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    DANCING WITH THE GODS: THE MYTH OF THE

    CHARIOT

    IN

    PLATO'S

    PHAEDRUS

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    Abstract. In

    Plato's

    Phaedrus,

    Socrates

    compares

    the

    soul

    to a

    team

    of two

    horses,

    one

    obedient

    and one

    unruly,

    driven

    by

    a human charioteer.

    This article

    argues

    that

    essential clues to the psychological ideas expressed in this myth are provided

    by

    the

    imagery

    of the

    dance and

    that of the

    unruly

    horse,

    which resembles

    not

    only

    a

    satyr

    but also

    Socrates himself.

    Satyrs

    are

    daimonic

    beings

    with

    the

    ability

    to

    mediate

    between mortals and

    gods.

    They

    can

    thus

    represent

    qualities

    that are

    essential to

    the

    psychic equilibrium

    of

    a soul

    moving

    in what Socrates character-

    izes as

    choral dances

    led

    by

    the

    gods.

    1. INTRODUCTION

    Socrates'

    second

    speech

    in

    the Phaedrus

    contains

    a

    powerful

    image

    in

    which the

    soul

    is

    compared

    to a

    winged

    team

    and

    charioteer

    (246a7).x

    Both

    horses of the

    gods'

    souls are

    good

    and

    obedient,

    but

    mortals

    have one horse that is

    beautiful,

    good,

    and

    white,

    and

    one that

    is

    ugly,

    unruly,

    and

    black. The

    charioteers

    of the

    gods

    drive around

    the

    vault of

    heaven and see

    divine

    sights,

    and,

    in a

    previous

    existence,

    mortals

    followed

    them as

    initiates

    in

    the

    rites of

    the

    gods.

    After a

    time,

    however,

    the charioteers of mortals were unable to control their horses, and in the

    confusion,

    mortal

    souls lost their

    wings

    and

    fell

    to earth.

    According

    to

    Socrates,

    they

    can

    become

    winged

    once more

    and

    return to the

    rites of

    the

    gods

    if

    their

    charioteers

    succeed

    in the difficult

    task

    of

    controlling

    their

    ill-matched teams while the

    soul is under

    the influence

    of erotic

    madness

    (246a-257b).

    The

    myth

    of the chariot

    raises

    many questions

    about

    such

    impor?

    tant

    issues

    as

    immortality

    and

    recollection,

    the nature

    of

    the

    gods,

    eros,

    rhetoric

    and

    myth,

    and the

    persona

    of Plato's Socrates.

    This article does

    1

    Unless

    otherwise

    noted,

    I

    follow the text of Burnet's

    OCTs,

    and

    all translations

    are

    my

    own.

    American

    ournal

    f

    Philology

    27

    2006)

    85-217 2006

    y

    The ohns

    Hopkins niversity

    ress

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    186

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    not

    attempt

    to address these

    larger

    issues

    but instead

    focuses

    on

    the

    psychological

    views

    expressed

    in a

    single passage

    in Socrates' second

    speech?the

    description

    of the

    struggle

    among

    the charioteer

    and horses

    (253c7-255al).

    This

    passage

    has been

    the

    subject

    of much

    controversy,

    especially

    concerning

    the role of the

    black horse.

    According

    to

    some

    scholars,

    this

    horse

    represents

    an ineradicable

    evil

    in

    the

    soul,

    being

    the

    cause of

    the

    original

    fall to earth as well

    as

    impeding

    progress

    as the

    soul

    attempts

    to return to the

    gods.2

    This

    interpretation,

    I

    will

    argue

    below

    in

    section

    2,

    fails to account for the fact that

    it is

    always

    the black

    horse

    who

    initiates

    movement

    (254a5-6,

    254d4-7).

    Other

    scholars

    attribute some

    good

    qualities

    to the black horse but do not

    give

    a sufficiently clear and

    detailed

    analysis

    of

    the nature of these

    qualities

    and

    of the

    ways

    in

    which

    they

    are

    represented

    as

    functioning

    within

    the soul.3

    In

    attempting

    to

    provide

    such an

    account,

    Martha Nussbaum

    argues

    that the

    black horse

    represents

    the

    independent

    motivational

    and

    cognitive

    role

    of

    emotion

    and

    appetite:

    The role

    of emotion and

    appetite

    as

    guides

    is

    motivational:

    they

    move

    the

    whole

    person

    towards the

    good.

    But

    it is also

    cognitive:

    for

    they

    give

    the whole

    person

    information

    as to

    where

    goodness

    and

    beauty

    are,

    searching

    out

    and

    selecting,

    themselves,

    the beautiful

    objects. 4

    Against

    her

    interpretation,

    however, it should be noted that information about

    beauty

    does

    not

    come

    from the horses

    but from the

    charioteer,

    who first

    sees

    the

    beloved

    object

    (253e5)

    and who

    alone

    is reminded

    by

    it of the

    beauty

    he has seen before

    (254b5-7).5

    Moreover,

    the black

    horse does

    not

    move the soul

    towards the

    good.

    His

    desire,

    before

    being

    tamed,

    is for

    physical

    pleasure (254a5-7,

    d5-6),

    and

    he has

    no

    conception

    of

    any good

    apart

    from this. The

    most

    illuminating analysis

    of

    this

    difficult

    passage

    is

    given by

    John

    Ferrari,

    who

    argues

    that

    the charioteer's

    task

    is

    not

    to

    repress

    or

    eradicate the desires

    represented

    by

    the black horse

    but to learn from them and to

    integrate

    the whole soul

    by allowing

    these

    desires

    to find their

    proper

    place

    within

    it.6

    This article builds on Ferrari's

    interpretation

    to

    argue

    that two as?

    pects

    of

    Socrates' second

    speech?the

    imagery

    of

    the dance and

    the

    satyr-

    like

    characteristics

    given

    to the black

    horse?can

    help

    to elucidate

    both

    2For

    example,

    Hackforth

    1952,107-8;

    Lebeck

    1972,277-78;

    McGibbon

    1964,60-61;

    Robinson

    1970,117,122;

    Rowe

    1990, 234, 241;

    White

    1993,104-5,160-61.

    3Bluck 1958, 157-58; Burger 1980, 65-66; Griswold 1986, 121, 136; Stoeber 1992,

    277;

    Thompson

    1868,73.

    4Nussbaum

    1986,

    215.

    5

    Rowe

    1990, 236-37,

    makes similar

    objections

    to Nussbaum's

    views.

    6Ferrari, 1987,185-203,

    esp.

    194. On

    integration,

    cf. Griswold

    1986,135.

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    DANCING

    WITH

    THE

    GODS

    187

    the kind

    of

    integration

    of the soul toward

    which

    the

    charioteer strives

    and the roles of the two horses in this

    process.

    When Socrates describes

    the black horse as

    having

    a number of

    satyr-like

    characteristics

    (253el-4),

    he does not

    merely

    characterize it

    as

    bestial

    and

    ugly

    but also

    suggests

    that this

    horse

    shares

    in

    the

    superhuman,

    daimonic

    qualities

    of

    satyrs.This

    horse is not

    purely

    evil

    but resembles

    a

    satyr

    in

    being

    a mixture

    of the

    bestial and

    the

    divine,

    with an

    important

    role

    in

    helping

    the soul return

    to the rites of

    the

    gods.

    The dance

    imagery

    in

    Socrates'

    speech supports

    this view.

    When he

    characterizes the rites

    of the

    gods

    as

    initiatory

    dances

    (Geiou

    xopou,

    247a7,

    xeXex&v,

    250b8),

    Socrates

    suggests

    that the task of

    the

    charioteer is to

    guide

    both horses in the

    orderly

    movements of a dance

    inspired by

    the

    gods.

    In

    so

    doing,

    the charioteer

    produces

    in

    the

    soul

    an

    equilibrium

    between

    the

    opposing

    tendencies

    of

    restraint,

    represented

    by

    the

    white

    horse,

    and bold

    movement,

    represented

    by

    the black

    horse.

    Each of

    these

    tendencies is harmful when excessive

    and

    lacking

    proper

    guidance

    but

    necessary

    and useful to the soul

    when

    properly

    trained

    and

    balanced

    by

    the

    opposing

    extreme. The

    myth

    of

    the charioteer

    learning

    to

    guide

    the two

    horses so that

    they

    move

    in

    orderly

    fashion

    represents

    the

    psychic

    education,

    mediated

    by

    eros,

    of

    the entire

    soul,

    an

    education

    that

    produces

    within the soul a

    rhythm

    and

    harmony

    derived from the

    gods.7

    Similar

    concepts

    of

    psychic equilibrium

    appear

    throughout

    Plato's

    dialogues

    and are

    explained

    in

    helpful

    detail

    in the account

    given

    in the

    Laws of

    education

    by

    means of the dance.

    After an

    analysis

    of the

    psychology

    expressed

    in

    allegorical

    form

    in

    the chariot

    myth

    (section 2),

    I

    discuss

    the

    satyr-like

    characteristics

    of

    the

    black horse

    (section

    3)

    and

    examine the

    imagery

    of the dance

    in the

    Phaedrus,

    arguing

    that it is based on

    psychological

    principles

    similar to

    those

    explained

    in

    more

    detail

    in the Laws

    (section

    4).

    2.

    CHARIOTEER

    AND HORSES

    The

    charioteer and

    both of the

    horses

    in the

    souls

    of mortals are

    char-

    acterized in

    Socrates'

    speech

    as

    having

    a combination

    of

    good

    and evil

    qualities.

    When

    Socrates introduces the

    myth,

    he

    says

    that

    the soul

    is

    a

    compound

    of

    three different

    capacities

    (aupxpuTG)

    8uvdji8i,

    246a6-7),

    represented

    respectively by

    the charioteer

    and the

    two horses. Socrates

    7

    For the

    Neoplatonic

    view that the horses

    represent

    movement,

    irregular

    in

    itself,

    that

    can be

    regulated by

    intellect so as to become

    movement

    around

    a

    center,

    see Robin

    1908,163-64.

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    188

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    does not

    explain

    what these

    three

    capacities

    are

    in

    this

    passage,

    but he

    returns to them at 253c7-255al

    (discussed

    below).

    He goes on to recount

    the

    fall from

    heaven of mortal

    souls,

    without

    giving

    many

    details about

    how

    these

    capacities

    differ from one another.

    He

    does,

    however,

    char-

    acterize the

    entire

    soul

    as

    a mixture of

    good

    and

    evil,

    in which

    all

    three

    capacities

    have

    some share

    in

    a

    divine,

    winged

    element,

    and

    all three are

    to

    blame for

    the loss of this element and for

    the

    evil that

    subsequently

    fills

    the

    entire

    soul.

    Of

    all

    bodily

    things,

    Socrates

    says,

    the

    wing

    is that

    which

    most

    shares in

    what is divine:

    that

    is,

    what

    is

    beautiful,

    wise

    and

    good

    (246d6-el).

    Now the entire soul

    was once

    winged

    (251b7),

    and,

    after it has fallen and lost its

    wings

    (248c8),

    eros causes feathers to

    grow

    again

    under

    the form

    of

    the whole soul

    (251b6-7).

    Socrates'

    statements

    imply

    that

    all

    three

    capacities

    of

    the

    soul,

    including

    that

    represented

    by

    the black

    horse,

    originally

    shared,

    and are

    capable

    of

    coming

    to share

    again,

    in

    the

    divine

    qualities?beauty,

    wisdom

    and the

    good?associ?

    ated with

    the

    wing.

    All mortal

    souls,

    Socrates

    says,

    are

    also

    deficient

    (jraoai... dxe^eiq,

    248b4),

    and

    in

    all

    of them the

    disparity

    of the horses

    makes

    driving

    difficult

    (246bl-4).

    In

    even

    the best

    soul,

    the

    charioteer

    has

    difficulty

    seeing

    the

    things

    that are because

    he

    is disturbed

    by

    both

    of the horses

    (248al-5).8

    The

    fall, however,

    is caused not

    only by

    the

    disturbance

    of the

    horses

    but also

    by

    the bad

    driving

    of

    the

    charioteers

    (icaidqc

    f|vi6%ot)v,

    248b2).

    The soul fails when

    these defects

    in

    horses and

    drivers

    are

    combined with

    some misfortune

    (tivi

    crovTuxioc

    xp'ncrajievri)

    that

    weighs

    the soul

    down

    with

    forgetfulness,

    fills it with

    evil,

    and causes

    it

    to lose

    its

    wings

    (248c5-8).

    When

    Socrates returns to the chariot

    myth

    at

    253c7-255al,

    all three

    capacities

    in

    the soul

    continue to be

    represented

    as

    having

    both

    positive

    and

    negative

    characteristics. The charioteer

    is,

    at

    first,

    unable

    to

    drive the

    horses so that

    they pull

    the chariot toward the beloved in

    orderly

    fashion.

    Instead

    of

    providing proper guidance,

    he sometimes

    yields

    to

    the black

    horse

    (ei^avxe,

    254b3)

    and at other times

    punishes

    it

    severely (254d7-e5).

    Indeed,

    the

    charioteer,

    as Ferrari has

    shown,

    not

    only

    uses the violence

    of

    whip

    and

    goad

    (253e4,254a3^)

    on the

    horses;

    he is also

    characterized

    in

    equine

    terms,

    as

    feeling

    the

    goad

    of

    desire

    (254al)

    and

    rearing

    back

    (254b8)

    like

    a

    horse.9

    Moreover,

    although

    the charioteer

    has

    the

    ability

    to

    remember

    the

    beauty

    seen in a

    previous

    existence

    (254b5-7),

    he can-

    not,

    without

    the

    help

    of

    the

    horses,

    approach

    the

    object

    that

    reminds him

    of it. The horses were

    previously

    said to

    represent

    capacities

    in the soul

    8The

    plural

    at

    248a4-6

    is noted

    by

    Price

    1989, 83,

    and

    1995,

    77-79.

    9Ferrari

    1987,186-90.

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    DANCING

    WITH

    THE

    GODS

    189

    that are

    opposed

    to

    each other

    (246b3),

    and the

    black horse

    was

    simply

    characterized as

    opposite

    (evocvuoq)

    to the white horse, who was said

    to be

    beautiful and

    good

    (246b2-3).

    Socrates

    now

    provides

    a more

    de-

    tailed

    characterization. Before

    being

    tamed,

    the

    black horse

    is

    licentious,

    or

    unpunished

    (aKoXaoxoq,

    255e5)

    and a

    companion

    of

    hybris (253e3),

    having

    a

    tendency

    to move

    forward and

    cry

    out

    without order.

    He

    pulls

    the chariot

    toward the beloved

    (254a4-6,

    254d4-7),

    leaping

    (gkiptcov,

    254a4)

    and

    neighing (xpejaexi^cov, 254d4).

    Even

    before

    being

    tamed,

    however,

    as

    Ferrari

    points

    out,

    the black horse

    uses

    and

    is

    amenable

    to

    reason and

    is

    capable

    of

    coming

    to an

    agreement

    with

    the

    white

    horse

    and charioteer

    (6jnoA,oyr|aavT8,

    254b3;

    b^ioXoyiav,

    254dl;

    crove%cbpr|a?v,

    254d2).10

    Moreover,

    his

    tendencies to

    leap

    about

    have

    positive

    aspects,

    for it is

    always

    the black horse

    who

    pulls

    the chariot

    toward

    the

    beloved,

    allowing

    the soul to

    approach

    beauty.11

    The black

    horse

    is

    said to be

    licen?

    tious not

    because he is

    ineradicably

    vicious

    but because

    he is shameless

    and

    unpunished,

    like a child.

    The

    punishment

    he receives

    is severe

    and

    bloody

    but

    a

    necessary part

    of

    his

    education.12

    The

    white

    horse is also

    given

    a mixture

    of

    positive

    and

    negative

    qualities.

    He is

    characterized

    in

    apparently positive

    terms,

    as obedient

    and

    as a lover of honor when

    joined

    with

    sophrosyne

    and aidos

    (moderation

    and

    reverence,

    253d6-el).

    There

    are, however,

    clear indications

    that

    he

    also has

    significant

    defects,

    caused,

    in

    particular,

    by

    the

    fact

    that he is

    a

    lover of

    honor

    (xijifjq

    epaaxri^,

    253d6).

    In even

    the best

    souls,

    both horses

    cause

    trouble to

    the driver before

    the fall.13

    The other souls

    are

    in even

    worse

    condition.

    They

    trample

    on

    and run

    into

    one

    another,

    wanting

    to

    be

    first and

    engaging

    in

    competition

    and

    struggle (248a6-b2),

    all of

    which

    activities

    would

    appear

    to be

    due to excessive love

    of honor. Love

    of honor

    is also

    characterized

    negatively

    when it is attributed

    to

    the second-best

    10Ferrari

    1987,186-89;

    see also

    Nightingale

    1995,142-43.

    nNoted

    by

    Ferrari, 1987, 192;

    Burger

    1980, 65-66;

    Stoeber

    1992,

    277. Rowe

    1990,

    241,

    objects

    that it is the

    wings,

    not the

    horses,

    that

    carry

    the chariot forward

    and that

    the

    black

    horse

    contributes

    nothing

    but

    trouble.

    This

    interpretation

    does

    not

    take

    into

    account the

    clear indications in

    253e-254e that the black

    horse initiates movement:

    see

    below,

    this

    section.

    12Punishment s

    described,

    for

    example,

    at 254e2-5.The

    charioteer

    presumably

    uses

    a

    bit

    hardened

    by spikes

    or wheels: Xen.

    On

    Horsemanship

    10.6-11;

    Vigneron

    1968,

    vol.

    1,

    62-76; Delebecque 1950,173-77. According to Plato's Gorgias, akolasia, the state of being

    unpunished,

    is the

    greatest

    of

    evils

    (477e)

    and

    just punishment

    is beneficial

    (476a-477a,

    505b,

    507d-e).

    On this idea in

    the

    Gorgias

    and

    other

    dialogues,

    see Mackenzie

    1981,

    esp.

    179-206.

    13

    See

    above,

    n. 8.

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    190

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    lovers,

    those

    who

    are

    less

    philosophical

    and more

    honor-loving ((piAmijico

    8e xpf|GcovToti, 256cl) than are the ideal lovers.14 The white horse, who

    also resembles

    these

    honor-lovers

    in

    many

    other

    ways,

    has

    hubristic

    de-

    sires but restrains

    them

    by

    force

    (254a2-3).

    Another

    potentially

    negative

    characteristic of

    the

    white horse is

    excessive

    restraint.15

    The white

    horse

    holds itself back

    (254a2-3),

    pulls

    against

    the

    black

    horse

    (254a7),

    and

    only

    moves forward

    when

    compelled

    by

    the

    black

    horse

    (254a5,

    254d5).

    The

    fact

    that the

    white

    horse,

    as

    well as

    the

    black,

    has

    defects

    means

    that the

    driver

    must

    work

    to

    control

    both horses

    and not

    only

    the

    black.16

    This

    characterization

    of all three

    capacities

    as mixtures

    of

    good

    and evil

    suggests

    that the chariot

    myth

    is based on a more holistic view

    of

    the soul than

    is the

    Phaedo,

    for

    example.17

    All three

    capacities,

    and

    not

    only

    a rational

    part

    of the

    soul,

    are

    given

    an

    essential

    and

    positive

    role

    in

    striving

    toward

    the

    good

    and the

    beautiful,

    and each

    capacity

    is

    represented

    as

    having

    certain

    defects.

    Although

    the

    three

    capacities

    have

    some

    similarity

    to

    the three

    parts

    of the soul

    in

    Republic

    4?reason,

    ap-

    petite,

    and

    spirit?they

    should

    not

    simply

    be

    equated

    with these

    parts,

    for

    all three

    capacities

    share

    to some

    extent

    in reason

    and

    all three

    have

    desires.18

    The

    charioteer

    represents

    a

    guiding

    principle

    in

    the

    soul,

    with

    desires of its own. The black horse

    represents

    an

    impulse

    to move in

    bold

    and

    disorderly

    fashion

    toward

    erotic

    objects,

    while

    the

    white

    horse

    represents

    the

    impulse

    to stand

    still and

    to

    resist

    these

    objects.

    Both

    horses

    are

    able

    to use

    and

    to follow

    reason and

    are

    therefore

    capable

    of

    being

    trained

    by

    the

    charioteer,

    who

    must

    also train himself

    to

    guide

    14

    In the

    Republic

    also,

    honor-lovers

    are said

    to be

    less than

    fully

    virtuous.

    They

    are

    educated

    by

    force

    rather than

    persuasion

    and

    philosophy,

    take

    pleasures

    in

    secret

    (548b4-c2),

    love

    honor, victory and war,

    are obedient

    to

    rulers

    (548d8-549b7),

    and are

    influenced

    by

    both

    reason and

    desire

    (550bl-3).

    Rowe,

    1986,189,

    on 256b7-e2

    notes the

    connection between

    the

    second-best

    lovers and the honor-lover

    of

    the

    Republic.

    Sheffield

    2001,10,

    notes that

    the lovers in

    the

    lower

    mysteries

    section

    of Plato's

    Symposium

    (208c3)

    are also

    honor-lovers. On

    the connection

    between love

    of

    honor and

    injustice

    in

    Plato's

    dialogues,

    see Pakaluk

    2004,111.

    15

    As

    Statesman

    310dl0-e3

    makes

    clear,

    there

    can

    be too much aidos

    in the soul.

    16The

    charioteer

    and white horse

    are not one

    in

    purpose

    and

    function

    (Hackforth

    1952,107)

    nor is

    the white

    horse a mere

    foil to the other

    two who

    learns

    nothing

    from his

    experience (Ferrari

    1987,192,194).

    17

    See

    esp.

    Phd.

    64c-68b,

    where

    the

    body

    and its desires

    are said

    to

    hinder

    the soul

    from attaining wisdom and virtue.

    18Ferrari

    987,185-203.

    It has often been

    claimed that

    the charioteer and

    horses cor-

    respond

    to the

    three

    parts

    of the soul

    in

    Republic

    4,

    reason,

    appetite,

    and

    spirit:

    Hackforth

    1952, 72;

    Robin

    1994,

    cxxxix;

    Rowe

    1986,

    on

    246bl-3;

    Thompson,

    1868,

    45.

    White

    1993,

    89-93,

    argues

    against

    too exact

    a

    correspondence.

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    DANCING

    WITH THE GODS

    191

    them

    without

    imposing

    excessive restraint

    or

    yielding

    to the

    impulse

    to

    move forward without any restraint. In this myth, all three capacities of

    the

    human soul share in

    a

    divine,

    winged

    element,

    and all three

    also have

    bestial characteristics.

    The black

    horse,

    then,

    is

    not

    innately

    evil

    but can

    be a

    force for

    good

    if

    he is

    properly

    trained.

    Without

    the

    guidance

    of

    the

    charioteer,

    the

    black

    horse

    moves

    in shameless and

    disorderly

    fashion,

    bending

    his

    head,

    stretching

    out his

    tail,

    taking

    the

    bit in his

    teeth,

    and

    dragging

    the chariot

    shamelessly

    forward

    in

    pursuit

    of

    an erotic

    object

    (254d6-7).

    After he is

    tamed, however,

    the black

    horse

    helps

    to move

    the

    chariot in

    an

    orderly way

    toward the

    beloved,

    that

    is,

    with

    reverence

    and fear

    (ai8ouji8vr|v

    xe Kai SeSvoiav,

    254e9J.

    In

    Socrates'

    narrative,

    eros sets the

    chariot in motion

    by

    activating

    all

    three

    capacities

    of

    the soul.

    Under

    the influence

    of

    eros,

    the black

    horse at

    first moves in

    disorderly

    fashion

    toward

    the

    object

    of

    desire,

    unrestrained

    by

    fear or

    the law

    (254a3-bl),

    while

    the white horse

    forcibly

    restrains

    himself

    from

    leaping

    upon

    the

    object

    of desire

    (254al-2).

    The

    charioteer,

    seeing

    the

    beloved,

    remembers

    true

    beauty

    and

    experiences

    fear

    and

    reverence

    (254b5-8),

    and as a result

    the soul of

    the lover

    becomes

    mad

    and

    enthusiastic

    (249d4-e4).

    The

    lover then

    attempts

    to

    rejoin

    the

    gods

    by imitating

    the

    god

    he used to follow as a dancer

    (252dl)

    and

    by

    training

    the beloved to

    follow the

    rhythm

    of the

    same dance

    (253b5-7).

    In

    order to

    succeed

    in

    these

    endeavors,

    the

    charioteer,

    guided

    by

    the

    rhythm

    and

    harmony

    of the

    god

    he

    imitates,

    must

    temper

    the

    tendency

    of

    the

    black horse to

    make

    disordered

    movements

    with the

    restraint

    of

    the

    white

    horse so that the

    whole soul follows

    the beloved

    with

    fear and

    aidos

    (254e8-255al).19

    This state of soul is

    one of

    equilibrium,

    in

    which

    the

    impulse

    to

    move in

    disorderly

    fashion

    is

    opposed

    by

    an

    impulse

    toward

    restraint.

    My

    interpretation

    of the

    psychology

    of the chariot

    myth

    in the

    Phaedrus

    finds

    support

    from

    the fact

    that similar

    ideas are

    expressed

    in

    other

    dialogues

    as well.

    According

    to

    Republic

    3.410c-412a,

    a correct

    mixture of

    music with

    gymnastics

    in

    education

    softens

    the

    spirited

    part

    of

    our

    nature and

    hardens the

    philosophical

    nature

    in order to

    produce

    a

    soul that

    is both

    moderate and

    courageous

    (410elCMllal).The

    Statesman

    also

    stresses

    the need for

    correct education

    of different

    dispositions

    so as

    to

    counteract

    any

    tendencies toward

    harmful

    extremes.

    If

    the

    courageous

    19

    Price

    1995,78-79,

    incorrectly

    attributes

    the fear to the black

    horse and

    the shame

    to

    the

    white horse. Socrates'

    point

    is that

    all three

    capacities

    in the soul learn

    to

    experi?

    ence

    these

    emotions.

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    192

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    soul

    receives a

    good

    education,

    it is made

    gentle;

    if

    not,

    it

    inclines

    toward

    the bestial nature. Good education makes the orderly nature moderate

    and

    wise,

    but

    lack of

    education renders

    it

    simple (309dl0-e8).

    Accord?

    ing

    to

    the

    Statesman,

    the

    right

    kinds of

    marriages

    also

    help

    to

    produce

    a

    correct

    mixture in

    the

    dispositions

    of children.

    Over

    many generations,

    intermarriage

    among

    people

    who

    have

    dispositions

    that

    are

    courageous

    without

    any

    admixture of the moderate nature

    produces

    madness.

    On the

    other

    hand,

    the

    race

    that is too filled

    with shame

    {aidos)

    becomes

    dull

    and is

    crippled

    (310d6-e3).

    Similar

    views about

    marriage

    are

    expressed

    in

    Laws

    6.

    In

    a

    well-ordered

    state,

    people

    who

    are too

    eager

    and

    hasty

    should

    marry

    those who are slower

    (773a7-c8).This

    mixture of different

    dispositions

    is

    compared

    to the

    krasis

    of

    wine with water: a

    city

    should

    be

    mixed like a

    wine

    bowl,

    in

    which mad

    wine boils

    when

    poured

    in,

    but

    when it is

    punished

    by

    another sober

    god

    [sc.

    water]

    and

    joins

    in a

    good

    combination

    makes

    a fine and measured

    drink

    (773c8-d4).

    As will be

    shown in

    section

    4,

    the idea of

    psychic equilibrium

    is

    especially

    prominent

    in Plato's

    Laws.20

    The

    preceding analysis

    makes it easier

    to understand what

    happens

    in

    the

    different

    stages

    of

    the

    process by

    means

    of

    which

    the soul-chariot

    achieves

    equilibrium.

    A schema at the end of the article

    represents

    these

    stages

    in

    outline form.

    1. The

    process

    begins

    when

    the

    charioteer,

    seeing

    the

    beloved,

    warms

    the

    whole

    soul,

    causing

    it to be filled with

    tickling

    and desire

    (253e5-

    254al).

    Although

    the

    stimulus comes

    first

    to the

    charioteer,

    all

    three

    parts

    of

    the

    soul have the same emotional

    response,

    characterized

    earlier

    as a

    boiling

    and

    tickling

    (251c4-5),

    resulting

    from the

    growth

    of the

    feathers,

    that affects the entire

    soul

    (251b6-7).

    2. The three

    parts

    of the soul act

    differently

    in

    response

    to the same

    emotional

    stimulus. The white horse

    compelled

    then and

    always by

    aidos,

    restrains

    himself from

    leaping

    upon

    the

    beloved

    (254al-3).

    The

    black

    horse, however,

    is

    himself

    carried

    away by

    force and

    in

    turn

    compels

    (254a5, bl)

    the white horse

    and the

    charioteer

    to

    ap?

    proach

    the

    beloved and to mention

    the

    pleasures

    of

    sex

    (254a3-7).

    They

    at first

    resist

    (254a7-bl). Finally,

    however,

    the white

    horse and

    charioteer

    yield

    and

    agree

    to do what

    the

    black

    horse

    orders,

    and

    they

    approach

    the beloved

    (254M-4).

    20

    Similar

    ideas about

    psychic equilibrium

    are

    expressed

    in

    Laws 5.731b3-d5

    and

    in

    the

    passages

    cited

    by

    des

    Places 1951 on Laws

    5.728e:

    Rep.

    6.503c-d,

    Tht

    144a-b,

    Pol.

    306c-308b,

    Epin.

    989b-c.

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    DANCING WITH THE GODS

    193

    3. When

    they

    are

    forced to draw near to the

    beloved,

    the

    charioteer

    sees his beauty and remembers the true beauty he saw in a previous

    existence

    (254b4-7).That

    is,

    he has the

    experience

    that was

    said ear?

    lier

    (249d4-e4)

    to be the

    madness and

    enthusiasm

    of

    the

    lover, who,

    seeing beauty

    here,

    is

    reminded of

    beauty

    there.

    As a

    result

    of

    this

    vision,

    the

    charioteer

    experiences

    reverence and

    fear

    (254b7-8).21

    4.

    Approach

    is

    followed

    by

    retreat. The

    charioteer

    is now

    compelled

    to

    pull

    back

    strongly

    on the reins so that both horses

    sit back

    on their

    haunches. The

    white horse

    obeys willingly

    and

    without

    resisting;

    the

    black horse

    obeys

    but much

    against

    his will.

    The two horses

    then

    retreat

    (254b8-c4).

    5.

    The two

    horses

    react

    differently

    after the

    retreat. The white

    horse

    experiences

    shame and

    terror,

    and he

    waters the whole

    soul

    with

    sweat

    (254c4-5).

    This

    horse

    experiences

    not

    aidos,

    the

    good

    kind

    of

    shame that

    restrains him from

    leaping

    upon

    the

    beloved,

    but

    aischyne,

    shame at

    having

    done

    wrong

    in

    yielding

    to the

    black

    horse.22

    When

    the

    black

    horse

    recovers from

    pain,

    he becomes

    angry

    and

    abusive

    and

    tries,

    without

    success,

    to force the others to

    approach

    the

    beloved

    again. Finally,

    the

    black horse

    grudgingly agrees

    with

    the

    others

    to

    postpone

    a second

    approach (254c5-d2).

    This

    stage

    of the conflict

    ends

    in a

    temporary

    truce.

    6.

    The whole

    process

    of

    approach

    and retreat

    is

    repeated

    a second

    time

    (254d2-e5)

    and

    many

    times

    (noXXaKic,, 254e6)

    thereafter.

    The

    black

    horse

    again

    compels

    the others to

    approach,

    pulling

    shamelessly

    to?

    ward the

    beloved,

    and the charioteer

    again pulls

    back

    on

    the

    reins.

    On these

    subsequent

    occasions,

    however,

    the charioteer's

    experience

    is more

    powerful

    (exi

    \mXXov,

    254el),

    and

    he

    pulls

    more

    strongly

    on

    the

    reins

    of the

    hubristic horse

    (exi

    jaaMtov,

    254e2).

    The

    white

    horse

    is not mentioned.

    7.

    At

    last the

    black

    horse is tamed

    (xa7C8ivo>0?i

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    194

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    horse but also in

    a

    permanent?or

    at least

    semi-permanent?agree?

    ment of all three parts of the soul. The charioteer is in command,

    and the two

    horses

    obey

    willingly.

    The whole soul

    now

    experiences

    both the aidos

    that

    was at

    first a characteristic

    of the

    white horse

    alone and the fear

    (8e8u)iocv, 254e9)

    that the charioteer

    originally

    experienced

    when

    he remembered true

    beauty

    at the

    sight

    of the

    beloved

    (?8eiae,

    254b7)

    and

    that the

    black horse

    experienced

    while

    being

    tamed

    (254e8).

    The motion

    toward

    the

    beloved

    that

    the black

    horse once

    forced

    upon

    the others

    has now been

    imparted

    to the

    whole soul so

    that

    it follows

    the beloved

    in

    orderly

    fashion.

    In

    this

    way,

    the lover,

    having

    transformed disorder into order in his soul,

    begins

    to follow his

    god.

    3.

    HORSES, SATYRS,

    AND

    SOCRATES

    In

    creating

    this

    story

    of

    the

    horses and

    charioteer,

    Socrates

    draws

    on

    themes

    and

    images

    in

    erotic

    poetry,

    drama,

    and the visual

    arts. Because

    the

    addressee is

    Phaedrus

    (257a5-6;

    cf.

    243e),

    a lover of

    speeches

    who

    responds

    to them with

    the

    enthusiasm

    of the

    Corybantes

    or the

    Bacchantes

    (228b6-c2,234dl-6),

    Socrates uses

    the

    emotionally charged

    language

    of

    poetry

    to

    appeal

    to

    him

    (257a5-6).23

    Socrates'

    myth

    also

    has emotional

    appeal

    because

    it

    tells

    a

    story

    in which the

    personification

    of the

    parts

    of the

    soul and

    conflict

    among

    them

    provide

    dramatic

    interest.

    It is an

    example

    of

    the kind

    of

    rhetoric Socrates

    later calls

    psychagogia,

    which

    is

    addressed

    to

    a

    certain kind of soul and

    uses such

    techniques

    as the

    arousal of

    pity

    and

    fear

    (271cl0-272b4).24

    The

    imagery

    in the

    speech

    is

    an

    essential

    part

    of

    these rhetorical

    appeals

    to emotion.

    The horse is an

    erotic

    symbol

    in

    Greek

    literature, representing

    both

    lover

    and beloved. For

    example,

    in a

    poem

    of

    Ibycus,

    paraphrased

    in

    Plato's

    Parmenides,

    the lover

    compares

    himself

    to an

    aged

    racehorse

    forced to

    compete against

    his

    will.25

    Greek

    literature,

    as

    Jacqueline

    de

    Romilly

    has

    23

    Rowe 1986 on

    257a5-6 notes that

    poetry

    is the

    language

    of

    emotion,

    citing

    Rep.

    603bff,

    Aristotle,

    Rhet.

    1408bl0ff.

    Nightingale

    1995,159-62,

    notes the extensive

    influence

    of

    lyric

    love

    poetry

    on

    Socrates' second

    speech.

    24

    Asmis

    1986;

    Gill

    2001,317-20.

    25Ibycus287 Page, paraphrased in Plato, Parm. 136e-137a. The beloved is compared

    to a

    horse

    in

    Theognis

    1249-52 and

    1267-70,

    and

    in

    Anacreon

    fr.

    360.

    Fortenbaugh

    1966

    calls

    attention to the

    striking parallels

    between

    the Phaedrus and Anacreon

    fr. 417.

    Young

    girls

    about to be

    married

    are

    often

    compared

    to horses that need to be tamed:

    Calame

    1997, 238-44;

    O'Brien

    1993,184-88;

    Seaford

    1988b.

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    DANCING

    WITH THE

    GODS

    195

    shown,

    also contains

    many

    images

    of a combat

    between

    charioteer

    and

    horses.26 She calls attention to some

    striking

    verbal parallels between

    the

    description

    of the

    runaway

    horses

    that

    cause their

    master's

    death

    in

    Euripides' Hippolytus

    and the

    account of the

    taming

    of the black horse

    in

    the

    Phaedrus.21 Socrates'

    myth

    uses the

    language

    and

    imagery

    of

    poetry

    and

    alludes to

    poetic

    precedents,

    but it describes

    a

    process

    in which eros

    is

    not

    destructive but

    beneficial.

    The

    myth

    of

    the

    chariot contains allusions to

    comic,

    as well as

    tragic,

    precedents.

    Scholars

    have not

    noticed,

    as

    far as I

    know,

    that

    the black

    horse resembles

    a

    satyr

    or

    silenus,

    a

    hybrid

    creature

    with human form

    and horse's tail, ears, and sometimes hooves.28 This allusion is

    apparent

    from

    Socrates'

    description:

    The

    other

    [horse]

    is

    crooked,

    big,

    with limbs

    put

    together

    at

    random,

    strong-necked,

    short-necked,

    snub-nosed, black,

    with

    gray

    and

    bloodshot

    eyes,

    companion

    of

    hybris

    and

    boastfulness,

    shaggy

    around the

    ears,

    deaf,

    barely

    yielding

    to

    the

    whip

    together

    with

    the

    goad

    (253el-5).

    Descriptions

    of

    satyrs

    are

    rare

    in

    literature,

    but

    images

    abound in

    the visual

    arts.29

    They

    are

    typically

    represented,

    for

    example

    on the Attic

    black-figure

    amphora

    in

    figure

    1,

    as

    big,

    misshapen

    creatures

    with snub

    noses,

    high

    foreheads,

    shaggy

    hair,

    thick,

    short

    necks,

    large eyes,

    and

    large,

    erect

    phalluses.30The

    black horse not

    only

    looks but

    also

    acts

    like

    a

    satyr,

    being

    characterized

    by

    hybris

    and

    lack of

    restraint,

    especially

    in

    sex,

    and

    failing

    to

    achieve its sexual

    goals.31

    Just

    as

    satyrs

    are

    usually

    represented

    in

    motion,

    so the black

    horse

    leaps

    about

    and

    pulls

    the chariot

    forward.32 The

    chariot

    pulled by

    the

    satyr-like

    black

    horse

    also has

    parallels

    in

    vase-paintings,

    a number

    of which

    represent

    two

    satyrs

    harnessed to

    chariots

    (fig. 2).33

    Of

    particular

    interest is a

    cup

    26

    de

    Romilly

    1982,108-12,

    citing

    //.

    23,

    Soph.

    EI

    680-763,

    Aes.

    Ch.

    1021ff;

    Isocrates,

    To Demonicus 32.

    27

    de

    Romilly

    1982;

    verbal

    parallels

    noted 109.

    28

    On

    the

    satyr/silenus

    see Brommer

    1937;

    Lissarrague

    1990

    and

    1993;

    Kuhnert

    1909-1915;

    Seaford 1988a.

    Because little

    distinction

    is made between

    satyr

    and silenus at

    this

    period

    (Seaford

    1988a,

    6),

    I

    use the

    term

    satyr

    generically

    to refer

    to horse-human

    hybrids.

    29

    Kuhnert

    1909-1915,444-45.

    30That

    horse-ears,

    high

    foreheads,

    and snub noses were sufficient

    to

    designate

    a

    satyr

    is

    apparent

    from the fact that

    the Pronomos

    vase

    (ARV21336)

    represents

    these features

    on

    the masks worn

    by

    actors in

    a

    satyr play.

    See

    Lissarrague

    1990,

    228-29.

    31Hybris:

    Phdr.

    253e3, 254c3,

    254e2, 6;

    failure to achieve

    sexual

    goals:

    254b8-c3,

    254e2-5. On satyrs' lack of restraint and frustration in sexual matters,see Lissarrague 1993,

    214;

    Seaford

    1988a,

    38-39.

    32

    Black

    horse:

    Phdr.

    254a3-6,254d6-7;

    satyrs

    in

    motion:

    Lissarrague

    1993,

    212.

    33

    Satyr

    chariots:

    Lissarrague

    1987,

    115;

    Carpenter

    1997,

    25-28,

    with

    illustration,

    plate

    6B.

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    196

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    Figure

    1.

    Satyrs making

    wine. Attic

    black-figure

    amphora,

    ABV

    151,

    22.

    Amasis Painter. Martin von

    Wagner

    Museum der

    Universitat

    Wurzburg.

    Photograph:

    K. Oehrlein.

    discussed

    by

    Thomas

    Carpenter

    that

    represents,

    on

    the

    inside,

    Zeus

    mounting

    a chariot

    (fig.

    3A),

    while a

    chariot

    pulled

    by satyrs

    is

    depicted

    on the outside

    (fig. 3B). According

    to

    Carpenter,

    the

    satyr

    chariot

    is

    a

    parody

    of the

    god's

    chariot.34

    Similarly,

    in

    the

    Phaedrus,

    the chariot with

    the

    satyr-like

    horse can be seen as a comic

    counterpart

    of the

    winged

    chariots of

    the

    gods (246e-247e).

    Satyrs

    are

    not

    merely

    comic

    hybrids

    of human and

    animal,

    however;

    they

    also,

    like the daimones in Plato's

    Symposium,

    have a status

    inter?

    mediate

    between mortals and

    gods.35

    The idea that

    satyrs

    are

    superior

    to

    34Carpenter

    1997,

    25-26.

    35Seaford

    1988a,

    32 and

    197,

    on Eur.

    Cyc.

    495-502.

    In

    Plato's

    Symposium

    the

    daimonion

    is a

    being

    between

    god

    and

    mortal

    {%av

    xo

    5ouuoviov

    jiera^o

    eoxi Oeoi)

    xe Kai

    Ovtitoo):

    02dl3-el).

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    DANCING WITH

    THE

    GODS

    197

    Figure

    2.

    Satyr

    chariot.

    Red-figure

    Athenian

    stamnos,

    c. 460 B.C.E. Blenheim

    Painter.

    Museum of Fine

    Arts,

    Boston.

    Henry

    Lillie Pierce

    Fund,

    00.342.

    Photograph

    ?

    2006,

    Museum of Fine

    Arts,

    Boston.

    humans

    is illustrated

    by

    the

    story

    of Midas's

    capture

    of

    a

    satyr

    in

    order to

    acquire

    his more than human

    wisdom.36 Yet

    satyrs

    are not

    fully equal

    to

    the

    gods.

    They accompany

    Dionysus

    as subordinates rather

    than

    equals37

    and are

    frequently separated

    from him. In the

    only

    extant

    satyr play,

    Euripides'

    Cyclops,

    the chorus

    of

    satyrs,

    after

    being captured

    and

    sepa?

    rated

    from their

    god

    and

    made to serve a harsh

    master,

    are liberated

    and

    reunited

    with

    Dionysus.

    This theme of

    captivity,

    servitude,

    and

    temporary

    separation

    from

    Dionysus,

    followed

    by

    liberation,

    is

    characteristic of

    satyr

    plays.38

    In another

    story illustrating

    the

    ambiguous

    status of

    satyrs,

    the

    36

    Seaford

    1988a,

    7,

    citing

    Herod.

    8.138,

    Arist.

    fr. 44

    Rose. On this

    story

    and

    satyric

    imagery

    in Plato's

    Symposium,

    see Usher

    2002.

    37

    Lissarrague

    1993,214.

    38

    Seaford

    1988a, 33-36;

    Ussher

    1977,

    291-94.

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    198

    ELIZABETH BELFIORE

    Figures

    3A,

    3B. Chariots with

    gods

    and

    satyrs. Red-figure cup

    attributed to

    Onesimos.

    Athens,

    from Marathon

    St.,

    inv. 0.70

    (A5349),

    in the collection of

    the Third Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Athens. Photo

    after

    Carpenter, pl.

    4A and

    4B.

    satyr Marsyas,

    to whom Socrates is

    compared

    in

    Plato's

    Symposium,

    chal-

    lenges

    Apollo

    to a

    pipe

    contest,

    as no mortal would

    dare,

    and is

    punished

    in

    a

    way

    no

    god

    could

    be,

    by being flayed.39

    Like the daimones in the

    Symposium, satyrs

    mediate between humans and

    gods.40

    One

    important

    39Thestory is alluded to in Solon, fr. 33.7 West;Herodotus 7.26; Plato, Euthydemus

    285c9-d2,

    and

    Symp.

    215b-c,

    221e3-4. On Socrates and the

    flaying

    of

    Marsyas,

    see North

    1994,89-98.

    40In

    Symp.

    202e-203a the

    daimonion is said to make

    possible

    many

    kinds of interac?

    tions

    between

    gods

    and

    mortals,

    including prophecy

    and initiation

    (xetaxou;: 02e8).

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    DANCING WITH

    THE

    GODS

    199

    way

    in

    which

    they

    do

    so

    is,

    as Richard

    Seaford

    has

    shown,

    through

    their

    role in initiation.41 Seaford cites Laws 815c, where Plato discusses Bac-

    chic

    dances and the

    like,

    which

    (the

    dancers

    allege)

    are

    an imitation

    of

    drunken

    persons they

    call

    Nymphs

    and Pans and Sileni

    and

    Satyrs,

    and

    which are

    performed

    during

    purifications

    and

    initiations

    [leXexaq

    xivocq

    dc7coTeX,ouvTcov]. 42

    Although

    other

    literary

    evidence

    is

    relatively

    late,

    support

    for an

    early

    association

    of

    satyrs

    with

    initiation

    is

    provided

    by

    representations

    on

    black-figure

    vases

    of

    satyrs

    in ritual

    contexts.43

    The

    association of

    the

    satyr

    with

    initiation

    rites

    makes the

    image

    of

    the

    satyr-like

    black

    horse

    especially appropriate

    in the

    myth

    of the

    Phaedrus. This

    passage,

    in which the soul-chariots of mortals

    attempt

    to

    return to

    the choruses

    of the

    gods

    in

    which

    they

    danced

    as

    initiates

    (250b6-cl)

    before

    falling

    to

    earth,

    recounts a

    story

    similar

    to

    the

    motif

    in

    satyr

    plays

    of

    separation

    from

    Dionysus

    followed

    by

    reunion.

    The

    chariot

    myth,

    moreover,

    makes extensive

    use

    of

    mystery

    terminology.44

    The

    combination of

    mystery

    and

    satyric

    imagery

    in this

    passage

    supports

    the

    view

    that the black

    horse,

    who resembles a

    satyr physically

    and acts

    like

    a

    lustful

    satyr,

    also

    has the daimonic

    characteristics

    of a

    satyr.

    This

    horse is

    ugly

    and

    bestial,

    like a

    satyr,

    but he

    also

    has

    the

    divine,

    winged

    element shared

    by

    all three

    capacities

    of the soul.

    Moreover,

    it is his

    impulse

    to

    move

    toward

    erotic

    objects

    that

    forces

    (dvayKa^ei,

    254a5;

    cf.

    bl)

    the charioteer to

    approach

    near

    enough

    to the

    beloved

    to be

    reminded

    of

    divine

    beauty

    seated on the

    throne

    together

    with modera-

    tion

    (254b3-7).

    Like a

    satyr,

    then,

    the black horse

    mediates between

    the

    human

    and the divine.

    Not

    only

    is the

    black

    horse

    satyr-like,

    he also

    resembles

    Socrates.45

    As

    noted

    above,

    satyrs

    are

    big, misshapen

    creatures

    with snub

    noses,

    high

    foreheads,

    shaggy

    hair,

    thick,

    short

    necks,

    large

    eyes,

    and

    large,

    erect

    phal-

    luses.

    Except

    for this last

    feature,

    they

    look like visual

    representations

    of

    Socrates.

    Paul

    Zanker,

    comparing

    a bust

    of

    Socrates

    (fig.

    4)

    and

    an

    image

    of a

    satyr

    on

    a coin

    (fig. 5),

    writes that

    portraits

    of Socrates

    all follow

    the

    41Seaford 1976 and

    1988a,

    8-9.

    42Laws

    815c2-5,

    cited

    by

    Seaford

    1988a,

    8. Trans.:Saunders

    1970,

    adapted.

    The text

    presents

    major

    difficulties,

    but

    the

    general

    sense

    is

    clear.

    43Hedreen

    1992,168-70.

    44

    Initiation

    terminology

    occurs at

    Phaedrus

    250b6-c4,

    quoted

    below,

    section

    4,

    and

    throughout Socrates' second speech: see Riedweg 1987, 30-69.

    45

    Scholars

    sometimes

    note that the black horse looks

    like Socrates

    (e.g.,

    Arieti

    1991,192;

    Dorter

    1971, 284;

    Burger

    1980,

    65),

    but no

    one,

    to

    my

    knowledge,

    has

    analyzed

    the

    broader

    implications

    of this

    resemblance for an

    interpretation

    of the chariot

    myth.

    On

    Socrates as

    satyr

    in

    the

    Symposium,

    see

    Clay

    2000,

    69-76.

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    200

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    Figure

    4. Bust

    of

    Socrates.

    380 B.C.E.

    Museo

    Archeo-

    logico

    Nazio-

    nale

    di

    Napoli,

    inv. 6129. After

    Richter

    1984,

    pl.

    160.

    basic

    analogy

    with

    Silenus

    iconography,

    especially

    in

    the

    flat,

    strangely

    constricted

    face,

    the

    very

    broad, short,

    and

    deep-set

    nose,

    the

    high-set

    ears and

    bald

    head,

    and the

    long

    hair

    descending

    from the

    temples

    over

    the ears and the

    nape

    of the neck. 46 In

    these

    images,

    Socrates

    appears

    big-bellied and ungainly, with a short, thick neck, a snub nose, and long

    46Zanker

    1995,

    34.

    Richter

    1965, 109-19,

    provides

    a

    comprehensive

    survey

    of the

    visual

    representations

    of Socrates.

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    DANCING WITH

    THE

    GODS

    201

    Figure

    5. Silenus. Greek silver

    coin, obverse, Katane,

    c. 410

    B.C.E.,

    inv.

    3,52.

    Muenzkabinett,

    Staatliche

    Museen zu Berlin.

    Photograph:

    Reinhard

    Saczewski.

    Photo

    courtesy

    of Bildarchiv

    Preussicher

    Kulturbesitz / Art

    Resource,

    N.Y.

    hair

    falling

    about

    his ears

    (fig. 6). Similarly,

    the black horse is

    big (noXvq)

    and

    ungainly (aKo^ioq,

    eiKfj

    oufiTtecpopripivoq),

    with a

    strong

    and short

    neck

    (Kpax?pau%r|v,

    (3pa%i)xpd%r|A,0(;);

    e has a snub nose

    (aijao7ip6oco7i0(;)

    and is

    shaggy

    about the ears

    (mpi

    cbxa

    Xaoxoq,

    253el-4). Literary

    descrip?

    tions of Socrates

    also

    give

    him

    satyr-like

    characteristics,

    many

    of which

    correspond

    to

    the features

    of the black horse in the Phaedrus.

    Socrates

    looks like a satyr (Plato, Symp. 215a6-b6, 216d4; Xen. Symp. 4.19, 5.7).

    He has a

    big belly (Xen.

    Symp.

    2.19)

    and is so

    ungainly

    that

    everyone

    laughs

    at him when he

    says

    that he will dance

    (Xen.

    Symp.

    2.17).

    He

    is thick-necked

    (Cicero,

    De

    fato

    10)

    and has a snub nose

    (Plato,

    Tht.

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    202

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    Figure

    6.

    Socrates.

    Marble

    statuette

    from

    Alexandria.

    British

    Museum,

    inv.

    1925.

    Photograph

    ? The Trustees of

    the

    British

    Museum.

    Photo

    after

    Schefold,

    p.84.

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    DANCING

    WITH THE GODS

    203

    143e8-9,209cl;

    Meno

    80a5-6;

    Xen.

    Symp.

    5.6;

    scholiast

    on

    Aristophanes

    Clouds

    223).47

    According

    to Alcibiades in Plato's

    Symposium,

    Socrates,

    in

    addition to

    looking

    like a

    satyr,

    resembles the

    satyr Marsyas

    in

    being

    hubristic

    (215b7,221e3-4).

    Hybris

    is also characteristic

    of

    the

    black

    horse

    (uPpecoq

    . . .

    8Taipo

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    204

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    that the

    god

    will

    not take

    away

    the erotic

    skill

    he

    has

    given

    him,

    beseeching

    Eros to accept his palinode and to forgive him for what he said in his

    first

    speech (257a3-8).

    Clay argues

    that Socrates

    is also associated

    with

    Pan,

    whose

    presence

    is

    felt

    throughout

    the

    dialogue.

    Pan,

    like Eros in the

    Symposium,

    is

    a daimonic

    and erotic

    figure,

    a

    divinity

    who is

    satyr-like

    in

    having

    both

    human

    and animal characteristics.51

    He

    is mentioned at

    263d5-6,

    in

    connection

    with the

    nymphs,

    and

    he was

    thought

    to

    produce

    a

    panic

    fear at the

    noon

    hour

    (e.g.,

    Theocritus,

    Idyll

    1.15-18),

    the

    very

    time

    at which Socrates'

    daimonion

    and his

    fear

    of

    Eros

    prevent

    him from

    leaving

    before

    giving

    his

    palinode.

    Moreover,

    Socrates'

    address to

    Pan at

    the end of the

    dialogue (co

    y\Xz

    ndv,

    279b8)

    echoes his earlier

    prayer

    to

    Eros.

    Just

    as he

    prayed

    to

    Eros to make him still

    more

    honored

    by

    the

    beautiful

    (257a9),

    so

    Socrates,

    who

    is not

    physically

    beautiful,

    prays

    to

    Pan,

    the

    god

    he

    resembles,

    for

    inner

    beauty.52

    Socrates, then,

    is

    associated

    with

    all three

    figures?Eros,

    Pan,

    and

    the

    satyr-like

    black

    horse?because

    the

    philosopher

    shares

    their

    daimonic

    qualities.

    The

    image

    of

    the chariot

    indicates,

    moreover,

    that

    these same daimonic

    qualities

    are

    present

    to

    some

    extent

    in

    every

    human soul and are

    necessary

    to the

    psychic

    har?

    mony

    that

    allows us

    to

    return to the

    region

    of

    the

    gods.

    Socrates has a serious

    purpose,

    then, in

    characterizing

    the black

    horse

    as

    satyr-like.

    The

    complex ambiguity

    of

    the

    satyr,

    a

    creature

    that

    shares in

    bestiality,

    humanity,

    and

    divinity,

    makes

    it an

    appropriate

    image

    of one

    part

    of the

    soul.

    The

    satyr-like aspects

    of the

    human

    soul,

    if

    they

    are not

    tamed and

    trained,

    can

    drag

    us down to

    bestiality, wrecking

    the

    chariot of

    the

    soul,

    just

    as the horses

    destroy Hippolytus

    in

    Euripides'

    tragedy.

    When

    yoked

    to

    the

    sophrosyne

    and

    aidos of the

    white

    horse,

    however,

    and

    given

    proper

    guidance,

    these

    same

    elements

    in the soul

    can

    help

    us

    to

    rejoin

    the

    chorus of the

    gods.

    This essential role

    of the

    black horse is clearer within the context of the

    imagery

    of the dance in

    Socrates'

    myth

    in

    the

    Phaedrus.

    4.

    DANCING

    WITH THE GODS

    Choral

    imagery

    and

    terminology figure prominently

    in the

    myth

    of the

    chariot.

    With the

    exception

    of

    Hestia,

    who

    stays

    home,

    Zeus

    and

    each of

    the

    Olympian gods

    lead

    the

    soul-chariots

    of

    the other

    gods

    and

    daimones

    51

    Clay

    1979,347,

    quotes

    Cratylus

    408dl,

    where Pan is called

    5i(p\)r|

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    DANCING

    WITH

    THE

    GODS

    205

    in

    one

    of

    eleven

    companies

    (246e4-247a4).53

    Each

    of the

    gods

    is a leader

    in the divine chorus

    (Geiou

    xopou,

    247a7), moving

    through

    the heavens

    in

    an

    orderly

    choral

    arrangement (koctoc

    xa^iv,

    247a3).54

    Before it fell

    to

    earth,

    the

    soul-chariot of

    every

    human was a dancer

    (xopeuxric;,

    252dl)

    in

    the

    chorus

    (xopco,

    250b6)

    led

    by

    one of the

    gods.

    The

    mortal lover

    attempts

    to

    rejoin

    this

    chorus

    in

    which he used to

    dance,

    imitating

    his own

    god

    and

    educating

    his

    beloved to

    follow the

    rhythm (puB^i^ovxeq)

    of the same

    god

    (253b5-6).

    Socrates'

    statement that Hestia

    remains

    home

    (247al-2)

    while

    the

    other

    gods

    move around her

    in

    a circle

    (247d4-5)

    reflects

    the

    common

    idea

    that the

    stars are

    gods moving

    in a

    circular cosmic

    dance

    around a center.55 Indeed,

    many

    of the words used

    by

    Socrates in this

    passage

    have astral

    connotations.56

    More

    specifically,

    the

    dances

    performed by

    the

    soul-chariots

    are

    similar

    in

    many respects

    to the

    dithyramb.57

    Socrates'

    playful

    remarks

    in his

    first

    speech,

    that he

    is

    speaking

    in

    dithyrambic

    language

    (238d3,

    241e2),

    prepare

    the

    reader for the serious use made

    of this

    poetic genre

    in

    Socrates'

    second

    speech.

    From the archaic

    period

    to

    the mid fifth-

    century

    B.C.E.,

    dithyrambs

    were circular

    dances,

    led

    by

    an exarchos and

    danced

    and

    sung by

    a

    chorus of

    fifty

    men or

    boys

    to

    orgiastic, Phrygian

    flute music.58

    They

    had a

    Dionysiac

    character,

    as evidenced, for

    example,

    by

    the

    invocation of

    Dionysus

    as

    Dithyrambos

    in

    Euripides'

    Bacchae

    526.

    There is

    also some

    evidence

    that

    the

    dithyramb

    was

    performed

    in

    satyr

    53247al:

    kcctoc v8?Ka

    uipn.

    Eleven,

    not

    twelve,

    gods

    lead

    the

    companies,

    while Hestia

    stays

    home:

    Robin, 1994,

    Notice,

    c;

    Guthrie

    1975,

    403.

    54xd^i

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    206

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    costume on

    some

    occasions.59

    Moreover,

    it is

    possible

    that

    the

    poet

    who

    won a dithyrambic victory was escorted home in a chariot.60 There may

    also

    be a

    dithyrambic

    parallel

    to the twelve

    gods

    who lead

    companies

    in

    Phaedrus

    247a2-3. In

    what

    may

    well be a reference

    to the altar

    of the

    twelve

    gods

    in

    the

    Athenian

    agora,

    a

    fragment

    of a

    dithyramb

    by

    Pindar

    invites the

    gods

    to

    attend the

    chorus,

    addressing

    them as the

    gods

    who

    come

    to the

    Athenian

    agora.61

    Choral

    imagery

    is

    not mere

    poetic

    ornamentation

    in this

    passage

    but

    has

    important

    implications

    for the

    religious

    and

    psychological

    views

    expressed

    in

    the

    myth.

    The dance in ancient Greece

    was

    an

    important

    part

    of

    religious

    initiation rites. In Plato's

    Euthydemus

    277d6-9, initiation

    into the

    Corybantic

    rites is

    said

    to involve

    choreia,

    and

    in

    the

    Laws the

    rites of the

    Corybantes

    involve

    dancing (790d-791a).

    In

    fact,

    according

    to

    Lucian,

    all

    ancient

    initiations included

    dancing.62

    In the chariot

    myth,

    initiation and

    the dance

    are

    closely

    linked.

    In

    their

    previous

    existence,

    the human

    followers

    of the choruses of the

    gods experienced

    initiation

    (hzXovvxo

    xcov

    xe^excov,

    cbpyid^ojaev, udoujllevoi)

    and saw a

    blessed

    sight

    (iiaKapmv

    6\|/iv,

    87io7tx?uovxe

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    DANCING

    WITH THE

    GODS

    207

    control.64

    This

    enthusiasm

    allows the lover himself

    to

    imitate

    the

    god

    and to educate his beloved,

    persuading

    him to follow the rhythm of the

    lover's

    own

    god

    (253b5-6).

    The dances in the

    chariot

    myth,

    then,

    are

    characterized so as to

    evoke initiation rites.

    To drive

    one's chariot

    skill-

    fully

    is

    represented

    as

    an

    attempt

    to return to

    the

    choruses

    of the

    gods,

    remembering,

    in

    a renewed

    initiation

    here,

    the

    initiation one

    received in

    a

    former

    existence.

    Not

    only

    does the

    dance

    imagery

    in the

    Phaedrus

    have

    important

    religious

    connotations,

    it also

    has

    significant

    implications

    for

    an

    under?

    standing

    of the

    psychology

    of

    the

    chariot

    myth.

    I

    argued

    in section

    2

    that the charioteer strives to

    produce

    an

    equilibrium

    in the soul between

    opposing

    tendencies.

    This

    principle

    of

    psychic

    balance,

    evident

    in other

    passages

    throughout

    the

    dialogues,

    is

    explained

    in detail

    in the account

    of

    the

    dance

    given

    in

    Plato's Laws. The use of

    the

    Laws to elucidate

    the

    psychology

    of the dance

    in the Phaedrus is also

    justified

    because

    the later

    dialogue

    reflects

    the Greek

    idea,

    generally

    accepted

    from

    archaic

    times

    on,

    that

    the dance

    plays

    an essential role

    in

    education

    and

    acculturation.

    Claude

    Calame cites the

    Laws in

    arguing

    that chorus

    members

    were

    given

    a

    true

    education,

    with

    the aim

    of

    making

    the chorus

    participants

    not

    only

    good

    dancers and

    singers,

    but also

    accomplished

    men and women. The

    Laws

    also

    reflects

    the

    view,

    held

    by

    the Greek tradition

    generally,

    that the

    chorus

    of the

    gods

    is

    the model for human choruses.

    The ideas

    expressed

    in

    the

    Laws

    about the

    role of the dance

    in

    education,

    Calame

    notes,

    are

    especially

    valuable

    because

    they

    are

    based on Cretan

    and Lacedaimonian

    realities.65

    There are

    good

    reasons, then,

    for

    believing

    that the

    choruses

    in

    the

    Phaedrus

    are

    intended to

    have an educational

    role similar

    to that

    found

    in actual

    Greek

    society

    and reflected

    in

    the Laws.

    According

    to the

    Laws,

    the dance

    provides

    training

    for the

    soul

    as well as the

    body.

    Choreia,

    which includes both

    singing

    and

    dancing

    (2.664e8-665a3),

    involves the

    imposition

    of

    ordered

    movements,

    de-

    rived

    from the

    gods, upon

    disordered movement

    in

    body

    and

    soul.

    This

    principle

    is

    evident

    in

    Plato's account

    of three

    very

    different

    kinds of

    choreia:

    Corybantic

    dances,

    the musical education

    of

    children,

    and the

    64

    Rowe

    1990,238,

    comments:

    [I]f

    madness means

    loss

    of rational

    control,

    then the

    philosophical

    life

    is

    conditional

    on

    being

    cured of madness.

    (On

    the

    other

    hand,

    inspiration,

    being possessed from outside, is itself a form of madness.... The philosopher will then in

    some sense

    still

    be

    mad....)

    65

    Calame

    1997,222-23;

    quotation:

    222.

    On choral

    training

    as a form of

    acculturation,

    see

    also

    Ford

    2002,197-98.

    Armstrong

    2004,178-79,

    discusses

    the close connection

    between

    cosmology

    and

    the Muses

    in

    the

    Laws.

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    208

    ELIZABETH

    BELFIORE

    reeducation

    of older

    adults at

    symposia.66

    Plato's account

    of

    all

    three

    kinds of choreia depends on

    psychological

    principles similar to those in

    the

    chariot

    myth.

    The

    orderly

    movements

    of the dance

    require,

    and

    help

    to

    produce,

    a

    psychic equilibrium

    between

    excessive

    movement,

    like that

    of the black

    horse,

    and

    excessive

    restraint,

    like that of the

    white horse.

    They

    also

    require

    a

    sense

    of

    order,

    derived,

    like the charioteer's

    recol-

    lection of

    beauty,

    from the

    gods.

    Those

    officiating

    in

    the rites

    of

    the

    Corybantes

    are said

    to

    perform

    actions

    like

    the cures of

    the mad

    Bacchantes,

    that make use

    of this mo?

    tion,

    together

    with

    dance

    and music

    (7.790e2-4).67

    In the

    Corybantic

    rites, internal, mad movement

    (jiocviicnv

    Kwrjaw,

    791a3)

    is calmed

    by

    the

    application

    of

    ordered

    movement:

    When

    someone

    applies

    a

    shaking

    from outside

    to these

    kinds of

    emotions,

    the motion

    applied

    from

    outside

    masters

    the internal fearful and

    mad

    mo?

    tion.

    When

    it

    has

    mastered

    it,

    it makes

    a

    peaceful

    calm

    appear

    in the

    hard

    pounding

    of the heart

    of each

    person

    ...

    The motion then makes

    people

    dance

    and

    play

    the

    pipe

    with the

    gods

    to whom

    each

    sacrifices

    with

    good

    omens,

    giving

    them

    sane

    dispositions

    instead

    of

    mad.

    (790e8-791bl)

    In

    these

    rites,

    an

    evil

    disposition

    of

    the

    soul

    (e^iv

    (pauXnv

    xfj

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    DANCING WITH THE

    GODS

    209

    Choreia

    not

    only

    cures

    diseased

    souls,

    it

    is

    also essential to

    the

    emotional and ethical education of normal children. In the Laws, the

    Athenian

    defines first

    education

    (paideia)

    as

    the

    production

    of that

    part

    of

    arete,

    correct

    training concerning

    pleasures

    and

    pains,

    of

    which

    children

    are

    capable

    before

    they

    are

    able to reason

    (2.653a5-c4).

    Choreia

    is the

    whole of

    education

    (672e5-6,

    cf.

    654a9-bl)

    because

    it leads

    children to

    take

    pleasure

    in

    what is

    good

    and to hate

    what is

    not

    good

    (654c-d).71

    According

    to

    the

    psychology

    of the

    Laws,

    choreia

    has the

    power

    to

    im-

    pose

    upon

    disordered

    movements

    rhythm

    and

    harmony

    derived

    from

    the

    gods:

    Every

    young thing...

    is unable to

    keep

    calm in

    body

    or in

    voice,

    but

    always

    seeks to

    move

    and

    cry

    out,

    some

    springing

    and

    leaping,

    as

    though dancing

    with

    pleasure

    and

    playing together,

    others

    crying

    out

    with

    every

    kind of

    sound. The

    other animals

    do not have

    perception

    of

    order

    (xd^eoov)

    or dis-

    order

    (axa^tcov)

    in

    movement,

    the

    name of which is

    rhythm

    and

    harmony.

    But the

    gods

    whom we said

    were

    given

    to

    us as

    fellow-dancers are

    the

    ones

    who have

    given

    us

    perception

    with

    pleasure

    of

    rhythm

    and

    harmony. By

    means of

    this,

    they

    move

    us and lead us

    in

    dances

    (xopnyeTv).

    (653d7-654a3)72

    The mad

    dispositions

    and

    fiery

    natures

    (jiaivexai,

    672c4,

    ejujiavfj... efyv,

    666a7,

    dwnvpoq,

    664e4)

    of

    children lead them to desire

    to move about

    and

    cry

    out.

    Children,

    that

    is,

    have

    shameless

    tendencies,

    like those of

    the

    black horse.73

    Just as the

    black horse of the Phaedrus

    leaps (oKipxcov,

    254a4),

    neighs

    (xpe^iexi^cov,

    254d4),

    and

    shamelessly pulls

    the

    chariot

    forward

    (254d7),

    so

    the

    children

    in

    the Laws

    leap

    about

    (aMuSjuevoc

    Kai

    GKipxcovTa,

    653el-2)

    and make

    disordered

    movements

    and cries

    ^Geyyoixo

    8'

    ocel

    axdncxcex;

    Kai

    nr\b(b,

    664e6).

    In the

    Laws,

    these tendencies

    of

    young

    children to

    move and

    cry

    out are

    far

    from

    being

    an ineradicable

    evil.

    71

    Good

    discussions

    are

    given

    in

    Moutsopoulos

    1959, 97-156;

    Morrow

    1960,

    302-18.

    Socrates has

    a

    similar

    concept

    of

    musical education in

    Republic

    3:

    The

    best

    education is

    given

    by

    music,

    for

    rhythm

    and

    harmony

    sink most

    deeply

    into

    the

    interior

    of

    the soul

    and

    most

    strongly

    attach


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