CH@LLENGE THE

ST@TUS QUO

Resource Inequity | College & Career Readiness | Unfair Discipline

Academic Success among School-age African-American Males

Ivory A. Toldson, Ph.D. | Chance W. Lewis, Ph.D. BLACK MALE ACHIEVEMENT RESEARCH COLLABORATIVE

Acknowledgments: This report was produced by the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation (CBCF) Center for Policy Analysis and Research (CPAR), in association with Howard University School of Education and the Urban Education Collaborative at University of North Carolina – Charlotte. The report was developed with funding from the Open Society Foundation’s Campaign for Black Male Achievement (CBMA) to support the Black Male Achievement Research Collaborative (BMARC). BMARC is devoted to widely disseminating robust research that provides social context and counter-narratives to the pervasively negative statistics used to characterize Black men and boys in the United States.

CPAR identifies, analyzes, and disseminates policy-oriented information critical to advancing the African-American community toward economic independence, education, and health equity. The author of this report gratefully acknowledges the leadership responsible for supervising the production of this report: Dr. Elsie Scott, president and CEO of CBCF; Dr. Marjorie Innocent, senior director of Research and Programs; and Shawn Dove, campaign manager for CBMA.

On behalf of CBCF, the authors of this report also gratefully acknowledge the material contributions of the scholars who contributed to the research presented in this report: Howard University Ph.D. students Brianna Lemmons, Tyne McGee and Juwanza McIntosh; and UNC-Charlotte Ph.D. Student Marcia Watson, Ph.D. student at UNC-Charlotte.

Authors express gratitude to all organizations and individuals who have used our work to advance academic success among Black males.

Recommended Citation: Toldson, I. A. & Lewis, C.W. (2012).Challenge the Status Quo: Academic Success among School-age African American Males. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc.

Cover and page layout and design by Ivory A. Toldson, Ph.D. Uncaptioned images of young Black males were taken by Kea Taylor at the Avoice Voting Rights Student Workshop at the 2010 Annual Legislative Conference.

© Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc., Center for Policy Analysis and Research, 1720 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20036 | P: (202) 263-2800, F: (202) 775-0773

The primary funding for this report was provided by the Open Society Foundation Campaign for Black Male Achievement and is available for download at www.cbcfinc.org.

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need to movhem to commales with renerally have 529,000 (42.8

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CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 7

Public Reciprocity in Education for Postsecondary Success (PREPS) for Students of Color Many public school students are systematically disqualified access to their states’ most selective public

institutions of higher education because of their addresses. School districts across the U.S. systematically disqualify students of color from their best colleges and

universities and the best public colleges by omitting required courses from select public school curricula. Public Reciprocity in Education for Postsecondary Success (PREPS) is the fiduciary responsibility of the

state to provide public secondary educational options that meet the basic requirements of the same state’s institutions of higher education.

For U.S. public schools serving the most African-American and Hispanic students, 65 percent offer Algebra II, 40 percent offer Physics and only 29 percent offer Calculus (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2012), which immediately disqualifies this population from entry into the states’ flagship universities.

Data provided in Table 2.1 documents the admission requirements for the flagship institution of each state. However, curricular offerings at many high schools with higher percentages of Black and Latino students systematically deny admission because of the level of course offerings.

PREPS: CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO Inadequate PREPS is one of the most pervasive, elusive, and blatantly discriminatory practices in public education and should be addressed through legislative and social action. We are extending a “call for action” for anyone concerned about the potential for college access at the nation’s most prestigious institutions being systematically taken away from Black males and other students based upon their home and school zip codes.We encourage parents and community activists to alert local school board members, superintendents, and principals of discrepancies between college admissions criteria and high school class offerings. Once these concerns are expressed, strategic plans should be devised in the community to hold educational administrators accountable for curricula and policy changes within the school district. We recommend that individual schools and their governing school districts provide a disclosure statement to students’ parents and guardians which specifies any courses required for admissions to the most competitive public universities of the state, which are not available in their curriculum. The disclosure statement should also provide educational options for students to access the necessary courses within the school district. High school guidance counselors are responsible for advising students on how to prepare for college, and having knowledge about the admissions criteria for all public universities within their state. We recommend that schools provide regular professional development for guidance counselors to stay updated on current admission requirements for all public colleges and universities, with particular emphasis on the state’s most competitive universities.

Teacher Preparation and Compensation Only 23 percent of Black males who completed their education programs actually chose to enter the

teaching force as comparison with 27 percent of White males. Also, we find that 41 percent of Black females chose to enter teaching as compared with 42 percent of White females.

Within the 20 largest school districts in the U.S., there is a large discrepancy between the percentage of novice teachers (1st and 2nd year), when comparing schools with the highest and lowest percentage of Black/Hispanic students.

Salary differentials in high school teacher salaries between schools with the highest and lowest Latino and African-American enrollment are paramount in the 20 largest school districts.

8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Black male teachers have the 2nd largest disparity (Latino males) in the percentage of teachers as compared to their representation in the student population.

RESOURCE EQUITY: CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO The pipeline into the U.S. teaching force (from teacher preparation programs to state teacher licensing to classroom teaching) highlights systematic and policy issues that impact teacher equity and its relationship to equity and inclusion for Black male students. We recommend that education policy makers turn their attention to the following factors related to teacher preparation and compensation: (a) the demographic composition of pre-service teachers; (b) inequities in novice teacher assignment to high-need schools; and (c) salary inequities for teachers within the same district. Additionally, we must focus our attention and learn from states that have made the most academic gains of low-income children. Our findings reveal that community members must work with local school districts to make sure that all students have access to high-quality teachers.

Breaking the Discipline Gap Barrier When examining differences between genders, Black (male and female) students comprise nearly 50

percent of the school population, but nearly 3 out of 4 (74 percent) expelled were males. When both gender and race are examined, the sample data states that African-American boys (20 percent)

and girls (11 percent) suspension rates were more than double their representation. African-American and Hispanic students accounted for the majority of suspensions in all 20 districts. The

districts with the greatest disparity between African-American enrollment and suspension rates included Chicago Public Schools (45 percent/76 percent), Hillsborough County Public Schools (23 percent/46 percent), Montgomery County Public Schools (23 percent/52 percent), and Charlotte Mecklenburg Public Schools (44 percent/75 percent).

Children who are slow learners and who lack the wits, social graces and sophistication to manage learning environments are the ones most vulnerable to suspensions, not children who pose legitimate risks to the security of the school.

In many predominately Black schools, students perceive chaos and unfairness in disciplinary policies which create perennial unrest at the school.

The overall safety and fairness of the school influence teachers' empathy and respect for Black students significantly more than for White students, as reported by the students.

Black students at unsafe schools reported more punitive teacher behaviors. Among students of all races, school safety significantly indirectly affected grades; however for Black and Latino students, safety indirectly affected feelings of support.

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 9

FAIR DISCIPLINE: CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO While most people are aware of the discipline gaps in public schools, we are issuing a call for action. We need people at the local and grassroots levels to advocate for change and full funding for educational programs that support Black male students. We need a concerted effort by the community to change school district beliefs that Black males are the source of the problem. We encourage grassroots advocates to present sound evidence that these are normal students, who have the capacity to achieve in any educational system that prioritizes learning and treats every student with dignity. Giving support tools to disengaged students--such as tutoring, mentoring, and counseling--can reconnect them to the academic process and reduce the odds that they turn to delinquency. Second, we must acknowledge that discipline can become a competing culture at school that alters teachers’ perceptions of their responsibilities toward their students. Critical race theory (CRT) examines White privilege and institutional racism. With respect to CRT, racial dynamics appear to alter the school environment along racial lines. In a recent study (Toldson & Ebanks, 2012), Black students’ response patterns reflected a dynamic whereby school safety significantly diminished the overall level of empathy and respect that students perceived from teachers, and punishment from teachers significantly reduced students' grades.

How Black Boys with Disabilities End Up in Honors Classes Black boys are the most likely to receive special education services and the least likely to be enrolled in

honors classes. Across Black, White and Hispanic males and females, 6.5 percent are receiving special education services,

9.7 percent have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP), and 25 percent are in honors classes. For Black boys, 9 percent are receiving special education services, 14.7 percent have an IEP, and 14.5 percent

are enrolled in honors classes. However, Black boys who are in the ninth grade are more likely to be enrolled in honors classes than to

receive special education services. Having a disability is related to other negative consequences, particularly for Black males. Students with

disabilities are more likely to (1) repeat a grade, (2) be suspended or expelled from school, (3) have the school contact the parent about problem behavior, and (4) have the school contact the parent about poor performance.

Black males with and without disabilities can excel in schools that have adequate opportunities for diverse learners and a structure that supports personal and emotional development.

BLACK BOYS WITH DISABILITIES: CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO Black males with and without disabilities can excel in schools that have adequate opportunities for diverse learners and a structure that supports personal and emotional growth and development. Contrarily, schools that view disability and emotional adjustment difficulties as enduring pathologies that need to be permanently segregated from "normal" students, will stunt academic growth and development. The nearly 5,600 Black male ninth graders with a history of disability who are currently enrolled in honors classes likely benefit from patient and diligent parents who instill a sense of agency within them, and a compassionate school that accommodates a diversity of learners. They are also likely to have some protection from adverse environmental conditions, such as community violence, which can compound disability symptoms. We cannot continue to ignore the injustices in many schools; however, they should not overshadow the hope and promise of the Black male students who are enrolled in honors classes. Additionally, we should respectfully acknowledge schools and teachers who provide quality special education services designed to remediate specific educational challenges with the goal of helping students to reintegrate and fully participate in mainstream classes.

10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Summary of Recommendations for Schools Eliminate biases, stereotypes and misinformation from school staff. Schools should operate under the

philosophy that all Black males are capable of the highest levels of academic achievement. Offer a curriculum that, at a minimum, meets the admissions requirements for the most competitive

public university of your state. Schools and their governing school districts should provide a disclosure statement to students’ parents and guardians, which specifies any courses required for admissions to the most competitive public universities of the state, which are not available in their curriculum.

Provide trainings and resources to teachers. School administrations should have frequent trainings for teachers on cultural competence, empathy and respect, defense management, classroom management, and other relevant topics.

Regularly monitor and reduce suspensions. Replace rigid focus on discipline with a focus on academics and student agency. Have a clear and transparent suspension policy, with a process for students to appeal.

Regularly monitor collective student progress. Safe and productive schools work to have a collective GPA of more than 3.0; have near 100 percent of their students involved in an extracurricular activity; have at least 25 percent of their Black males in honors classes or some type of enhanced curriculum; have less than 6 percent in special education; and suspend less than 10 percent of their Black male students for any reason.

Work with parents. Supportive schools provide: (1) information about how to help children learn at home, (2) information on community services to help their child, (3) explanations of classes in terms of course content and learning goals, (4) information about child development, (5) opportunities for parents to volunteer, and (6) updates on student progress between report cards.

for Parents Alert local school board members, superintendents and principals of unfair treatment of your sons.

Unfair treatment might involve: a) discrepancies between college admissions criteria and high school class offerings; b) unfair tests or testing conditions; c) unreasonably harsh or inappropriate punishment; d) inadequate advisement of postsecondary options; e) denial of access to honors or AP classes; or f) having unqualified personnel, such as a teacher, suggesting that the child has a behavior disability, might need medication, or should be placed in special education. According to Attorney Hewitt, concerns should be expressed around the issue of fundamental fairness and opportunities to learn within school districts.

Parent should strive to be present at the school. A recent study by Toldson and Lemmon (2012) found that parents of high achieving students visit the school at least 8 times for meetings or to participate in activities, throughout each academic year.

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CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 13

16 percent of Black males and 19 percent of Black females have completed college. When restricting the age to 25 to 35, 15 percent of Black males and 22 percent of Black females have graduated from college, indicating a recent uptick in degree production among Black females and a small downtick among Black males (Ruggles, et al., 2009).

Today, approximately 258,047 of the 4.1 million ninth graders in the United States are Black males. Among them, about 23,000 are receiving special education services, and for nearly 46,000, a health care professional or school official has told them that they have at least one disability. If Black male ninth graders follow current trends, about half of them will not graduate with their current ninth grade class (J. H. Jackson, 2010), and about 20 percent will reach the age of 25 without obtaining a high school diploma or GED (Ruggles, et al., 2009).

The High School Longitudinal Survey asked parents a variety of questions that related to their 9th grade child's potential to complete high school. When comparing each variable across race and gender, we find that Black males are at the greatest risk for not completing high school. Specifically, Black males are more than twice as likely to repeat a grade and be suspended or expelled from school as White males. Black males were also more likely to receive special education services and have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP), and the least likely to be enrolled in honors classes. Parents of Black male students were the most likely to have the school contact them because of problems with their son's behavior or performance. Table 1.1 displays the percent of Black, Hispanic, and White male and female ninth grade students with specific school experiences in the United States.

20 Percent by 2020 So far, we have learned that Black males’ representation in college is proportional to their representation in the general population; yet four-year college degree attainment among adult Black males is only 16 percent, while 20 percent of Black females and 32 percent of White males have completed college.

However, there is a silver lining. Every decade, the number and percentage of Black men who earn a college degree is increasing. In 1990 the percent of Black males over age 25 who completed college was 11.1 percent. By year 2000, it was 13.2 percent, and by 2010, 15.8 percent completed college (Ruggles, et al., 2010).

Where will we be in 2020? If we round the percentages to 11, 13, and 16, and use simple trend logic, +2 and +3, maybe by 2020 we will be +4 or 20 percent. Another way to predict 2020 would be to take the average percent increase/decrease over the past 50 years and add to the 2010 figure, which would yield 19 percent by 2020. Whatever the method, the trends clearly show that by the year 2020, about one in 5 Black men in the U.S. over the age of 24 will have at least a bachelor’s degree from a four-year college or university.

As with any forecast, the true rate of Black male college graduation in 2020 could be more or less than projected. Many opportunities in the U.S. could help us to make or exceed the mark, and many threats could

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16 PUBLIC RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION FOR POSTSECONDARY SUCCESS (PREPS) FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR

Dr. Lewis’ Journey My secondary education took place at Capitol High School, a predominately Black, low socioeconomic status (SES), urban public high school in Baton Rouge. As class president of 264 graduating seniors, I knew that many of my friends had been motivated by our teachers to attend various colleges/universities in the state. I often wondered why only 22 of the 264 pursued higher education options after high school. I concluded “life circumstances” dictated a change in life plans. After much reflection, I now understand that it was more than life circumstances. My high school did not provide all of the necessary courses that would make us eligible for various higher education options in the state.

For example, most public colleges/universities in our state required a full year of academic credit in an advanced mathematics course. However, after Algebra I and Geometry, our school only had one semester (.5 credits) of a class called “Advanced Math”. I enrolled in this course; however, I could not meet the admission requirements to the majority of the public colleges/universities in my state, because I was one semester (.5 credits) short of the requirements in this area. I learned that we did not have the same type of advanced mathematics courses (i.e., Algebra II, Calculus, Trigonometry, etc.) as other high schools.

As I prepared my college/university applications, I did not have enough credits in math and science to attend the public flagship university of my state, even though I was ranked fourth in my graduating class. At the time, I did not know that various postsecondary options at higher-tiered colleges/universities were not available to me since my high school did not have all the necessary courses to be eligible for admission.

As a professor of urban education, my story is an example of thousands of students who are denied access to postsecondary education at the most selective public colleges/universities in this country based on the curricula of their respective high schools. In short, many public high schools are not compatible with public higher education options. In my review of the most recent Department of Education report, I have learned that we have a systematic educational crisis on our hands. Thus, the establishment of PREPS is timely.

Public Reciprocity in Education for Postsecondary Success (PREPS) The objective of this analysis is to explore the legal and ethical bases for PREPS. We have conceptualized PREPS as the fiduciary responsibility of the state to provide public secondary educational options that meet the basic academic requirements of the same state's institutions of higher education. Public secondary and postsecondary institutions operate with public trust and funds from tax revenue. Public high schools and public colleges are bound to state and federal requirements, including an equal protection clause that prohibits states from denying any person within its jurisdiction equal protection of the laws. The Equal Protection Clause, which holds that “all men [and women] are created equal,” was a pivotal component of the argument behind Brown v. Board of Education (Araiza & Medina, 2011). Brown (1954)held that separate schools were fundamentally unequal and illegal because they forced inferior education, denying citizens their unalienable right to pursue associated ambitions.

Today, of the 8,550,344 Black children enrolled in kindergarten through 12th grade in the U.S., 95.5 percent attend public schools and 4.5 percent attend private schools (Institute of Education Sciences & National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). The vast majority of public school students are assigned to their schools by their respective jurisdiction based on home address. Therefore, many public school students are systematically denied access to their states' most selective public institutions of higher education because of their addresses.

Insufficient PREPS disproportionately affects Black students. The CRDC report, “Revealing New Truths about Our Nation’s Schools,” reported deep disparities in access to high-level mathematics and science courses in the nation’s largest and most diverse school districts, including New York City Public Schools, Los Angeles Unified School District, and Chicago Public Schools (United States Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2012). In public schools serving the fewest Latino and African-American students, 82 percent offer Algebra II, 66 percent offer Physics and 55 percent offer Calculus. For schools serving the most African-American and

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 17

Hispanic students, 65 percent offer Algebra II, 40 percent offer Physics, and only 29 percent offer Calculus (United States Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2012).

To explore the legal case for PREPS, we consulted with Attorney Damon Hewitt, Director of Education Practice for The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF). Mr. Hewitt agreed that unequal opportunities in American education present structural barriers which limit some students’ opportunities, no matter how hard they work. However, states do not currently have a fiduciary duty for PREPS in a legal sense. Mr. Hewitt explained that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (1964) prohibits racial discrimination by any entity that receives federal funds. An individual student would not likely have a viable case, absent proof of a violation of federal or state law (e.g., state general education law, special education law, or civil rights/anti-discrimination law). However, if schools exhibit a pattern of omitting important classes from the curricula of schools with high concentrations of students of color, this could constitute a “racially disparate impact” (Kim, Losen, & Hewitt, 2010).

According to Mr. Hewitt, the current Supreme Court precedent allows individuals to bring only intentional discrimination claims for racial disparities in education, which he suggests is very difficult. However, the U.S. Department of Education has jurisdiction to address policies implemented by recipients of federal funds that result in a racially disparate impact, even when there is no evidence of discriminatory intent. Educational policies that result in racially disparate impacts may violate Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, especially when the policies are not justified by “educational necessity” (Kim, et al., 2010). Even if a school district can point to such a necessity, disparate impact discrimination could be established if there are “less discriminatory alternatives” that the school district could use instead. Under a disparate impact analysis, the federal government might find that the lack of access to advanced mathematics and science courses constitutes a disparate impact.

New York City Public Schools (22 percent), Orange County Public Schools in Florida (38 percent), and Hillsborough County Public Schools in Florida (57 percent) had the lowest percent of schools that offer Algebra II in high schools with the highest Black/Latino enrollment. Hillsborough County Public Schools also had the greatest racial disparity, because they offer Algebra II to 100 percent of students in schools with the lowest percent of Black and Latino students (United States Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2012). Incidentally, Florida’s two flagship universities, University of Florida and Florida State University, require four units of mathematics with one year of mathematics beyond Algebra II. According to Mr. Hewitt, extreme disparities of this type might constitute intentional race discrimination, depending on the attendant circumstances. Intentional discrimination is often difficult to prove, but even without evidence of intentional discrimination, this scenario could still conflict with Title VI.

Overall, we base our argument for PREPS on our personal journeys, our conversations with thousands of school leaders, teachers, parents and students through our work as consultants, and the U.S. Department of Education report. Table 2.1 identifies each state’s public flagship university along with its current mathematics and science requirements for admission. Over 90 percent of these institutions require a minimum of three credits, and in most cases require four credits of mathematics and science. When reconciling the CRDC’s findings with the admissions requirements of states’ flagship universities, we clearly see that many public schools serving high percentages of Black and Hispanic children, not only underprepare students for, but also disqualify them from the best public colleges.

While there is some legal basis for PREPS, more importantly, on a moral level PREPS is the right action for any person or institution that we entrust to make educational decisions with public funds. Inadequate and inconsistent PREPS creates a system of separate and unequal public educational facilities, exclusionary practices, and long-term racial caste in America. PREPS has economic and social benefits, because it levels the playing field and gives every student power to aim for lofty educational goals and become better financial contributors to our society (Toldson & Esters, 2012).

18 PUBLIC RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION FOR POSTSECONDARY SUCCESS (PREPS) FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR

Challenge the Status Quo To achieve PREPS in local school districts across the U.S., we offer the following set of action items for school leaders, parents, policymakers and educational activists, to begin the process of equal educational access for all students, particularly Black and Latino students, in schools that are systematically denying access to the nation’s most competitive public colleges/universities.

Action Items for Parents and Community Activists

We encourage parents and community activists to alert local school board members, superintendents, and principals of discrepancies between college admissions criteria and high school class offerings. According to Mr. Hewitt, concerns should be expressed around the issue of fundamental fairness and opportunities to learn within school districts. More specifically, express concerns with an intentional focus on distinctions between schools in the same school district that have different resources and curricular offerings. Once these concerns are expressed, strategic plans should be devised in the community to hold educational administrators accountable for curricula and policy changes within the school district.

Action Items for Schools and School Districts

We recommend that individual schools and their governing school districts provide a disclosure statement to students’ parents and guardians, which specifies any courses required for admissions to the most competitive public universities of the state, which are not available in their curriculum. The disclosure statement should also provide educational options for students to access the necessary courses within the school district. For example, a student should be able to enroll in an advanced mathematics or science course at another school within the school district, at a community college, through online instruction, or with home-school materials. The option should be without financial burden and lead to proper academic credit for the high school transcript.

Action Items for Guidance Counselors

High school guidance counselors are responsible for advising students on how to prepare for college and having knowledge about the admissions criteria for all public universities within their state. We recommend that schools provide regular professional development for guidance counselors to stay updated on current admission requirements for all public colleges and universities, with particular emphasis on the state’s most competitive universities. Guidance counselors should strive for early identification of students with college potential, and advise them of ways to increase their chances of being admitted to the most competitive colleges. This will require guidance counselors to have updated information on options to complete classes that the school may not offer on campus, and how to properly record classes on their academic transcripts. We hope guidance counselors will use the table we constructed for this report.

Moving Forward

When releasing the CRDC’s report, U. S. Department of Education Secretary Arne Duncan stated,” The real power of the data is not only the truth behind the numbers, but in the impact that it can have when married with courage and will to challenge the status quo.” In our view, inadequate PREPS is one of the most pervasive, elusive, and blatantly discriminatory practices in public education, and should be addressed through legislative and social action. We hope to collaborate with the educational community and policymakers to build and implement a strategic action plan for PREPS. We consider inaction to be an injustice to our forefathers whose efforts paved the way for each of us to be successful in our own careers.

It is our turn to open doors for many who will come behind us that see education as a viable option to open doors of opportunity that the U.S. promises to each of its citizens. To bring attention to this issue, we will hold a special session at the 2012 American Education Research Association (AERA) Annual Meeting in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and an education policy forum with policymakers and educational leaders during the

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 19

Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina. We hope that you join us in various think tanks, policy forums and conferences as we refine our action plan to provide opportunities to all students, regardless of their race or home address.

TABLE 2.1 STATE UNIVERSITY MATH AND SCIENCE ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS State Flagship University* GPA ACT/SAT Math** Sci*** University State Minimum Requirement Minimum Units Percent Black**** Alabama The University of

Alabama 3.0 21/1000 3 3 12.0 26.1

Alaska University of Alaska-Anchorage

2.5A na na na 3.5 4.4

Arizona University of Arizona 2.0 22/1040 4 3 3.1 3.7 Arizona State University 3.0 22/1040 4 3 4.5 Arkansas University of Arkansas 2.0 na 4 3 5.7 15.5 California University of California-

Berkley na na 3 2 3.5 5.9

Colorado University of Colorado – Boulder

na na 4 3 1.6 3.7

Connecticut University of Connecticut

2.7 na 3 2 5.4 9.2

Delaware University of Delaware 2.5 na 3 3 6.1 20.3 Florida University of Florida 2.0 19 4 3 8.1 15.1 Florida State University na 21/1100 4 3 10.7 Georgia University of Georgia na 17/470E 4 4 7.5 29.6 Hawaii University of Hawaii –

Manoa 2.8 22/510E 3 3 1.1 2.2

Idaho University of Idaho 3.0B na 3 3 1.0 0.7 Illinois University of Illinois

Urbana-Champaign na na 3.5 2 6.2 14.3

Indiana University of Indiana-Bloomington

3.0 na 3.5 3 4.5 8.8

Iowa Iowa State University 2.0 na 3 3 2.9 2.4 University of Iowa na 25/1130 3 3 2.5 Kansas University of Kansas 2.0 21/980 3 3 3.6 5.6 Kentucky University of Kentucky 2.0 na 3 3 6.2 7.4 Louisiana Louisiana State

University – Baton Rouge

3.0 22/1030 4 4 9.4 32.0

Maine University of Maine 2.0 na 4 3 1.1 1.3 Maryland University of Maryland-

College Park 3.0C na 3 3 12.2 28.7

Massachusetts University of Massachusetts-Amherst

na na 3 3 4.6 5.8

Michigan University of Michigan-Ann Arbor

na na 3 3 5.7 13.9

Minnesota University of Minnesota – Twin Cities

2.0 Na 3 3 4.0 4.4

Mississippi Mississippi State University

2.0 18/860 3 3 20.5 37.3

20 PUBLIC RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION FOR POSTSECONDARY SUCCESS (PREPS) FOR STUDENTS OF COLOR

TABLE 2.1 STATE UNIVERSITY MATH AND SCIENCE ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS State Flagship University* GPA ACT/SAT Math** Sci*** University State Minimum Requirement Minimum Units Percent Black**** University of Mississippi

– Main Campus 2.0 18/860 3 3 14.2

Missouri University of Missouri-Columbia

na 24/1090 4 3 5.5 11.1

Montana University of Montana 2.5 22/1540 3 2 0.7 0.3 Nebraska University of Nebraska-

Lincoln na 20/950 4 3 2.5 4.6

Nevada University of Nevada-Las Vegas

3.0 22/1040 3 3 7.6 7.5

New Hampshire

University of New Hampshire – Main Campus

na Na 3 3 1.3 1.2

New Jersey Rutgers University - New Brunswick

na Na 3 2 8.5 12.9

New Mexico University of New Mexico – Main Campus

3.2 22/1080 3 3 2.9 2.1

New York State University of New York-Binghamton

na Na 3 3 5.0 14.6

North Carolina

University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill

2.0 Na 4 3 10.2 21.0

North Dakota University of North Dakota

2.25 22/1020 3 3 1.4 1.2

Ohio Ohio State University - Main Campus

2.0 Na 3 3 6.7 11.7

Oklahoma University of Oklahoma Norman Campus

3.0 24/1090 3 3 7.5 7.7

Oregon University of Oregon 3.0 22 3 3 1.7 1.6 Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State

University - Main Campus

na Na 3 3 4.1 10.2

Rhode Island University of Rhode Island

2.5 2.5 3 2 4.8 5.1

South Carolina

University of South Carolina - Columbia

na 21/990 3 3 12.0 28.0

South Dakota University of South Dakota

2.0 20 3 3 1.4 1.5

Tennessee The University of Tennessee

na Na 3 2 8.1 16.4

Texas University of Texas – Austin

3.0D Na 4 3 4.5 11.3

Texas A&M University 2.5D na 3.5 3 3.3 Utah University of Utah 2.6 18/860 2 3 1.0 1.0 Vermont University of Vermont 2.5 na 3 2 1.3 0.9 Virginia University of Virginia –

Main Campus na na 4 2 6.7 19.3

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population.

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and part-timestudent educteachers, partwho actually by race and grecommenda

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gned to their schools that ars of experiesrooms with esulting ques

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hic make-up odergraduate apecific data oedia reports mber of Edus sheds light ducational ra

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upon graduats of all types

O | TOLDSON

this impact e

respective scare majority nce). This edteachers wh

stion is this: Hno enrollmen

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of pre-serviceand graduate

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& LEWIS

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23

24 TEACHER PREPARATION AND COMPENSATION

Black Students Education Degree Completers

A plethora of media reports have highlighted the underrepresentation of Black teachers, particularly Black male teachers in U.S. classrooms. As we continue on the journey to understand equity and inclusion of school-aged Black males, we must understand the pipeline that leads Black students in education preparation programs to accept teaching positions. Figure 3.2 below documents the number of Black students that graduated with a degree in Education in 2009.

Percentage of Education Degree Holders that Choose to Teach

Figure 3.3 provides data on the percentage of education degree holders that choose to enter the teaching force after completion of

their programs. This data reveals that, even though production among education degree programs have increased, not all completers choose to enter the teaching force. The data reveals that only 23 percent of Black males who complete their education programs actually choose to enter the teaching force. This is in comparison to only 27 percent of White males who choose to seek employment as teachers (Toldson, 2011). This trend shows that much improvement has to be made to increase the male presence in the nation’s teaching force. Additionally, we find that 41 percent of Black females with education degrees pursued teaching positions in comparison to 42 percent of White females (Toldson, 2011). While Black and White females are choosing to enter teaching position after completion of their education programs at a higher rate, White females greatly outnumber Black females in teacher preparation programs.

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 25

Current Teacher Workforce in Comparison to Student Demographic Make-up

Only a few analyses actually provide data on how the race of the teaching force compares to the racial composition of the student population in U.S. schools. In Figure 3.4, we provide data on the current teacher workforce by race as compared to the student demographics by race. We find that White females are the only racial and gender group that is significantly overrepresented in our nation’s teacher work force. We find that across other gender and racial groups, most other racial and ethnic groups are underrepresented.

Educational Ramifications

Figure 3.4 also highlights that male teachers across all racial groups are underrepresented. The result is that male students will have increased interactions with female teachers as compared with male teachers. For Black and Latino males, this trend in the past and the foreseeable future will have an impact in a variety of equity and inclusionary practices in U.S. schools.

Policy Recommendations School districts must increase the funding for programs that encourage more males (particularly Black and

Latino males) to enter the classroom. Only a small percentage of Black and Latino males that complete education programs are recruited into the classroom.

Recruitment efforts (i.e., job fairs) should be intensified at institutions that produce the highest number of Black and Latino males. In particular, intensive recruitment efforts should be made at HBCUs and HSIs.

Potential recruits (i.e., Black and Latino prospective teachers) should be provided with recruitment visits to potential school districts and schools to examine the school/community context to get a clear picture of the impact they can have on the student population and the community as well.

2

IT(tro

TUtT

26 TEACH

nequities This section oyears 1-2). D

to have a gramifications on learning.

The CRDC higU.S. The ineqthe highest BTable 3.1 high

HER PREPARA

in Teacheof the report hata revealed reater perceand policy re

ghlighted a pquitable pracBlack/Latino hlights data fr

TION AND CO

er Assignmhighlights dathat Black an

entage of noecommendat

practice of inetices in teachenrollment hrom the CRD

OMPENSATION

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CRDC on ineqdents that atrs who are

vided to corre

cher assignment to schoolr percentagethe 20 larges

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responsible ect this system

ment within thls within diste of novice tst school distr

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for their edmatic issue, g

he 20 largesttricts highligheachers (1-2

ricts in the U.

ent of noviceschools are mducation. Edgiven the imp

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years of expS.

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Policy Recom School di

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27

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28 TEACH

Policy Recom School d

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HER PREPARA

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TION AND CO

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OMPENSATION

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N

nsure equitalicy enhanceunds and red

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ble pay acroment will pro

duce disparitiepensation su

The CRDC inequities ththe 20 largethe U.S. Adistricts, finthere are dsalaries betwthe highest Hispanic sThese findieducational must conside

Educationa This is a policy isskeeps the bschools wBlack/Latinothe fact thaless money the high-nee Eachlisted aboveschedule thprovide equbased on edexperience. reveals thatbeing followbasis. The places an selected schexample, schBlack and Laof the sameschools withenrollments discrepancy compensatio

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and lowest Btudent enrngs suggestramifications

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CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 29

While the field of education has gone through great lengths to improve teacher salaries and compensation, data highlights that there is still great room for improvement. Table 3.2 provides the estimated annual salary of teachers in public elementary and secondary schools by state. These states are rank-ordered by the states that have made the most academic gains for low-income students.

Educational Ramifications

Table 3.3 highlights the rankings by state academic performance and gains among low-income students. Additionally, the findings highlight the average teacher compensation in each state. Findings reveal that the rate of teacher compensation, academic performance, and gains of low-income students are not entirely based on the highest levels of teacher compensation or geographic region. We learn that academic gains for low-income students are being made across the U.S. at varying levels despite inequitable teacher compensation across and within states. Nevertheless, we understand the efforts that teachers make toward the development of our nation’s youth. However, the CRDC sheds light on the fact that a set of policy issues exist that should be considered in response to this report.

Challenge the Status Quo The data provided in this section of the report focuses on teacher preparation, teacher demographics, teacher compensation and academic gains by state for low-income students. This report highlights that systematic barriers are in existence that prohibit students, particularly students in schools with Black/Latino enrollment to have equitable opportunities to reach their full potential. Our nation must continue to strive to provide all students, regardless of the zip code of their school, equitable opportunities to reach their full academic potential. According to Dean Leslie Fenwick, The Howard University School of Education is one HBCU (among many others) responsive to the charge to produce a qualified and diverse pool of teachers. The Howard University Ready to Teach Program was funded with a $2.1 million grant by the U.S. Department of Education in 2007. Ready to Teach is designed to recruit and prepare African-American males and other underrepresented populations as classroom teachers.

In addition, the Southern Educational Foundation outlined the following steps to improve resource equity for Black students: 1. Support the involvement of HBCUs in teacher pipeline programs; 2. Develop a statewide strategy for eliminating racial disparities in pass rates on teacher licensure exams and advocate the development of new assessment measures that do not maintain or exacerbate existing racial disparities; 3. Diversify the ranks of those who participate in educational policy dialogue and formulation by engaging HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions; 4. Support teacher pipeline programs built on university-school district collaboration; 5. Colleges/universities should use the value-added philosophy to guide recruitment initiatives and curricular changes in teacher preparation programs; 6. Target nontraditional talent pools, particularly teachers’ assistants and paraprofessionals, for acceptance into teacher education programs; 7. Create more federal scholarships, fellowships, and loan forgiveness programs to encourage minority students to pursue teaching and/or graduate study in education; and 8. Invest in future teacher programs at the middle-school level rather than waiting for high school, and target middle schools with high minority student populations (The Southern Education Foundation, 2001).

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CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 33

Based on measured differences between races, it stands to reason that racial differences in the rate of suspensions are primarily due to racial inequities and biases in school disciplinary policies. Other studies have found evidence to support the discipline gap. One study found that Black students with a history of disciplinary referrals were more likely to receive negative perceptions and less deference from teachers.2 In the Beyond the Bricks Documentary, Erick, one of the featured students, testified to his experience of receiving a 10-day suspension for calling a teacher a bad name, only to return to a hostile environment where other teachers "turned on" him.

Elevated public awareness and perceptions of violence have increased schools' reliance on suspensions, zero tolerance and other exclusionary disciplinary policies (Christle, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2004; Skiba & Peterson, 1999). One study found that Black students with a history of disciplinary referrals were more likely to receive negative perceptions and less deference from teachers (Gregory & Thompson, 2010). There are also general concerns about the reliability and subjectivity in disciplinary referrals (Vavrus & Cole, 2002; Wright & Dusek, 1998). Through ethnographic research, Vavrus and Cole (2002) found that many suspensions resulted from a buildup of nonviolent events, where one student often carries the brunt of many students' misbehaviors. However, some studies suggest that school culture and administrative leaders can mitigate high suspension rates (Mukuria, 2002). For example, regular monitoring and analysis of narrative disciplinary referrals have been recommended to improve precision and application of disciplinary measures that are consistent with the students' infractions (Morrison, Peterson, O'Farrell, & Redding, 2004; Sugai, Sprague, Horner, & Walker, 2000).

With respect to disproportionate suspension rates among Black students, many studies have noted the influence of ecological variables beyond the school (Day-Vines & Day-Hairston, 2005). Eitle and Eitle (2004) found that Black students were more likely to be suspended in majority Black grade schools. Cultural expressions of certain behaviors, such as movement and speech, may be misinterpreted as threatening to teachers who lack cultural awareness (Day-Vines & Day-Hairston, 2005). Another study revealed that natural adaptations to life in some impoverished areas indirectly influence the students' chances of being suspended from school (Kirk, 2009). Few studies have examined suspensions and disciplinary referrals among Hispanic students. One study noted Hispanic students’ rates of suspensions and number of referrals were generally greater than Whites, but less than Blacks (Kaushal & Nepomnyaschy, 2009).

Improving teacher efficacy and teacher-student dialogue and aligning their mutual understanding of school rules also demonstrated effectiveness (Pas, Bradshaw, Hershfeldt, & Leaf, 2010; Thompson & Webber, 2010). "Whole-school" and schoolwide interventions that focus on schoolwide improvements in instructional methods, positive reinforcement, such as teacher "praise notes" (Nelson, Young, Young, & Cox, 2010), behavioral modeling, and data-based evaluation, have also demonstrated effectiveness (Bohanon, et al., 2006; Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, 2006; Luiselli, Putnam, Handler, & Feinberg, 2005). Resilience and skill building among students also reduced behavioral problems and subsequent disciplinary referrals among students (Wyman, et al., 2010). Attention to students' mental health may also reduce suspensions and disciplinary referrals among Black male students(Caldwell, Sewell, Parks, & Toldson, 2009).

Challenge the Status Quo First, face facts. Students who are slow learners and who lack the wits, social graces and sophistication to manage learning environments are the ones most vulnerable to suspensions, not students who pose legitimate risks to the security of the school. Giving support tools to disengaged students, such as tutoring, mentoring, and counseling, can reconnect them to the academic process and reduce the odds that they turn to delinquency. Second, we must acknowledge that discipline can become a competing culture at school that alters teachers’ perceptions of their responsibilities toward their students.

This certainly does not imply that discipline does not have a role in primary and secondary education. In fact, the third study in Breaking Barriers 2 demonstrates that students' grades improve when they can attest to the following: 1. If a school rule is broken, students know what kind of punishment will follow; 2. The school rules

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CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 35

Christopher S. Murphy are currently encouraging members of Congress to sign a resolution to improve school climate and student achievement, raise awareness of school “pushout” (suspension), and promote dignity in schools.

However, passing legislation that brings awareness to the high rates of suspension among African-American males will do little to change the problem if people at the local and grassroots levels are not advocating for change, and full funding for educational programs. But first we must understand the nature of the problem. Prominent psychologist Abraham Maslow once suggested: “If the only tool you have is a hammer, you treat every problem as if it’s a nail.” At this point, we need to harness the loose hammers on our school boards, legislative chambers, and schools who are mistaking our Black males for nails, and present sound evidence that these are normal students who have the capacity to achieve in any educational system that prioritizes learning, and treats every student with deference and dignity.

“Teachers do more than just teach content. They stand as models for what it is like to be an educated person. They also serve as surrogate parents, guides and mentors to young people. If students are to believe that they may one day be educated people who can make a positive

contribution to society, then they need to see diverse examples.” Dyquan Caldwell, 11th Grade

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38 HOW B

biochemical mhave circumenvironment.to the personfour categorie

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been diagnoely diagnoseddiagnosed een diagnose

oses. A childarning or beh

me pace as os. False pos. There is re

d false positial stressors.

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disability. Rate with thetructural modts can be div

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other studentitive childrenesearch evidive diagnose

portunities font. Contrarilyeed to be per

ther, they e school difications vided into

or have a

diagnosed lenges. A ts, and be n may be ence that s, due to

or diverse y, schools rmanently

snpae

Itegaps(ua

Wtsccwp

segregated frninth graderspatient and daccommodatenvironmenta

mportantly, Bthey are moreducation. Hgender; howeability. One predict drop suspensions Toldson, 201

unsettling. Wappear to be i

While we canthe Black maschools and techallenges wclasses. Explwithout disabproblem, as w

rom "normal"s with a histodiligent parenes a diversial conditions,

Black males are likely thanHaving a disaever, the tenimportant caout for Blackhas a much 11) for White

While the act interwoven in

nnot ignore thle students weachers who

with the gooring the qu

bilities end uwell as reveal

" students, wiory of disabints who instity of learn, such as com

are no more any other ra

ability increauous status o

aveat to consk males with

stronger ase males than

of suspendinnto the norm

he injustices who are enro

provide qualoal of helpiestion, "Howp in special ehidden solut

ll stunt acadelity who are illed a sense ers. They a

mmunity viole

likely to be dace or gendeses these drof Black malesider: Some

the precisiossociation wi it does for ng is reserveal fabric Blac

in many schoolled in honor

ity special eding students

w do Black boeducation?" mions, for optim

CH@

emic growth currently enof agency w

are also likence, which ca

iagnosed witer to be suspropout risk faes in schools studies suggn that it doeth dropping Black males.

ed for the mok male’s scho

ools, they shrs classes. Inducation servs to reinteoys with disamay help us mizing educa

@LLENGE THE

and developmnrolled in honwithin them, ely to have an compound

th a disabilitypended, repea

actors for alnationally apest that com

es for White out (Ruggle

. The larger ost deviant Wool experienc

ould not oven addition, wevices designed

grate and abilities end to gain a be

ation among

ST@TUS QUO

ment. The nenors classes

and a comp some prot

d disability sy

y than Hispanat a grade, ol students reppears to be

mmon drop omales. For i

es, et al., 20implication

White male ces.

ershadow thee should respd to remediatfully particiup in honorstter understaschool-aged

O | TOLDSON

early 5,600 Blikely benefit

passionate sctection fromymptoms.

nic or White mor be placed egardless of due to issue

out risk factonstance, freq

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e hope and ppectfully acknte specific edpate in ma

s classes, whanding of an Black males.

& LEWIS

Black male tted from

chool that m adverse

males, yet in special race and

es beyond ors do not quency of linquency

ng is very spensions

romise of nowledge

ducational ainstream ile others enduring

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- U.S

40 MOVIN

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forward, we h

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males beBlack mal

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e. It is our co

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NG FORWARD

g Forwarovides key ito support the systemic isshave also prov

ndations fe biases, steing disaffectles are capaburriculum thiversity of yodisclosure st

ns to the mm. The discloy courses withtrainings andthat are of a

rations shouldmanagementy monitor an that alters t

discipline wity monitor co

more than 3.0;east 25 perce than 6 percfor any reaso

th parents. Smation on coand learning r, and (6) upd

data is not ohat it can hav

nge the stateducational le of equityllective duty

of Education

ard nformation ne academic s

sues that impvided policy a

for Schooreotypes anded or sociallle of the high

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upportive schmmunity sergoals, (4) in

ates on stude

only in the nve when martus quo. The

experiencesy at the heay to change th

Arne Dunca

needed for ussuccess of schpact equity anand practical

ls d misinformay marginaliz

hest levels ofimum, meet

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ol district. to teachers. ace and gendent trainings

managementspensions. Arceptions of academics anent progress

ar 100 percenBlack males ial education;mates are bahools providervices to helpnformation aent progress

numbers theried with thee undeniables for many art of the Ahat.”

n

s to start a nahool-age Blacnd inclusion fosolution to th

ation from sed. Schoolsacademic ach

ts the admisnd that individ

ents and guauniversities oalso provide e

Understandder, receive lfor teachers, and other re

Acknowledge their respon

nd student ags. Safe and pnt of their stun honors cla; and (5) sus

ased on natioe: (1) informap their child, about child dbetween repo

emselves, e courage e truth is students

American

ational campck males. Wefor Black malehese issues.

We undpowerfas a natissue. Wdo as anto wait Our fu“What ccommu

To assischoolsaddressfollowin

school staff. should operhievement.

ssions requiredual schools aardians, whichof the state,educational o

d that Blackless pay, andon cultural c

elevant topicthat disciplin

nsibilities towgency. productive scudents involvsses or somepend less thnal surveys o

ation about h (3) explanat

developmentort cards.

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derstand thatul as the amotion and a co

We can no lon individual?”for the next

undamental can we do in

unities to mak

ist in the prs and commsing the issueng action ste

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ements for tand their govh specifies an which are options for s

males are thd have less yecompetence, s.

ne can becomward their stu

chools work: (ved in an extre type of enhan 10 percen

of student prohow to help ctions of classt, (5) opportu

will be sustaed pertinent on’s schools.

t this report ount of actio

ommunity puonger ask, “W” This will onperson to taquestion sheach of our r

ke a differenc

rocess of momunities foe, we recommps:

es notions abhe philosoph

the most comverning schoony courses reqnot available

students to a

he most likelyears teachingempathy and

me a competinudents. Rep

(1) to have a acurricular ac

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ses in terms unities for p

inable for data that

. To move

is only as n that we t into this

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hould be, respective ce?”

oving the rward in mend the

bout Black hy that all

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ng culture place rigid

collective ctivity; (3) culum; (4) lack male

at home, of course

parents to

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 41

Recommendations for Communities 1. Planning Phase – Formulate a think tank or community planning meeting of individuals to develop action

steps to support all Black students, with awareness of the issues facing school-age Black males. This think tank or community action committee should include key stakeholders and persons who are ready to step forward immediately to make a difference. Ideally, key school leaders, politicians, and government officials are contacted at the outset. Also, the planning phase should also include strategies on pooling existing resources to support the effort.

2. Action Phase – Host a town hall or community meeting to get the larger community involved, and provide the vision with key action steps of what the community will do to support this effort.

3. Implementation Phase – Begin with immediate action, with the community now putting into practice the action plans that were developed. Examples can include working with schools and parents for support. Additionally, it can include developing and expanding programs that support Black males’ academic achievement.

4. Analysis Phase – Collect data and provide information to the community on the progress that has been made as a result of implementing the larger community effort.

5. Sustainability Phase – Use the data to revise strategy where necessary, and devise long-term plans to continue this effort for years to come with the support of all stakeholders in the community.

Recommendations for Parents 1. Alert local school board members, superintendents and principals of unfair treatment of your sons.

Unfair treatment might involve: a) discrepancies between college admissions criteria and high school class offerings; b) unfair tests or testing conditions; c) unreasonably harsh or inappropriate punishment; d) inadequate advisement of postsecondary options; e) denial of access to honors or AP classes; or f) having unqualified personnel, such as a teacher, suggesting that the child has a behavior disability, might need medication, or should be placed in special education. According to Attorney Hewitt, concerns should be expressed around the issue of fundamental fairness and opportunities to learn within school districts.

2. Parent should strive to be present at the school. A recent study by Toldson and Lemmon (2012) found that parents of high achieving students visit the school at least 8 times for meetings or to participate in activities, throughout each academic year.

3. Be an active participant in your sons’ education. Hill and Tyson (2009) suggest that parent should do three things to support their child’s education: a) academic socialization - socialization around goals and purposes of education and strategies for success; b) school-based involvement - volunteering at school; and c) home-based - helping with homework.

School Districts Serving the Largest Number of African-American Students and their Congressional Representatives Below is a list of the names, addresses, and telephone numbers of the top 30 school districts serving the largest number of Black students in the United States. The list also includes the legislator who has been elected to represent each district in the U.S. House of Representatives. We constructed the list to serve as a tool for educational researchers, practitioners and advocates. Readers can use the list to identify research priorities, make initial contact with school districts, and identify key members of Congress to monitor their voting records on educational bills and legislation.

Legislative bills and policies affect the scope, direction, and daily functioning of students and educators. Some educational policies, such as No Child Left Behind, have sweeping agendas that directly transform educational practice (United States Congress, 2002). Recently, at the Centennial Convention of the NAACP, President Obama said, “There is no stronger weapon against inequality and no better path to opportunity than an education that can unlock a child's God-given potential” (Hechtkopf, 2009). He also challenged Black

42 MOVING FORWARD

Americans to become more proactive as we uphold the highest level of excellence among our children and the people and institutions responsible for their education. Educational scientists and practitioners who are invested in promoting equity in education can improve conditions for Black students by building alliances with target school districts and key members of Congress.

The table was constructed by using the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics “Common Core of Data” to find the school districts with the largest number of Black students, and using the zip code for the district to find the corresponding member of Congress with the Web site for the U.S. House of Representatives (U.S. Department of Education & Institute of Education Services, 2012; U.S. House of Representatives, 2009). Please note, because of the division of school districts in New York City, none of them is represented in the table. However, 318,355 Black students attend school within the five boroughs of New York. If Brooklyn, NY had a central school district, it would rank number 2, with 142,751 Black students; however, the borough is divided into 30 districts. Similarly, the Bronx has 66,330 Black students between 21 school districts, Queens has 56,675 Black students between 8 school districts, and New York (Manhattan) has 52,599 Black students between 28 school districts. We hope the table will be a useful resource for educational scientists and practitioners, as well as spark dialogue about the conditions of these school districts, which is so vital for the future of Black America.

TABLE 6.1 SCHOOL DISTRICTS SERVING THE LARGEST NUMBER OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS AND

THEIR CONGRESSIONAL REPRESENTATIVES

School District Telephone

Number Number of

Black Students Congressional

Representative City Of Chicago School District 125 S. Clark Chicago, IL 60603

773 553-1000 198,205 Danny K. Davis (D) Illinois 7th

Philadelphia City School District 440 North Broad Street Philadelphia, PA 19130

215 400-4000 112,586 Chaka Fattah (D) Pennsylvania 2nd

Detroit City School District 3011 W Grand Blvd, Fisher 14th Detroit, MI 48202

313 873-7450 105,617 Hansen Clarke (D) Michigan 13th

Memphis City School District 2597 Avery Ave Memphis, TN 38112

901 416-5444 101,073 Steve Cohen (D) Tennessee 9th

Prince George’s County Public Schools 14201 School Lane Upper Marlboro, MD 20772

301 952-6001 98,774 Donna F. Edwards (D) Maryland 5th

Broward 600 SE 3rd Avenue, 10th Floor Fort Lauderdale, FL 33301

754 321-2600 97,777 Alcee L. Hastings (D) Florida 20th

Dade 1450 Ne 2nd Avenue #912 Miami, FL 33132

305 995-1430 95,059 Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R) Florida 18th

Los Angeles Unified 333 S. Beaudry Ave. Los Angeles, CA 90017

213 241-1000 77,938 Lucille Roybal-Allard (D) California 34th

Dekalb County 3770 North Decatur Road Decatur, GA 30032

678 676-1200 76,728 Henry C. "Hank" Johnson Jr. (D) Georgia 4th

Baltimore City Public Schools 200 E North Ave Baltimore, MD 21202

410 396-8700 75,418 Elijah E. Cummings (D) Maryland 7th

CH@LLENGE THE ST@TUS QUO | TOLDSON & LEWIS 43

TABLE 6.1 SCHOOL DISTRICTS SERVING THE LARGEST NUMBER OF AFRICAN-AMERICAN STUDENTS AND

THEIR CONGRESSIONAL REPRESENTATIVES

School District Telephone

Number Number of

Black Students Congressional

Representative Houston School District 4400 W 18th St Houston, TX 77092

713 556-6000 59,276 Sheila Jackson-Lee (D) Texas 18th

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools P.O. Box 30035 Charlotte, NC 28230

980 343-3000 54,651 Melvin L. Watt (D) North Carolina 12th

Duval 1701 Prudential Dr Jacksonville, FL 32207

904 390-2115 54,628 Ander Crenshaw (R) Florida 4th

Milwaukee P.O. Box 2181 Milwaukee, WI 53201

414 475-8393 51,914 Gwen Moore (D) Wisconsin 4th

Palm Beach 3340 Forest Hill Blvd C-316 West Palm Beach, FL 33406

561 434-8200 48,606 Allen B. West (R) Florida 22nd

Orange P O Box 271 Orlando, FL 32802

407 317-3202 48,400 Daniel Webster (R) Florida 8th

Dallas School District 3700 Ross Ave Dallas, TX 75204

972 925-3700 46,948 Eddie Bernice Johnson (D) Texas 30th

District Of Columbia Public Schools 825 North Capitol Street NE Washington, DC 20002

202 442-5885 46,748 Eleanor Holmes Norton (D) District of Columbia

Clark County School District 5100 West Sahara Ave. Las Vegas, NV 89146

702 799-5310 43,348 Shelley Berkley (D) Nevada 1st

Atlanta City 130 Trinity Ave. S.W. Atlanta, GA 30303

404 802-3500 43,057 John Lewis (D) Georgia 5th

Hillsborough P.O. Box 3408 Tampa, FL 33601

813 272-4050 42,571 Kathy Castor (D) Florida 11th

Baltimore County Public Schools 6901 N Charles St Baltimore, MD 21204

410 887-4554 42,051 John P. Sarbanes (D) Maryland 3rd

Gwinnett County 52 Gwinnett Drive Lawrenceville, GA 30046

770 963-8651 40,008 Rob Woodall (R) Georgia 7th

East Baton Rouge Parish School Board P. O. Box 2950 Baton Rouge, LA 70821

225 922-5618 39,111 Bill Cassidy (R) Louisiana 6th

Clayton County 1058 Fifth Ave Jonesboro, GA 30236

770 473-2700 38,508 David Scott (D) Georgia 13th

Cleveland Municipal City 1380 E 6th St Cleveland, OH 44114

216 574-8193 38,474 Marcia L. Fudge (D) Ohio 11th

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Congressional Black Caucus Foundation, Inc. Center for Policy Analysis and Research 1720 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. | Washington, D.C. 20036 202.263.2800 | www.cbcfinc.org

Ch[ll_ng_ th_ St[tus Quo When releasing the CRDC’s report, Secretary Arne Duncan stated, “The real power of the data is not only the truth behind the numbers, but in the impact that it can have when married with courage and will to challenge the status quo.” We agree. Research demonstrates that Black males can achieve in supportive learning environments that effectively work with families and communities, and provide culturally-relevant instruction. However, deep and systemic structural inequities in public education inhibit the potential of Black and Latino students and leave the United States vulnerable to losing our standing as one of the world’s most educated nations. This report provides policy and practice solutions to ensure equitable resources, college and career readiness, and fair discipline practices for school-age Black males. As you review this report, we hope that you actively imagine ways that we can collectively challenge and change the way education is offered to young black males.