievement of the MDGs in

Africa

The visible difference between China and Japanrsquos approach to the MDGs is that

in Japanrsquos case there are concrete efforts to incorporate them into its ODA policy

through its Medium-Term Policy on ODA (February 2005) in the ODA Charter andin its policies for assistance to Africa such as the TICAD framework Examples of

Japanrsquos actions are firstly the creation of the Trust Fund for Human Security (March

1999) and within this concept the promotion of the African Village Initiative a

combination of infrastructure development and empowerment of people the

promotion at TICAD III of the NERICA (New Rice for Africa) initiative to boost

food security prospects throughout Africa and the One Stop Border Post (OSBP) for

smooth border crossing and reduction in transportation costs These initiatives

promote support activities for the poor in rural Africa Second at the G8

Gleaneagles Summit Japan committed itself to increasing its ODA volume by

USD 10 billion in aggregate over the next five years while doubling its ODA to

Africa in the next three years (JMOFA 2005 3) Finally at the planning stage

through JICArsquos country programme according to the Poverty Reduction Strategy

Papers (PRSP) Japanrsquos sectoral programmes such as the sector-wide approach

(SWAps) to meet the targets of the MDGs (JICA 2005 115)

Chinarsquos policy on the MDGs is more pragmatic and less transparent than Japanrsquos

It prefers to focus on agreements achieved with African governments within the

FOCAC process rather than having an agency to implement the MDGs in its aidprogramme Fulfilling its pledges made at the 2003 FOCAC China abolished tariffs

on 190 kinds of goods from 29 African LDCs for access to the Chinese market

(FOCAC Action Plan 20042006) Also at FOCAC 2006 Beijing announced it

would double the 2006 level of assistance to African countries to provide USD three

billion in preferential loans and USD 2 billion in preferential export buyerrsquos credit

for HIPCs and LDCs in Africa to set up a Development Fund to expand Chinese

investment in Africa train more 15000 African professionals based on the China-

Africa Inter-governmental Human Resources Development (AHRDF) Plan adopted

at the second FOCAC to help African countries set up 100 rural schools in the next

three years to assist African countries with a USD 375 million in grants for anti-

malaria drugs and other effective measures in the prevention and treatment of HIV

AIDS and other infectious diseases and to work for the establishment of the

United Nations China-Africa Environment Protection Centre (FOCAC Action Plan

20072009)

SouthSouth and NorthSouth linkages

Chinarsquos engagement in Africa faces criticism from the OECD countries particularly

the US the European Union (EU) the IMF and the World Bank They criticise

Chinarsquos support to regimes that violate human rights such as Sudan and Zimbabwe

for links between loans and resource exports and for unconditional and tied aid that

contradict multilateral frameworks that promote debt sustainability public account-

ability and good governance (Mugumya 2008 67) China has countered these

criticisms by further opening its market to Africa increasing from 190 to over 440

the number of export items to China with zero-tariff treatment improving the


Dow

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ity o

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

mechanism of the ChinaAfrica Joint Chamber of Commerce and Industry and

cancelling more government loans in debt relief operations for Africa (FOCAC

Action Plan 2007-2009) China believes that its disinterested aid and higher emphasis

on infrastructure development (like Japan) responds better to African needs than the

Western donorsrsquo emphasis on human development law and institutional reform

(Brautigam 2009 22)

The advantage that works in favour of China over Japan and the Northern

donors is that China is not a competitor Commodity complementarity exists

between China and Africa and that both donor and recipients are still developing

countries (Alden 2007 126) In Japanrsquos case low economic growth rates low labour

quality and poor infrastructure in Africa are obstacles to business expansion

(TICAD IV 2008 6) China is Africarsquos partner because it provides external market

opportunities and helps them to become self-sustaining economies by leading to a

new wave of investment in Africa by Chinese companies (Alden 2007 126)

Grant aid is the bigger part of aid for Japan and only a small part for China

However this is understandable for a developing country like China but not for

Japan which is an economic world power Nevertheless both China and Japan

differently from other donors agree that loans present a liability for the future and

create a discipline of self-reliance that grants do not imply (Wissenbach 2008 59)

Therefore Chinarsquos Eximbank and Japanrsquos JBIC use loans to promote trade and

investment in Africa However Japanrsquos loans as set out in the TICAD process respect

the HIPC initiative while in Chinarsquos case there are no such conditions (TCSF 2008

51) So the same instruments have different rationales and results The first is that

Japanese investments in Africa compared to Chinarsquos are marginal Second Chinese

investments are helping African development much more than Japanrsquos Thus Japan

and China have very similar approaches to their foreign aid policies which are based

on their own domestic development experiences as recipient countries However

Japan and Chinarsquos philosophies of development assistance while Asian in content

for ideological and political reasons have different rationales Japan entered the

mainstream of Northern policies and exercises influence on aid policy debates from

the inside for example by pointing out the negative consequences of the Worldrsquos

Bank adjustment measures (Wissenbach 2008 59-60 Stein 1998 41) Despite

Western donorsrsquo efforts to integrate China into the OECD frameworks Beijing has

opted to stay out of the mainstream and like Japan with TICAD China with

FOCAC is forging an alternative partnership cooperation with Africa Yet the result

is not completely different as both are challenging the Western approach of

development to Africa particularly within the framework of the Washington

Consensus

From the perspective of SouthSouth co-operation Chinarsquos co-operation in

Africa is beneficial because it widens the possibilities for common development and

works against enlarging the gap between North and South as Chinese export credits

promotes economic growth in Africa (Wenping 2008 43) From the recipient

perspective it enlarges the pool of available aid The problem is that Chinarsquos new

lsquonon-concessionalrsquo lending contradicts G8 debt relief initiative as most of African

countries are low-income thus unable to pay those loans that inevitably will

accumulate into growing African indebtedness to the Chinese Eximbank


Dow

nloa

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ity o

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion

Regardless of the difficulty of determining the exact volume and terms of Chinese

assistance it is evident that China is an important donor to Africa It is also clear

that Chinese and Japanese African aid policies share some goals and principles but

they differ in the way to achieve them Although both countries have their respective

national interests in mind China more than Japan seeks to reinforce behaviour

favourable to Beijingrsquos more immediate material and geopolitical concerns (Dreyer

2006 548)

In certain respects China resembles Japan before the 1980s a trade-driven

industrial power integrating into the world system while practising a realpolitik to

attain national wealth and power (Sautman 2006 5) The Chinese link between aid

trade and investment is evident in the mechanism of lsquotied aid with no strings

attachedrsquo which gives Chinese firms a biased advantage over other donors and power

to influence African politics like in the 2006 Zambia presidential elections (Glennie

2008 111) Interestingly Japanrsquos aid appears to be returning to the old concept of

lsquoeconomic co-operation of three-in-onersquo by coordinating ODA with FDI and trade

needed by the continuing deficits in the national budget limiting ODA allocations

and the need to finance development banks that have become command centres for

debt policies (Arase 1994 195 Yasutomo 198990 499)

An advantage China enjoys over Japan in Africa is not simply the lag of 20 years

but ideological differences on one side and on the other side a long-term political

commitment in contrast with Japanrsquos short-term political commitment Since the

1950s Beijing realised that strong political relations are vital for a long trend

economic relationship China chose and supported the majority of African states

instead of the West Japan chose the minority white pro-Western African states

without considering that in the long-term structural changes would make Africa a

valuable strategic partner rather than a mere commodity partner As Cornelissen

(2004 130) points out Japanrsquos development policy is similar to Chinarsquos in that it is

built upon an Afro-Asian identity However Japanrsquos assertion of this commonality

with Africa is largely rhetoric as a means to attain its international objectives focused

mainly upon South Africa

Differences in the two donorsrsquo aid institutions affect their aid policies in Africa

Japan is a mainstream DAC donor of long standing Its aid agencies have well-

defined missions based on DAC norms and policies regarding the content and use of

official development assistance It has therefore acted within that framework in its

allocation of aid to Africa For example to increase its effective presence in Africa

Japan reorganised JICA as an independent aid agency providing technical assistance

grant aid and ODA loans in an integrated manner and is expected to realise the

synergy effects of integration by reducing the previous interagency conflict in

Japanese aid decision-making (JICA 2007 24) Similarly its 1992 ODA Charter

shows its political commitment to supporting basic human rights and good

governance issues in line with growing DAC and multilateral bank thinking about

the purposes of aid Its pro-active role toward Africa through the TICAD process

has been very much about securing within that development community a reputation

for pro-active leadership on development issues Its development of closer relation-

ships with multilateral institutions by involving them in the TICAD process also

results from its participation in mainstream development


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3

China has no development assistance agency per se It eschews the rigid

standardised criteria for DAC assistance (Davies 2007 11 51) although it uses

some elements of the terminology of ODA in terms of grants and loans with no

interest Its lack of transparency even on aid amounts is at odds with Western

development practice Chinarsquos co-operation includes not only aid trade investment

and development assistance to attain mutual benefit but reciprocity and common

development between China and Africa (JICA 2007 77) This explains why aidcomes without the policy prescriptions demanded by international financial

institutions (Guttal 2008 25) and the willingness of China to be both a borrower

of international financial institutions and a donor to developing countries

Consequently China is competing with Japan and other major DAC donors on

the aid scene by combining development investment and diplomacy just as Japan

did in the past

China also has not faced some of the domestic obstacles that Japan has at least

not yet In Japan the Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry was a major obstacle

to attempts to increase aid to Africa since that assistance is earmarked for basic

human needs projects or emergency food aid neither of which promotes Japanese

commercial interests

Both FOCAC and TICAD focus on the complementary benefits that aid with

trade and investment as a whole can have on African development Yet they are not

necessarily parallel programmes Politically China sees FOCAC as a means to

advance a position of moral relativism regarding human rights At the Forum China

has also tried to encourage African countries to reform using the Chinese model ofeconomic growth and development to reduce its aid to Africa (Taylor 2006 689) In

contrast TICAD documents use terminology such as human security in accord with

the mainstream donor community

At the working level the two forums have been conducted differently Japan does

not use TICAD meetings as aid pledging events Rather it restricts discussions to

issues of broader Japanese contributions to African development Aid continues to

be negotiated separate from the TICAD and allocated bilaterally or through

development banks China on the other hand has been willing to use FOCAC

meetings to discuss and negotiate actual aid commitments

Low levels of Japanese aid and trade with Africa undermine the impact of

TICAD At TICADs III and IV government and the business community have

considered how to increase trade and investment in Africa The Japanese private

sector views ODA for infrastructure and human resource development in Africa as a

necessary first step to support increased private sector activities In this context

Chinarsquos ability to use aid programmes to promote business activities in Africa is

better developed than Japanrsquos Chinarsquos special fund for joint ventures is offered toAfrican countries which receive ODA from China based on bilateral agreements for

specific projects (World Bank 2004 34)

One final difference between the donors merits attention As noted above China

restricts aid conditions to adherence to the one-China policy The aid rivalry between

the Peoplersquos Republic of China and Taiwan has been described accurately as a zero-

sum game played for diplomatic recognition (Lin 2001) Overlooked in the

discussions of this aid rivalry is that it also imposes opportunity costs on aid

recipients because they must choose one aid donor and trade partner at the expense

of the other While many African governments welcome China as an additional


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ober

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3

source of aid the net effect is to forgo access to another donor one with its own long

history of assistance to the region Japan places no such conditions on its African

counterparts nor for that matter does any other bilateral donor

The question is not whether China and Japan can replace the Western approach

to development assistance but whether using Aldenrsquos expression (2007 125) they

are partners competitors or neo-colonisers in Africa To a certain extent their

know-how and burden sharing is contributing to Africarsquos stability and develop-

ment However it is not clear whether TICAD has increased Japanese ODA to

Africa as its aid overall has been declining Neither is it certain that Chinese aid

projects which are mostly tied to Chinese companiesrsquo investments have been a

window of development to Africa (Southall 2009 29) From the African and

OECD perspective the diversification of financial resources and market opportu-

nities is not only legitimate but also desirable for all actors involved Yet Africarsquos

lack of basic social foundation and basic infrastructures prevent African capitalism

with the exception of South Africa of competing with China and Japan in the

benefits of their lsquoscramblersquo Thus it can be argued that the historical relationship

of dependence and subordination between African and external powers remains

unchanged

For the time being China and Japan are not co-operating on aid to Africa

although they have begun informal consultations on aid policy in general To a

certain extent their aid efforts are largely parallel both bilaterally and through the

regional development forums they sponsor Their aid tends to support the same

countries but through bilateral channels and using different aid mixes for different

developmental aims Their aid is complementary in certain aspects such as in the

provision of aid for development of transportation networks

Finally at least diplomatically their aid relationship is potentially competitive

although hardly at the level of ChinaTaiwan aid rivalry Unlike more vocal Western

donors Japan generally has refrained from criticising its neighbourrsquos aid practices in

the region Japanrsquos package of US$ 4 billion of soft loans to Africa and the doubling

of grant aid and technical co-operation for the region over the next five years at

TICAD IV is not based on altruism but an effort to outbid Chinarsquos trade

investment and presence in Africa (Jaura and Osamu 2008 1) This competition

has increased tensions between them Chinarsquos aggressive forays into the continentrsquos

energy sector prompted then-Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to state that financial aid

should be used to strengthen ties with countries that supply oil and other energy

resources (Masaki 2006 Evans 2006 22) Yet Japanrsquos relative disinterest in Africa is

likely to dampen the possibility of outright aid competition with China in that

region

Notes on contributors

Pedro Amakasu Raposo is Assistant Professor of International Development and Co-operation at Lusida University in Porto Portugal Currently he holds a scholarship from thePortuguese government to pursue his second doctoral study in the Graduate School of PolicyStudies at Nanzan University Japan His research focuses on Japanrsquos ODA to sub-SaharanAfrica His latest publications include lsquoEvolution of Japanrsquos foreign policy to Africa and theTICAD processrsquo Lusiada Politica Internacional e Seguranca 2 2009 22144 lsquoJapanrsquos aidpolicy and the TICAD processrsquo Nanzan Journal of Policy Studies 1 2009 5591


Dow

nloa

ded

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vers

ity o

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ober

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3

David M Potter is a Professor of International Relations in the Graduate School of PolicyStudies Nanzan University Japan His research focuses on official development assistanceand international non-governmental organisations His main publications include NGOs ininternational politics by S Ahmed and DM Potter Kumarian Press 2006 Media bureau-cracies and foreign aid by D van Belle J-S Rioux and DM Potter Palgrave 2004 and Japanrsquosforeign aid to Thailand and the Phillippines by DM Potter St Martinrsquos Press 1996

References

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African Forum and Network on Debt and Development (AFRODAD) 2008 MappingChinese development assistance in Africa a synthesis analysis of Angola MozambiqueZambia and Zimbabwe Harare Zimbabwe AFRODAD

Alden C 2002 The chrysanthemum and the protea reinventing JapaneseSouth Africanrelations after apartheid African Affairs 101 36586

Alden C 2007 China in Africa London and New York ZedAmpiah K 1997 The dynamics of Japanrsquos relations with Africa South Africa Tanzania and

Nigeria London RoutledgeArase D 1994 Public-private sector interest coordination in Japanrsquos ODA Pacific Affairs 67

no 2 171200Arnold G 1979 Aid in Africa London Kogan PageAskouri A 2008 Civil society initiative in Africa In Chinarsquos new role in Africa and the south

a search for a new perspective ed D Guerrero and F Manj Oxford UK FahamuBrautigam D 1998 Chinese aid and African development exporting green revolution New

York St MartinrsquosBrautigam D 2009 Chinarsquos African aid Washington DC the German Marshall Fund of the

United StatesBroadman H 2007 Africarsquos silk road Chinarsquos and Indiarsquos new economic frontier Washington

DC World BankBureau of Statistics of China 2009 China statistical yearbook 2009 Beijing Bureau of

Statistics of ChinaChugoku Afurika ni 9000-oku En 2009 Yomiuri Shinbun 10 November 6Cooper J 1976 Chinarsquos foreign aid an instrument of Pekingrsquos foreign policy Lexington MA

Lexington BooksCorkin L 2008 Chinarsquos strategic infrastructural investments in Africa In Chinarsquos new role in

Africa and the south a search for a new perspective ed D Guerrero and F Manji OxfordUK Fahamu

Cornelissen S 2004 Japan-African relations-patterns and prospects In Africa in internationalpolitics external involvement on the continent ed I Taylor and P Williams London andNew York Routledge

Davies P 2007 China and the end of poverty in Africa Towards mutual benefit SwedenDiakonia and European Network on Debt and Development

Dreyer J 2006 SinoJapanese rivalry and its implications for developing nations AsianSurvey 56 no 4 53957

Evans P 2006 lsquoJapanrsquo the Brookings foreign policy studies Washington DC BrookingsInstitution

Export-Import Bank of China 2005 2005 annual report Beijing EximbankExport-Import Bank of China 2007 2007 annual report Beijing EximbankFASIDMOFA 2006 International symposium synergy among development assistance FDI

and trade in Southern Africa Poverty reduction through economic growth Tokyo Ministry ofForeign Affairs and the Foundation for Advanced Studies on International Development

Forum on China-Africa Co-operation (FOCA) 2000 Follow-up action of China-Africa forum on co-operation ministerial meeting 6 February 2001 httpwww3ituintMISSIONSChinachinaafricaforumforum12htm

Forum on China-Africa Co-operation (FOCAC) 20042006 Addis Ababa Action Plan Debtrelief httpwww fmprcgovcnzfltengzyzlhwjt157710html


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nloa

ded

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vers

ity o

f W

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ing

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es]

at 2

205

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Oct

ober

201

3

Forum on China-Africa Co-operation (FOCAC) 20072009 Beijijng Action Planhttpwwwchinese-embassyorgzaengzfgxzfhzltt281763htm

G8 Africa Action Plan 2002 G8 Africa Action Plan G8 Summit Kananaskis 2627June 2002 httpwwwcanadainternationalgcg8summit-sommet2002action_plan_africa-plan-afriqueasxp

Gaimusho 2008 Nihon no Kokusai Kyouryoku 2008 Nen-han Siefu Kaihatsu Enjo HakushoTokyo Gaimusho

Glennie J 2008 The trouble with aid why less could mean more for Africa London and NewYork Zed

Grant R and J Nijman eds 1998 The global crisis in foreign aid Syracuse New YorkSyracuse University Press

Guttal S 2008 Client and competitor China and international financial institutions InChinarsquos new role in Africa and the south a search for a new perspective ed D Guerrero andF Manji Oxford UK Fahamu

Ishikawa K 1999 Nation building and development assistance in Africa Different but equalTokyo Macmillan

Japan Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC) 2008 Reports on FY 2007 operationsTokyo Overseas Economic Co-operation Operation July 2008 httpwwwjicagojpenglishnewsjbic_archiveautocontentsenglishnews2008

Japan Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC) 2007 JBIC signs first ODA loan agreementwith Namibia JBIC on line Tokyo NR2006-103 19 March httpwwwjbicgojpautocontentsenglishnews2007000038indexhtm

Japan Bank for International Co-operation (JBIC) 2006 JBIC signs ODA loan agreementwith Mozambique JBIC on line Tokyo NR2006-37 10 August httpwwwjbicgojpenglishoecprojectyenloanlistphp

Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) 2007 Project study on the TICAD processreview of the past achievements and implications for future success Tokyo JICA andMitsubishi UFJ Research amp Consulting

Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) 2005 Our challenges for a better tomorrowReport on JICArsquos contribution to achieving the millennium development goals (MDGs)Tokyo Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA)

Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) 2000 Southern African Region The studyon Japanrsquos official development assistance to Southern African countries Vol I TokyoInstitute for International Cooperation

Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs (JMOFA) 2005 Building global partnerships for developmenJapanrsquos contribution to MDG-8 Tokyo Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Jaura R 2008 Japan to double aid to Africa by 2012 The Asia-Pacific EJournal 16httpwwwjapanfocusorgR-Jaura2768

Lancaster C 2007 The Chinese aid system Washington DC Centre for Global DevelopmentLaw F 1984 Chinese foreign aid a study of its nature and goals with particular reference to the

foreign policy and world view of the peoplersquos Republic of China 19501982 Saarbrucken andFort Lauderdale Breitenbach

Lehman P 2005 Japanrsquos foreign aid policy to Africa since the Tokyo international conferenceon African development Pacific Affairs 78 no 3 42343

Lin R 2001 Complementary measures to foreign aid Taiwan and the PRC under diplomaticrivalry Contemporary Economic Policy 19 no 3 3608

Masaki H 2006 Japan vs China in Africa Ohmy News August 29 13 httpenglishohmynewscomarticleviewarticle_printaspmenuc10400ampno313956amprel_no1ampisPrintprint

Melber H 2009 Global trade regimes and multi-polarity The US and Chinese scramble forAfrican resources and markets In A new scramble for Africa Imperialism investment anddevelopment ed R Southall and H Melber South Africa University of KwaZulu-NatalPress

Mochizuki H 2007 Japan to build energy ties with Africa Associated Press 28 Novemberhttpwwwfoolcomnewsassociated-press20071128japan-to-build-energy-ties-with-africaaspx


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ity o

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205

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Oct

ober

201

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Morikawa J 2006 Japan and Africa after the cold war In Japan a model and a partner viewsand issues in Africa development ed S Adem London Brill

Morikawa J 1997 Japan and Africa big business and diplomacy London HurstMugumya G 2008 China-Europe-Africa Is there possible collaborative partnership In

China-Europe-Africa Co-operation chances and challenges Proceedings of the 6th ShanghaiWorkshop on Global Governance Shanghai Shanghai Institute for International Studies

National Bureau of Statistics of China 1996 China foreign economic statistical yearbook 1996Peoplersquos Republic of China China Statistics Press




National Bureau of Statistics of China 2007 China Foreign Economic Statistical Yearbook2007 Peoplersquos Republic of China China Statistics Press

Ochiai T 2001 Beyond TICAD diplomacy Japanrsquos African policy and African initiatives inconflict response African Study Monography 22 no 1 3752

Oda H and K Aoki 1985 Japan and Africa beyond the fragile partnership In Japanrsquosforeign relations ed R Ozaki and W Arnold Boulder CO Westview Press

Ogata S 2008 Infrastructure development and human security In Rethinking infrastructurefor development ed F Bourguinon and B Pleskovik Washington DC World Bank

Omuruyi L 2001 Contending theories on development aid Post-Cold War evidence fromAfrica Farnham UK Ashgate

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2005 Paris declarationon aid effectiveness Ownership harmonization alignment results and mutual accountabilityParis OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD 1999 Development Co-operation Review Series Japan No 34 Paris Development Assistance CommitteeOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD 2004 DevelopmentAssistance Committee Peer review Japan Paris Organisation for Economic Cooperationand Development

Orr R 1990 The emergence of Japanrsquos foreign aid power New York Columbia UniversityPress

Payne R and C Veney 1998 Chinarsquos post-cold war African policy Asian Survey 37 no 986779

Rix A 1993 Japanrsquos foreign aid challenge London and New York RoutledgeSato M 2005 Japanese aid diplomacy in Africa An historical analysis The International

Studies Association of Ritsumeikan University no 4 6785Sautman B 2006 Friends and Interests Working Paper 12 138 Centre on Chinarsquos

Transnational RelationsSouthall R 2009 Scramble for Africa Continuities and discontinuities with formal

imperialism In A new scramble for Africa Imperialism investment and development edR Southall and H Melber South Africa University of KwaZulu-Natal Press

Southall R and A Comninos 2009 The scramble for Africa and the marginalisation ofAfrican capitalism In A new scramble for Africa Imperialism investment and developmented R Southall and H Melber South Africa University of KwaZulu-Natal Press

Southall R and H Melber 2009 Conclusion towards a response In A new scramble forAfrica Imperialism investment and development ed R Southall and H Melber SouthAfrica University of KwaZulu-Natal Press

Stein H 1998 Japanese aid to Africa Patterns motivations and the role of structuraladjustment The Journal of Development Studies 35 no 2 2753

Taylor I 2006 China and Africa Engagement and compromise London and New YorkRoutledge


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nloa

ded

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Uni

vers

ity o

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

TCSF (TICAD Civil Society Forum) 2005 TCSF White Paper 2005 Evaluation by civilsociety on Japanese policy to Africa Overcoming poverty and inequality Tokyo TICADCivil Society Forum

TCSF (TICAD Civil Society Forum) 2008 White Paper 2007 Strategic recommendations onTokyo international conference on African development Tokyo TICAD Civil SocietyForum

TICAD IV 2008 Comprehensive report of the joint missions for promoting trade andinvestment to Africa (August-September 2008) Tokyo Minister of Foreign AffairsMinistry of Economy Trade and Industry

Tokyo Declaration 1993 Tokyo Declaration httpwwwticadnetpublicationsTokyoDeclaration 1993pdf

Tuman J and S Ayoub 2004 The determinants of Japanese official development assistancein Africa A pooled time series analysis International Interactions 30 4557

Wang J 2007 What drives Chinarsquos growing role in Africa IMF Working Paper 130Weinstein W and T Henriksen eds 1980 Soviet and Chinese aid to African nations Boulder

CO PraegerWenping H 2008 China-Africa co-operation Partnership and global implications In China-

Europe-Africa co-operation Chances and challenges Proceedings of the 6th ShanghaiWorkshop on Global Governance Shanghai Shanghai Institute for International StudiesMarch 14-15

Wissenbach U 2008 The renaissance or the end of geopolitics Towards trilateral co-operation in Africa In China-Europe-Africa co-operation Chances and challengesProceedings of the 6th Shanghai Workshop on Global Governance Shanghai ShanghaiInstitute for International Studies March 1415

Wheeler J 1989 Development co-operation 1989 review Paris Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development

White J 1964 Japanese aid London Overseas Development InstituteWorld Bank 2004 Studies on Africa-Asia trade and investment relations (B) Studies of selected

Asian countries in developing trade and investment relations with African countries The WorldBank Padeco and UFJ Institute

Xu Y 2008 China and the United States in Africa Coming conflict or commercial existenceAustralian Journal of International Affairs 62 no 1 1637

Yasutomo D 198990 Why aid Japan as an aid great power Pacific Affairs 62 no 4 490503


Dow

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ded

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ity o

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ober

201

3

Chinese and Japanese development co-operation SouthSouthNorthSouth or what

Pedro Amakasu Raposo and David M Potter

Nanzan University Graduate School of Policy Studies Japan

This article compares the evolution and characteristics of Chinese and Japaneseaid assessing the impact of their aid policies in sub-Saharan Africa from the1950s to the present It argues that China and Japanrsquos aid programmes share moresimilarities than dissimilarities Both pursue aid strategies that spread allocationsacross a region rather than concentrating upon specific countries The articleseeks to clarify the following questions In what way are Chinese and Japanese aidstrategies different from each other and Western donors Should their aid be seenas a form of SouthSouth co-operation that provides an alternative to the Westrsquoshegemony in Africa Or is aid from these donors simply another strategy tocontrol African resources and state elites in the guise of a partnership of equals

Keywords Japan China foreign policy Africa aid development

In recent years the re-emergence of China as an economic power has spurred debate

about its consequences for the international economy and the neo-liberal system of

globalisation Part of that debate concerns itself with the consequences of Chinarsquos

renewed use of economic co-operation instruments to promote relations with African

countries One approach argues that in lsquoa new scramble for Africarsquo (Southall and

Melber 2009) Chinarsquos partnership with Africa is no more and no less self-interested

than similar Western involvements considering the subordination and dependent

relationships that historically have characterised interactions between African

capitalists and foreign capital (Melber 2009 75 Southall and Comninos 2009

357) Western donors and Bretton-Woods institutions have criticised Chinarsquos

practices in Africa for ignoring human rights problems and for undermining

transparency and good governance in Africa through unconditional aid and loans

(Mugumya 2008 6) Meanwhile Alden (2007 5) has summarised the debate over

China as a lsquodevelopment partnerrsquo lsquoeconomic competitorrsquo or lsquocoloniserrsquo This interest

in China is also part of a broader discussion of renewed AfricaAsia ties in the wake

of robust economic growth in Asia A recent study by the World Bank for example

compares the economic relations of China and India with the continent under the

title lsquoAfricarsquos Silk Roadrsquo (Broadman 2007) Yet strangely Japan is left out of this

discussion of Asia-Africa economic relations even though it is the main foreign aid

donor in Asia and its presence in Africa is substantial

This article compares the aid policies and practices of China and Japan in Africa

Section I surveys the main features of Chinese and Japanese foreign aid and traces

the evolution of their aid policies Section II compares the two aid programmes

Corresponding author Email amakasuraposogmailcom

Journal of Contemporary African Studies

Vol 28 No 2 April 2010 177202

ISSN 0258-9001 printISSN 1469-9397 online

2010 The Institute of Social and Economic Research

DOI 10108002589001003736819

httpwwwinformaworldcom

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ober

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3












































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ded

by [

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vers

ity o

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at 2

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07

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ober

201

3
















































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by [

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vers

ity o

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ing

Lib

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































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ober

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3



1999 44)










































Dow

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ity o

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Lib

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

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ing

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at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























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ing

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at 2

205

07

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ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































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07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


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by [

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es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

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ded

by [

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ing

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rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

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ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

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ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

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rari

es]

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205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

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ded

by [

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ity o

f W

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ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











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ded

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es]

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07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































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205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



1999 44)










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



1999 44)










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



1999 44)










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



1999 44)










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3










JBIC 2008 2)



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























2002 36869)

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













2007 respectively

































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region

(Country) 1992

Share

()

Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share


Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()
















America


America

128640 36





Jou

rna

lo

fC

on

temp

ora

ryA

frican

Stu

dies

18

5

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


Region


Region

(Country) 1996

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2000

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2004

Share

()

Region

(Country) 2006

Share

()

























18

6P

A

Ra

po

soa

nd

DM

P

otter

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3





























(Ochiai 2001 40)






1998 871)









(Lehman 2005 427)


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003



1 Sudan 7 7 Not

Free

US$ 530

MHD

0512

141

Oil construction of




the United Nations

2 Algeria 6 5 Not

Free

US$2090

MHD

0722

103






Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158







4 Angola 6 5 Not

Free

US$975

LHD

0445

160





(diamonds) military



5 Egypt 6 5 Not

Free

US$1220

MHD

0659

119





cooperation as well


Free

US$97

LHD

0659

170




cooperation


Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164







Tanzania

8 Libya 7 7 Not

Free

not

available

MHD

0799

58








Cooperation


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3











social sectors










Region

Africa

(country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties Status

GNP

capita 2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$1452

MHD

0631

124







dam


MHD

0565

131







relations



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3













































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




Free

US$428

LHD

0453

158






Free

US$230

LHD

0379

168






assistance (AfDB)

3 Kenya 3 3 Partly

Free

US$450

LHD

0474

154








Process


Free

US$149

LHD

0298

176






peacebuilding


Free

US$97

MHD

0659

170






cultural exchanges


Free

US$324

LHD

0499

146










MHD

0520

138








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















Poverty

Reduction

Region Africa

(Country)

Political

Rights

Civil

Liberties

Political

Status

GNP

capita

2003

HDI

Rank

2003




MHD

0512

141







Free

US$287

LHD

0418

164






NEPAD and TICAD


Free

US$417

LHD

0394

166











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3








The MDGs






































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



Africa
































20072009)











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3






(Brautigam 2009 22)
































Consensus










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

Conclusion







2006 548)









































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3












did in the past



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


















unchanged




















region




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3


References























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3



























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3
















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f W

yom

ing

Lib

rari

es]

at 2

205

07

Oct

ober

201

3

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