document resume title - eric · document resume ed 068 383 so 003 146 title united states history:...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 068 383 SO 003 146

TITLE United States History: From Community to Society.Teacher's Guide, Grade Six. Project SocialStudies.

INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis. Project Social StudiesCurriculum Center.

SPONS AGENCY Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C.PUB DATE 68NOTE 125p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58DESCRIPTORS Affective Objectives; *American Indian Culture;

Cognitive Objectives; Concept Teaching; *CrossCultural Studies; Democratic Values; DiscoveryLearning; Elementary Grades; Grade 6; Human Dignity;*Inquiry Training; Interdisciplinary Approach;Sequential Learning; Skill Development; *SocialStudies Units; Teaching Guides; *United StatesHistory; Values

IDENTIFIERS *Project Social Studies

ABSTRACTThis teacher's guide to the sixth grade social

studies course on United States history, which is part of anarticulated sequential curriculum for grades k-12, contains resourceunits which emphasize culture concepts in studying the AmericanIndians and the Spanish, French, and British settlements. Cognitiveand affective developmental skills are stressed. The seven units aredesigned to help students learn scholarly values, democratic values,and the value of human dignity. Inquiry strategies encourage pupilsto learn through the discovery process and to set up hypotheses byrecalling concepts and generalizations learned by experiences andprevious classes. Four major sections are included in the guide. Thefirst section presents information on course objectives, rationale,descriptions, teaching strategies, how to adapt resource units tospecific classes, and how the course fits into the total program. Thesecond section consists of charts indicating the way in whichcognitive, affective, conceptual, and generalization skills aredeveloped in different units. A background paper, written by RobertF. Berkhofer Jr. and contained in the third section, identifies theimportant topics to be taught in each unit. The last section providesa content bibliography. The seven units are contained in documents SO003 147 through SO 003 153. (SJM)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

TEACHER'S GUIDE TO THE

SIXTH GRLDE COURSE

on

UNITED STLTES HISTORY:

FROIVI COMMUNITY TO SOCIETY

(C--)

This course is part of an articulated curriculum

(..)for grades 7S-12 and have been developed by the

U Project Social Studies Curriculum Center at theUniversity of A.nnesota.

---eV)

r

This material was developed under a special grand from theUnited States Office of Education (HS-045).

1966

GOLLS FOR COURSE

The resource units make it clear that the sixthgrade course is designed to teach attitudes anc!skills as well as generalizations and concepts.This section deals b riefly with objectives forthe course. Charts appended to this guide in-dicate more specificially the way in which goalsarc developed in the different units.

Eehavioral Goals Related to Values

The sixth grade course was developed with aview to helping pupils develop many of thescholarly values identified by the Center's stafffor the entire social studies program. It wasdesigned also to develop a number of attitudesrelated to public values or the ground rules forthe operation of a democratic society. It shouldbe noted, moreover, that some of these attitudesare basic to an overall value which has not beenstated for each of the units -- the value of humandignity. Most pupils will come to the coursewith a fairly well-developed value for human dig-nity as a result of previous experiences at home,in school, in church, and in their many informalgroups. Probably the more specific values ofthis course will develop as pupils see the needfor certain things in order to prote6. this majorvalue. However, the content used to teach these

other values, suchof minority rights,on the basis of theimay also help reinsman dignity.

The sixth grade colseveral attitudes wstudy of social sci(

o the units trcisni of single-factand of panateas f(

It should not be thoneglected merely tthorn under a speciindicate those unit;in mind in designirtimes the entire urwill be reinforcedchocked.

Skills

This course attem]large number of thinquiry. Many of 1unit. A number ofin earlier coursesin this course. T1

LLS FOR COURSE

units make it clear that the sixthis designed to teach attitudes andas generalizations and concepts.peals b riefly with objectives for:harts appended to this guide in-;pecificially the way in which goalsi in the different units.

ls Related to Values

de course was developed with aig pupils develop many of thedes identified by the Center's staffsocial studies program. It wasto develop a number of attitudes

)lic values or the ground rules forof a democratiz society. It should

reover, that some of these attitudesin overall value which has not beenh of the twits -- the value of humant pupils will come to the coursewell-developed value for human dig -ilt of previous experiences at home,church, and in their many informalDally the more specific values ofill develop as pupils see the need,ings in order to protect this majorver, the content used to teach these

other values, such as those related to the protectionof minority rights, evaluating events and institutionson the basis of their effects upon human beings, etc.may also help reinforce pupils' attitudes toward hu-man dignity.

The sixth grade course is also designed to developseveral attitudes which are likely to arise from thestudy of social science content. For example, sev-eral e:c. she units try to help pupils develop a scepti-cism of single-factor causation in the social sciencesand of panaceas for curing social problems.

It should not be thought that some of the goals areneglected merely because there is no check againstthem under a specific unit in the chart. The checksindicate tiler:0 units where the goals have been keptin mind in designing specific activities and some-times the entire unit approach. Many of the otherswill be reinforced in units in whi".h they are notchrIcked.

Skills

This course attempts to develop many skills. Alarge number of these are related to methods ofinquiry. Many of these are introduced in the firstunit. A number of these skills have been taughtin earlier courses, although they should be refinedin this course. Those which are taught in earlier

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courses are marked by stars in the chart onsequential development of skills on pages 16-19of this guide.

It should be noted that although some of these skillsare not listed as objectives in more than one unit

g.later units give pupils opportunities to practice andimprove the skill. Teachers may find that theyshould work intensively on the skill in a numberof units and should then list it as an objective ofthe later teaching units.

Some of the skills objectives should be taught inall of the units for which they are listed. Theseare the thinking skills related to inquiry and crit-ical evaluation.

Some of the other skills are listed for more thanone unit, too. rzlowever, the teacher may decide topostpone teaching the skill in the first unit in whichit is listed. Or she may feel that it is unnecessaryto teach it to all pupils in the second unit in whichit is found, even though she may wish to work onthe skill with a small group of pupils who stillneed help on it.

Goals Related to Concepts and Generalizations

The Center has chosen to identify important con-

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cepts and generalizatisciences and has trieddevelopment of themcourse in grade six isstaff's historican take;tory has no major conldraws upon concepts vfrequently or even antwhich have been anal ysocial scioc..e fields.history course makesthe other social sciencpology. The staff's 1.rciplines is explained iand 2. For further atory, the teacher is rcpaper on history by PJr.

It is important to remcept from anthropologentire curriculum tog;is designed to teach iddiversity, culture contural continuity, and tment. Data on the detcultures studied in tiii

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-.ed by stars in the chart onpment of skills on pages 16-19

that although some of these skillsobjectives in more than one unit

upils opportunities to practice and. Teachers may find that theysively on the skill in a numberd then list it as an objective ofunits.

objectives should be taught ini which they are listed. Thesekills related to inquiry and crit-

skills are listed for more thanmever, the teacher may decide to

the skill in the first unit in wichhe may feel that it is unneces;aryupils in the second unit in whichhough she may wish to work on

nail group of pupils who still

'2oncepts and Generalizations

losen to identify important con-

cepts and generalizations from the various socialsciences and has tried to provide for a. sequentialdevelopment of them in the IC -12 curriculum. Thecourse in grade six is a history course. Thestaff's historic= takes the point of view that his-tory has no major concepts of its own; rather, itdraws upon concepts which may have been usedfrequently or even introduced by historians butwhich have been anal yzed more carefully in othersocial science fields. Therefore, the sixth gradehistory course makes heavy use of concepts fromthe other social sciences, particularly from anthro-pology. The staff's viewpoint on structure in dis-ciplines is explained in Background Papers If 1and 2. For further analysis of the field'of his-tory, the teacher is referred to the backgroundpaper on history by Professor Robert F. Berkhofer,Jr.

It is important to remember that the culture con-cept from anthropology has been used to tie theentire curriculum together. The sixth grade courseis designed to teach ideas about culture, culturaldiversity, culture contact, culture change, cul-tural continuity, and the cultural use of the environ-ment. Data on the details of some of the Indiancultures studied in this course ar not .

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important except as they help develop an under -standing of some of these concepts or to developan appreciation of the cultural contributions ofsome of the societies. Data on early settlementsare important because they are needed to teachgeneralizations about cultural use of the environ-ment, cultural continuity, and culture change.

The Rationale for the Number of Objectives

These resource units differ from many units in partbecause of the large number of generalizations andskills to be taught. The teacher should rememberthat many of these generalizations and skills arefound in a number of the units in the sixth gradecourse. The sequential pattern from one unit tothe next can be seen in the charts at the end ofthis guide. Moreover, many of the objectives arereviewed from earlier grades and almost all willbe taught through different content in later grades.This means that it is not necessary or wise to spendto spend too much time clinching a single generali-zation in any one unit. Rather, children shouldgeneralize and hold these generalizations as tenta-tive -- as hypotheses to be tested more fully asthey study other units. At the end of the coursethey can generalize more fully about any one topicthan they can at the beginning of the course. How-ever, they should still understand that generaliza-tions may need to be modified later, that they shouldbe held tentatively, always subject to change in the

light of new evidence.

Because of this reinforment of concepts, geneis important for the teaobjectives of all of thecourse. It would be wi:objectives of earlier CO,goals, which are found 'are keyed to show whiclearlier grades. The co\Paper # 1 indicates atgeneralization, skill, oappears.

TELCHE

This course relies hemapproach to teaching.discussion of inquiry stteacher should read a npapers. Background Pdetail the Center's poufa teaching strategy andBackground Paper 11 10theory in relation to theground papers on the inupon inquiry methods adisciplines, not upon ining. However, they di(

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-.:pt as they help develop an under -me of these concepts or to developn of the cultural contributions of>cieties. Data on early settlementsbecause they are needed to teachs about cultural use of the environ-continuity, and culture change.

for the Number of Objectives

.e units differ from many units in partlarge number of generalizations and

ught. The teacher should rememberaose generalizations and skills areiber of the units in the sixth grade;equential pattern from one unit to

seen in the charts at the end of.oreover, many of the objectives are

earlier grades and almost all willugh different content in later grades.',at it is not necessary or wise to spend:Lich time clinching a single generali-Ile unit. Rather, children should

hold these generalizations as tenta-otheses to be tested more fully asor units. Lt the end of the coursealize more fully about any one topicA the beginning of the course. How-mid still understand that generaliza-

to be modified later, that they shouldvely, always subject to change in the

light of new evidence.

Because of this reinforcement and further develop-ment of concepts, generalizations, and skills, itis important for the teacher to read through theobjectives of all of the units before he begins thecourse. It would be wise, also, to examine theobjectives of earlier courses. The charts ongoals, which are found at the end of this guide,are keyed to show which ones were taught in theearlier grades. The overall chart in BackgroundPaper 0 1 indicates at what levels each concept,generalization, skill, or attitudinal behaviorappears.

TELCHING STRLTEGIES

This course relies heavily upon an inquiryapproach to teaching. For a more completediscussion of inquiry strategies in teaching, theteacher should read a number of the backgroundpapers. Background Paper 0 1 analyzes in moredetail the Center's point of view about inquiry asa teaching strategy and what inquiry involves.Background Paper it 10 examines learningtheory in relation to the use of inquiry. Back-ground papers on the individual disciplines focusupon inquiry methods and techniques used in thosedisciplines, not upon inquiry approaches to teach-ing. However, they discuss inquiry techniques

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which might be taught to pupils in some of the courses.For example, the background paper in history analyzesfactors to be considered in deciding how much faith toput in an account.

This sixth grade course emphasizes . a t e h -ing strategy which encr_wragoopupils to find out things for themselves rather thanone which emphasizes the absorption of general i na-tions presented ready-made by the teacher or abook. Pupils are asked to set up hypotheses bydrawing upon previously-learned concepts andgeneralizations. They decide that some idea theyhave learned in the past might help them makesense out of this new situation. They cannot besure, but they think that this might be so. Inquiryalso involves gathering data, evaluating sources,testing their hypotheses, and generalizing fromtheir findings.

Teachers should encourage pupils' hypotheses orguesses as being as worthwhile at some stages ofthinking as are statements which present a com-mentary on facts found in books, articles, orfilms. Lt other times pupils should be asked tolook for things which can be used to test the ithypotheses. They should learn that an untestedopinion of a non-normative nature is not as goodas a tested opinion or generalization. Even atthis stage, however, pupils should be rewardedfor thinking of new hypotheses or for asking role-

1

vant questions which haveWhether or not pupils wil]set up hypotheses, and gedepends in part upon whetis discouraged or encouryever, the teacher should"right, " or "good" whenwhich the teacher considcteacher may wish to sugginteresting idea and ask fcclass. Then pupils can toTeachers can reward orbehavior desired in manysaying that the pupil has canswer.

The Center's staff does mcourse reflect a belief, tt,developed by this type of tskill goals call for havingcertain kinds of referenceof information. Such goa:pupils use a wide varietysent different points of vieMoreover, pupils may necor watch films in order tohypotheses. Some accoundesigned to help pupils finabout events. Novels anda chance to identify with tland so to understand their

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;V to pupils in some of the courses.)ackgrouncl paper in history analyzeslered in deciding how much faith to

urse emphasizes . a ter.c h -which encouragesings for themselves rather than:es the absorption of general i za-,dy-made by the teacher or asled to set up hypotheses bymsly-learned concepts andhey decide that some idea theypast might help them make

w situation. They cannot bethat this might be so. Inquiry

..ing data, evaluating sources,,ses, and generalizing front

courage pupils' hypotheses orworthwhile at some stages of,rents which present a cora-

Ind in books, articles, orles pupils should be asked toh can be used to test tnerhould learn that an untestedmative nature is not as good)1* generalization. Even at

pupils should be rewardedtypotheses or for asking rele-

vant questions which have not been raised earlier.Whether or not pupils will learn to ask questions,set up hypotheses, end generalize for themselves,depends in part upon whether or not such behavioris discouraged or encouraged by teachers. How-ever, the teacher should not always say "yes,""right," or "good" when a pupil presents an ideawhich the teacher considers good. Rather, theteacher may wish to suggest that it is a new orinteresting idea and ask for other ideas from theclass. Then pupils can test different ideas.Teachers can reward or encourage the kinds ofbehavior desired in many ways othe: than bysaying that the pupil has stated a "correct"answer.

The Center's staff does not believe, nor does thiscourse reflect a belief, that all learning must bedeveloped by this type of teaching strategy. Someskill goals call for having pupils learn to usecertain kinds of references or evaluate sourcesof information. Such goals cannot be met unlesspupils use a wide variety of materials which pre-sent different points of view or generalizations.'Moreover, pupils may need to read materialsor watch films in order to gather data to test theirhypotheses. Some accounts used in the units aredesigned to help pupils find out how people feelabout events. Novels and biographies give pupilsa chance to identify with the people in the accountsand so to understand their feelings. Even when

9

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pupils read other people's accounts of topics, theyshould be evaluating the ideas against other data,discriminating between fact and opinion, identify-ing basic assumptions, etc. and using the datathey find to either stimulate new hypotheses fortesting or to test earlier hypotheses.

times the teacher may wish to use a very infor-mal lecture or talk to present certain facts, butshe can then ask questions to help pupils arriveat their own generalizations from these facts. In-deed, she can intersperse questions and discussionwith her presentation. The purpose of such an in-formal lecture is to give pupils the raw data fromwhich they can develop concepts and generaliza-tions -- information which perhaps is difficultfor them to find elsewhere or to read for them-selves or which can be presented more quicklyin this fashion. The informal lecture should seldompresent ready-made generalizations. Thus it is afar cry from the well-organized talk which beginswith a thesis and then develops it.

Clearly, achievement of varied goals requiresvaried teaching strategies. The strategy used ineach instance, however, should be appropriateto the specific objectives to be developed.

Some teachers worry about having pupils read dif-ferent materials. They may believe that all pupilsshould have read something in common as a basis

10

for discussions and for test:different materials focusedThey can be tested upon wh2discussions or in various kias upon what they read. Bygeneralizations and skills r:within any piece of writing,tpenalizing any pupil who haferent and can make it clea:she is in earnest when she :concerned about important iSometimes tests can also af.one of the accounts which he

THE FOCUS OF THE St

The sixth grade course shifgeography to the study of thStates. No attempt is madtraditional topics in Americthis course has been articu]grade course to try to prey(further discussion of the wocourses are related, the te:section below on how the oi:into the overall curriculum.for study in the sixth gradeparticularly appropriate toest and are useful in devellture, cultural use of the em

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.ale's accounts of topics, they-ie ideas against other data,

en fact and opinion, identify-etc. and using the data

mulate new hypotheses forher hypotheses.

may wish to use a very irifor-) present certain facts, butstions to help pupils arrive:rations from these facts. In-)erse questions and discussion. The purpose of such cm in-;lye pupils the raw data from)p concepts and generaliza-yhica perhaps is difficult/here or to read for them-be presented more quicklyinformal lecture should seldomleneralizations. Thus it is a.-organized talk which begins

develops it.

1. of varied goals requiresegies. The strategy used in.er, should be appropriateives to be developed.

about having pupils read dif-hiey may believe that all pupilsiething in common as a basis

I)

for discussions and for tests. Pupils can readdifferent materials focused upon the same questions.They can be tested upon what they hear in classdiscussions or in various kinds of reports as wellas upon what they read. By testing for concepts,generalizations and skills rather than the specificswithin any piece of writing, the teacher can avoidpenalizing any pupil who has read something dif-ferent and can make it clear to the pupils thatshe is in earnest when she says that she is moreconcerned about important ideas than about details.Sometimes tests can also ask each pupil to evaluateone of the accounts which he has read.

THE FOCUS OF THE SIXTII atADE COURSE

The sixth grade course shifts from the study ofgeography to the study of the history of the Unitedstates. No attempt is made to teach all of thetraditional topics in American history. Rather,this course has been articulated with the tenthgrade course to try to prevent duplication. Forfurther discussion of the way in which the twocourses are related, the teacher should read thesection below on how the sixth grade course fitsinto the overall curriculum. Those topics chosenfor study in the sixth grade course were consideredparticularly appropriate to pupils' maturity and inter-est and are useful in developing ideas about cul-ture, cultural use of the environment, culture

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contact, culture change, and cultural diversity.

The course also emphasizes the need for carefulevaluation of sources of information in terms ofbias and competency of the producer. Pupils usevaried source materials as well as textaooks andmany non-text materials as they study this course.

THE GENERAL CUTIME OF THE COURSE

Unit 1: Indian America Before the White Men

This unit uses case studies of two Indian cultures,each of which came into contact later with a dif-ferent group of European colonizers. Pupilsstudy the Aztecs who were later conquered bythe Spanish and the Iroquois who carne into con-tact with both the French and the English. Pu-pils study the Aztecs and the Iroquois as totalcultures and draw comparisons between them.

Unit 2: Spanish and French Settlement of NorthAmerica

This unit deals briefly with reasons for coloniza-tion of America. It then turns to the Spanishsettlement of Mexico, the way in which the Spanishtook their culture with them to the new world,differences in the way in which the Aztecs and

12

the Spanish perceived the same en'contact of the Spanish with the itztitural diffusion.

In the next part of the unit, pupilsFrench settlement of Canada. ThEmuch the same way that they studilcolonization and contact with India]contrast the French and Spanish sewell as the European and Indian cucame into contact with each other.

Unit 3: English Settlement of Nort

This unit users case studies of beJamestown and Plymouth to illustrsimilarities and differences in thement patterns. The unit describestact with the Iroquois and other Incand it contrasts their cultures. Pt.pare the English settlements with tFrench and Spanish.

Unit Revolutionary America

This unit uses case studies of VA lliBoston in the eighteenth century toand continuity firm the earlier Englat Jamestown and Plymouth in the

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change, and cultural diversity.

mphasizes the need for carefulces of information in terms oficy of the producer. Pupils useterials as well as textaooks andterials as they study this course.

OUTLINE OF THE COURSE

erica Before the White Men

studies of two Indian cultures,into contact later with a dif-

ropean colonizers. Pupilswere later conquered by

Iroquois who came into con-7rench and the English. Pu-cs and the Iroquois as totalcomparisons between them.

d French Settlement of North

fly with reasons for coloniza-t then turns to the Spanishco, the way in which the Spanish:ith them to the new world,:ay in which the Aztecs and

the Spanish perceived the same environment, thecontact of the Spanish with the Aztecs, and cul-tural diffusion.

In the next part of the unit, pupils turn to theFrench settlement of Canada. They study it inmuch the same way that they studied the Spanishcolonization and contact with Indians. Pupilscontrast the French and Spanish settlements aswell as the European and Indian cultures whichcame into contact with each other.

Unit 3: English Settlement of North America

This unit tic:0s case studies of tie z.12ttloments atJamestown and Plymouth to illustrate bothsimilarities and differences in the English settle-ment patterns. The unit describes English con-tact with the Iroquois and other Indian groupsand it contrasts their cultures. Pupils also com-pare the English settlements with those of theFrench and Spanish.

Unit 4: Revolutionary America

This unit uses case studies of Hamburg andBoston in the eighteenth century to show changeand continuity from the earlier English settlementsat Jamestown and Plymouth in the seventeenth

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century. The unit also examines some of the changes war. Afterwhich led to the revolution and deals with the Rev° lu- pupils turntion itself. tion in the

period.

Unit 5: National ExpansionUnit 7: Th.:

Unit five traces internal migration and immigra-tion into the Old Northwest and the New South.I=upils note how different streams of migrationfrom the Mantic seaboard moved to differentplaces in the old northwest and southwest and howthe differences in their cultures resulted in dif-ferences in the places to which they migrated.r:upils trace some of the movement through thestories of certain families, such as the Lincolnfamily, the Douglas family, and the Houston andDavis families. The unit also describes foreignimmigration into this area of the West and thetransportation developments which facilitated thewestward movement.

This unit INof the PlaiiPupils notetween thee,:physical enthe white ITand to theplains area

THE PL1 :.0

It is imporcourse fits

Unit G: Civil War and Reconstruction frameworkto acquaint

This unit uses the culture concept to analyze the peoples incauses of the Civil War. There is considerable concepts alemphasis upon conditions of slavery and some atten- their own ntion to the African background of slaves. There is directionsopportunity for the study of some military history, learned to 1but pupils also analyze the role of the Negro in the have found

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The unit also examines some of the changes:o the revolution and deals with the Rev° lu-

itional Expansion

races internal migration and immigra-te Old Northwest and the New South.e how different streams of migrationtlantic seaboard moved to differenthe old northwest and southwest and hownces in their cultures resulted in dif-n the places to which they migrated.ce some of the movement through thecertain families, such as the Lincolne Douglas family, and the Houston andilies. The unit also describes foreignon into this area of the West and thetion developments which facilitated themovement.

vil IT/ar and Reconstruction

ises the culture concept to analyze the'he Civil War. There is considerableupon conditions of slavery and some atten-African background of slaves. There isfor the study of some military history,

also analyze the role of the Negro in the

14

war. Alter examining the Reconstruction period,pupils turn h,iefl3r io the development of segrega-tion in the South following the Reconstructionperiod.

Unit 7: The Completion of National_ 7x-prncion

This unit begins with two case studies of Indiansof the the Cheyenne and the Madan.Pupils note the differences and similarities be-tween these two cultures and how they used theirphysical environment. The unit then turns tothe white men's perceptions of t he great plainsand to the effects of white-Indian contact in theplains area.

THE PLECE OF THE 517111 GR.IDE COURSE INTHE OVERLLL CURRICULUM

It is important for teachers to understand how thiscourse fits into the rest of the Center's curricularframework. The kindergari:en program is designedto acquaint children with the general idea of variedpeoples in Ike world and wi.th simple geographicconcepts and skills. Children will have studiedtheir own neighborhood, learned something aboutdirections -.4.nd distanceF., niAde simnle maps andlearned to use simple globes and maps. They willhave found out that communities and countries are

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dependent upon each other for many goods and re- operates. Etc

sources. They will also have been introduced to some societiEthe idea of change in the environment which re- greater rolesults both from natural forces and from man's traditional reactivities. ple -.7?, more

They will seccultural valueIt seems appropriate to have children begin their

study of culture by focusing upon only one in-stitutionan institution which is close to theirlives. The two year sequence of "Families A-round the World" does introduce several otherinstitutions in a simple way as children focusupon the family. Children will notice differencesin education and to some extent in religion. Theywill be introduced to simple economic conceptssuch as specialization and economic interdependence.However, they will wait to study other institutionsin greater depth until grades three and four.

Grade three uses the theme of "Communities A-round the World" to introduce children in moredetail to social and political institutions. Againsome economic concepts are developed, but themajor focus upon economic institutions does notcome until grade four.

The fourth grade course uses the same theme of"Communities Around the World" to introducecontrasting economic systems. Children willspend a large portion of their time finding outin simple terms how our own economic system

In each of theadded to a sttpils have exa:look at the Mthree, they wthe family litdren look atIndia in grad:the family liftin an Indian vstudy more itthey are ablemuch confusil

In grade five,how differenttime use thefocus is uponCanada, andcourse givesphysical enviin the sixth gof the norther

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h other for many goods and re-il also have been introduced toin the environment which re-

ural forces and from man's

Le to have children begin theirfocusing upon only one in-

ution which is close to theirsequence of "Families A-

oes introduce several othermple way as children focus'hildren will notice differencessome extent in religion. They_o simple economic conceptsion and economic interdependence.i wait to study other institutionstil grades three and four.

:le theme of "Communities A-J introduce children in morepolitical institutions. Againcepts are developed, but theconomic institutions does notur.

)urse uses the same theme ofInd the World" to introducelie systems. Children willon of their time finding outw our own economic system

operates. However, they will discover that insome societies the government plays a muchgreater role and that in some societiestraditional reciprocal relationships among peo-ple rhore iraDcrtant than a market system.They will see how the total way of life, includingcultural values, affects economic systems.

In each of these grade levels, institutions areadded to a study of other institutions which pu-pils have examined earlier. That is, as childrenlook at the IVianus or Paris community in gradethree, they will also notice some things abcutthe family life in these communities. As chil-dren look at economic life in the village ofIndia in grade four, they will find out much aboutthe family life and the social and political lifein an Indian village. In this fashion, childrenstudy more institutions in each grade level untilthey are able to look at total cultures without toomuch confusion.

In grade five, children study in much more detailhow different cultures or the same people overtime use the same physical environment. Thefocus is upon the geography of the United States,Canada, and Latin P_merica. The fifth gradecourse gives pupils some understanding of thephysical environment of several places studiedin the sixth grade. For example, pupils' studyof the northeastern part of the United States

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provides useful background for the study of the Iroquoisand the early English settlement in Plymouth. Thestudy of the Midwest and of the South provides helpwhen pupils look at expanison into those areas. Thestudy of the South also provides background forCivil War. Finally, the study of the Great Plainsarea, although not detailed, should provide usefulbackground for the final unit in the sixth grade onexpansion into the Great Plains area. Pupils canalso draw upon what they have learned in thefifth grade to make comparisons between the :..lgonquinsand the Iroquois and between the Sioux and otherPlains Indians studied in the sixth grade course.

The sixth grade course differs from the fifth gracecourse by emphasizing culture contact and the move-ment of people with their culture to new placesrather than the changing use of the same physicalenvironment, even though that idea is reinforcedin the course.

It is important to notice the way in which the sixthgrade course compares with the tenth grade courseon United States history. In order to prevent du-plication, the tenth grade course omits many ofthe topics covered in the sixth grade course ortreats them very differently. Thus the unit on theColonial llge has very different focus than the uniton English colonial settlements in the sixth gradecourse, and it omits the Indian groups and the Frenchand Spanish settlements. Students do not spend

g

time on the Revolutionarythe important ideas whichwhich made the Republica'Century different from theSeventeenth Century. Onstudy the organization of tjdevelopment of a politicalpolitical developments prtThey also study the socialtical reform movements ofThy westward movement tgrade course, although puffthe sectional conflicts whiffstudy the causes of the Cis'analyze the Turner frontiethe 2 emocratic Age.

The tenth grade unit on theconsiderable material onteacher can reduce it oncethe sixth grade course. Twith the military conflict.the wax itself is upon thein times of crisis and upolsecurity and freedom in wcludes material on recoilsless extensive form than iMoreover, the emphasis ireconstruction plans, upoilegislative conflict, and ujbate over reconstruction g

-9-

I. background for the study of the Iroquois-.:1glish settlement in Plymouth. Theciwest and of the South provides helpk at expanison into those areas. The

all also provides background forthe study of the Great Plains

not detailed, should provide usefulthe final unit in the sixth grade on

the Great Plains area. Pupils canwhat they have learned in the

lake comparisons between the :...1gonquinss and between the Sioux and otherstudied in the sixth grade course.

course differs from the fifth graclelasizing culture contact and the move-with their culture to new placeschanging use of the same physicalven though that idea is reinforced

to notice the way in which the sixthDrhpares with the tenth grade courses history. In order to prevent du-,.'nth grade course omits many ofred in the sixth grade course ory differently. Thus the unit on the

very different focus than the unitinial settlements in the sixth grade.)nits the Indian groups and the Frenchtlements. Students do not spend

time on the Revolutionary War except to analyzethe important ideas which brought it about andwhich made the Republican I..ge of the EighteenthCentury different from the Colonial ...ge of theSeventeenth Century. On the other hand, pupilsstudy the organization of the new government, thedevelopment of a political party system and otherpolitical developments prior to the Civil War.They also study the social, economic, and poli-tical reform movements of the 1820's-1840's.The westward movement is omitted from the tenthgrade course, although pupils refer to some ofthe sectional conflicts which developed as theystudy the causes of the Civil War and as theyanalyze the Turner frontier thesis in the unit onthe Democratic Age.

The tenth grade unit on the Civil V. includesconsiderable material on slavery, although theteacher can reduce it once pupils have come throughthe sixth grade course. The unit does not dealwith the military conflict. Rather, the focus onthe war itself is upon the role of the executivein times of crisis and upon issues related tosecurity and freedom in wartime. The unit in-cludes material on reconstruction but in muchless extensive form than in the sixth grade.Moreover, the emphasis is upon an analysis ofreconstruction plans, upon the executive-legislative conflict, and upon the historical de-bate over reconstruction governments in the

-10-

South.

The tenth grade course also includes an analysisof the rise of industrialism and responses to in-dustrialism, including the rise of labor unionsand farm organizations and the political develop-ments of the Progressive Era.

The final unit in the tenth grade focuses upon eco-nomic developments in the period after World "WarI and in the ramifications of change resulting fromthose developments. The usual emphasis uponforeign policy is omitted since foreign policy istreated at length in the eleventh and twelfth gradecourses.

P.iiinority group relations are treated in a numberof places in the secondary school curriculum. Thelast unit in the seventh grade course in sociologyfocuses upon Intergroup Relations and builds uponwhat pupils have learned in the sixth grade unit onthe Civil War and Reconstruction. Minority groupsare also treated through case studies in the eighthgrade course, in the poverty unit in the ninth grade,in the tenth grade unit on Civil Viar and Reconstruc-tion, and in a twelfth grade unit on Racial Conflict.

THE FORIVALT OF THE RESOURCE UNITS

The main part of each resource unit is set up in a

double-page formtionships among ocedures, and matEjectives for eachcolumn on the left,the questions: gillor teach this coatof the procedure ?,on the left-hand ix,tent. This columrtopics should we tiright-hand page incedures. This co:How can we teachtent? The final cction answers the qcan we teach these

P.. key is used in tltype of objective stions are precede(Skills are precedeAttitudinal behavi(are in capital lett(

If no objective isfor a particular pilook at the last ob,for a single procepeated until a cliff(

-10-

de course also includes an analysisindustrialism and responses to in-including the rise of labor unionsmizations and the political develop-Progressive Era.

in the tenth grade focuses upon eco-)ments in the period after World \-/artmifications of change resulting frommeats. The usual emphasis uponis omitted since foreign policy is

gth in the eleventh and twelfth grade

p relations are treated in a numberle secondary school curriculum. Thee seventh grade course in sociologyintergroup Relations and builds uponwe learned in the sixth grade unit onand P,econstruction. Minority groups

.ed through case studies in the eighthin the poverty unit in the ninth grade,

ade unit on Civil War and Reconstruc-twelfth grade unit on Racial Conflict.

OF THE RESOURCE UNITS

t of each resource unit is set up in a

double-page format to help teachers see the rela-tionships among objectives, content, teaching pro-cedures, and materials of instruction. The ob-jectives for each procedure are found in the firstcolumn on the left-hand page. This column answersthe questions: Why would we use this procedureor teach this content? That should be the focusof the procedure ? The second columnon the left-hand page presents an outline of con-tent. This column answers the question: Whattopics should we teach? The first column on theright-hand page includes suggested teaching pro-cedures. This column answers the question:How can we teach these objectives and this con-tent? The final column on materials of instruc-tion answers the question: With what materialscan we teach these objectives and this content?

P. key is used in the objectives column to make thetype of objective stand out clearly. Generaliza-tions are preceded by a G and are in plain type.Skills are preceded by an S and are underlined.Attitudinal behaviors are. preceded by an andare in capital letters.

If no objective is found in the left-hand columnfor a particular procedure, the teacher shouldlook at the last objective(s) listed in the columnfor a single procedure. An objective is not re-peated until a different objective intervenes.

21

By knowing what generalization(s) are listed fora particular procedure, the teacher can directher handling of the procedure to appropriate ends.Ls stated earlier, however, she should notfeel that children should learn a generalizationas the result of this one procedure.The procedure should help lead to the develop-ment of the generalization but is almost neverthe only procedure aimed at accomplishing thisend even within the same unit,

If no content is found in the left-hand column fora particular procedure, the teacher should lookat the last content listed in the column for a singleprocedure. The content is not repeated for allof the procedures which develop it.

The materials column does not include completebibliographic data nor all of the references whichmight be used. The publishers can be found in

the bibliography at the end of the main body of theunit. The bibliography frequently includes otherbooks and materials which may be used in theunit. but which are not quite so necessary asthose listed in the body of the unit. Teachersare encouraged to add other materials as theyare published or suitable materials which are intheir school libraries but which are not listed inthe bibliography.

ADLPTE4G RESOUR

The units provided 1?units, Naturally, tecouraged to add theiand teaching procedtto suggest possibilitdried course.

Since these units aris not expected to uscedures. Indeed shiclass. Rather, shecedures which are nShe should considermakes this selectior

1. The objectives win the unit.

Suppose the teaclneed more help cShe may wish toto give pupils methis skill.

2. The general abil

For example, in

wing what generalization(s) are listed forcular procedure, the teacher can directIdling of the procedure to appropriate ends.ed earlier, however, she should nott children should learn a generalization-esult of this one procedure.)cedure should help lead to the develop-the generalization but is almost never

1 procedure aimed at accomplishing thisn within the same unit.

ntent is found in the left-hand column for_ular procedure, the teacher should lookast content listed in the column for a singleure. The content is not repeated for allrocedures which develop it.

terials column does not include completeaphic data nor all of the references which

)e used. The publishers can be found iniography at the end of the main body of thehe bibliography frequently includes othernd materials which may be used in theA which are not quite so necessary assted in the body of the unit. Teachersouraged to add other materials as theylished or suitable materials which are in:hool libraries but which are not listed iniography.

22

ADLPTENTG RES3URCE UNITS SPECIFICCLASSES

The units provided by the Center are resourceunits. Naturally, teachers are expected and en-couraged to add their own ideas for materialsand teaching procedures. These units are intendedto suggest possibilities, not to present a cut-and-dried course.

Since these units are resource units, a teacheris not expected to use all of the suggested pro-cedures. Indeed she could not do so in any oneclass. Rather, she should select and add pro-cedures which are most suitable for her class.She should consider a number of factors as sheme-es this selection.

1. The objectives which she wishes to emphasizein the unit.

Suppose the teacher discovers that pupilsneed more help on certain evaluation skills.She may wish to develop additional exercisesto give pupils more opportunities to developthis skill.

2. The general ability level of the class.

For example, in a class of largely low ability

23

-12-

children, the teacher may wish to spend moretime on some of the activities ich callfor making concrete items, manipulatingthings, or drawing.

3. The differing abilities and interests of classmembers.

This criterion is particularly important inselecting individual and small group activities.

4. Previous experiences of children.

The selection of objectives, content, proce-dures, and materials will depend in part upon:(a) previous experiences outside of school,such as trips, visits to museums, where chil-dren lived before coming to the community,socio-economic background of children, etc. ;(b) earlier school experiences, includingwhether or not children have come through theearlier courses in the Center's curriculum.Much more attention will have to be paid todeveloping some of the concepts related to cul-ture if children have not had the earlier courses.

5. The rest of the school curriculum, both in so-cial studies and in other fields.

The teacher will need to consider questionssuch as the following: (a) Will children studyother courses from this Center's curriculum

at later grad,ing the severwish to expairights in thestruction. (1

their sciencesocial siudie'for their En{

6. 1..caterials av

Some provedneeded mate]materials cacourse, how(materials anand local libito teach with'The first yea_.acre moneyany other.

7. Factors in thhow the teactissues or the

8. The need forunit to the ne

As teachers adaikeep in mind cer

-12-

teacher may wish to spend moreof the activities which call

,ncrete items, manipulatingwing.

abilities and interests of class

is particularly important invidual and small group activities.

riences of children.

of objectives, content, proce-aterials will depend in part upon:xperiences outside of school,visits to museums, where chil-

iore coming to the community,sic background of children, etc.;Tool experiences, including

children have come through thein the Center's curriculum.

tention will have to be paid to,ne of the concepts related to cul-:n have not had the earlier courses.

school curriculum, both in so-in other fields.

.ill need to consider questionsilowing: (a) Will children studyfrom this Center's curriculum

at later grade levels? If they will not be study-ing the seventh grade course, the teacher maywish to expand some of the treatment of civilrights in the unit on the Civil War and Recon-struction, (b) What are children learning intheir science units which might help them insocial studies? V/hat books are they readingfor their English work?

6. Materials available for the course.

Some procedures will have to be omitted ifneeded materials are not available or if othermaterials cannot be substituted. Much of thiscourse, however, can be taught through textmaterials and books typically found in schooland local libraries. The most difficult unitto teach without new materials is unit one.The first year, teachers should probably spendmce mcney on materials for that unit than forany other.

7. Factors in the community which might affecthow the teacher can handle certain controversialissues or the kinds of resource people available.

8. The need for variety in procedures from oneunit to the next and from one day to the next.

ks teachers adapt and add to units, they shouldkeep in mind certain things about how the course

25

-13-

has been developed. First, there is a flow to eachunit. Certain things are placed first and otherthings later because of the need to develop cer-tain concepts or present certain data before otherideas are presented. Before the order of proce-dures or content is shifted, the teacher needs toanalyze the concepts and data needed to teach eachprocedure in order to decide whether the shift iswise or, if it is made, what else needs to beshifted in order to provide the background neededfor carrying out the procedure. Whatever theteacher does, she should develop a logical flow.

jumbled order which has no logical progressionmay interfere with the pupils' organization and de-velopment of ideas. Moreover, treating manytopics superficially at one point early in the unitand then teaching them again later may blunt theinterest needed to motivate study. By all means,the flow of the units should not be determined justby who happens to be ready with a report or paneldiscussion first. Nor is it wise to set up a seriesof reports to be presented one after another, withno variation in procedure or without any attemptto fit them into their proper place in the scheduleof other procedures for developing topics.

The teacher will need, of course, to adapt theteaching unit from day to day to make sure thatshe provides a variety of procedures within eachday's lesson. Except in unusual classes, sixthgrade pupils should not be expected to maintain a

7.46

high interest lesame thing forthough the resovide a variety Acedures, the nthis variety mushe will not us,in the resourceothers, she colday to day or oget behind in h(what from daypens in class.make marked cIt does mean ttadjusted fromthey are flexibpil questions aplans for evenments from dato the overalled ahead of tirto be followedadjustments into be made eacin the lesson.

The teacher inas she decidesnew procedon

least some prc

-13-

veloped. First, there is a flow to each.in things are placed first and otherbecause of the need to develop cer-ts or present certain data before otheresented. Before the order of proce-ntent is shifted, the teacher needs toconcepts and data needed to teach each1 order to decide whether the shift isit is made, what else needs to beder to provide the background needed

out the procedure. Whatever thes, she should develop a logical flow.rder which has no logical progressionre with the pupils' organization and de-': ideas. Moreover, treating manyficially at one point early in the unitthing them again later may blunt theded to motivate study. By all means,he units should not be determined justens to be ready with a report or panelirst. Nor is it wise to set up a serieso be presented one after another, within procedure or without any attempt

nto their proper place in the schedule)cedures for developing topics.

will need, of course, to adapt thet from clay to day to make sure thats a variety of procedures within each. Except in unusual classes, sixthshould not be expected to maintain a

Z6

high interest level if they are asked to do thesame thing for an extended period of time. Al-though the resource units have been written to pro-vide a variety within the present order of pro-cedures, the main responsibility for providingthis variety must lie with the teacher. Sinceshe will not use all of the procedures suggestedin the resource units and since she will addothers, rihe could end up with little variety fromday to day or on one day. Moreover, she willget behind in her plans or shift her plans some-what from day to day depending upon what hap-pens in class. This does not mean that she mustmake marked changes in the flow of procedures.It does mean that even a teaching unit must beadjusted from day to day. Few teachers, ifthey are flexible enough to take into account pu-pil questions and interests, can build lessonplans for even one week without making adjust-ments from day to day. These plans will fit in-to the overall unit, but the unit cannot be develop-ed ahead of time merely as a set of lesson plansto be followed day after day. Consequently, smalladjustments in the order of procedures may haveto be made each day in order to provide varietyin the lesson.

The teacher must keep in mind other questionsas she decides which procedures to omit or whichnew procedures to add. First, has she kept at

least some procedures to teach each of the ob-

27

-14-

jectives she has decided to try to achieve? If not,can she add others to achieve these ends? Sec-ond, has she kept procedures to teach all of thecontent suggested? If not, does she think this con-tent should be taught? If so, she must think ofother ways of presenting it. At the present timethere are a number of suggestions to teach mostof the objectives and even a number to teach someof the same content. The content must also be cutif all of the procedures designed to teach it areomitted, unless others are substituted.

These resource units are already voluminous. Itis impossible to suggest all of the ways in whichone procedure might be varied or one materialmight be used. Naturally, pupils could preparewritten reports rather than oral reports on cer-tain topics. Or an oral report could be turnedinto a group report or role-playing. Or pupilsmight present the same material through chartsor bulletin board displays, through mock news-papers, through dittoed written reports, etc. Thedecision on which form to use may depend upon theteacher's assessment of how important it is forthe entire class to obtain the information, uponthe extent to which she has relied upon certaintypes of activities in the last unit, and upon herassessment of the relative effectiveness of usingoral reports in a particular class. Of coursewritten reports or other types of written materialscan be dittoed for class use, and charts and bul-

28

letin boarcclass. Hoor not theis importsunit beforeways to m

THE DEVI

The Currienesota hadtry-out ofX-12, Thcriteria fcCenter'scurricularseries ofat variousattempt wmaterialsout the Cu]available Isupplemerby the Certo teachof the stafvisual prcdraterials,has showntaught w itl

-14-

has decided to try to achieve? If not,others to achieve these ends? Sec-

e kept procedures to teach all of thevested? If not, does she think this con-be taught? If so, she must think ofof presenting it. At the present timenumber of suggestions to teach mosttives and even a number to teach somecontent. The content must also be cutprocedures designed to teach it areiless others are substituted.

irce units are already voluminous. Itto to suggest all of the ways in whichre might be varied or one material,?d. Naturally, pupils could prepare)rts rather than oral reports on cer-

Or an oral report could be turnedreport or role-playing. Or pupils

nt the same material through chartsoard displays, through mock news-nigh dittoed written reports, etc. Thewhich form to use may depend upon thesessment of how important it is for.ass to obtain the information, uponwhich she has relied upon certain

vities in the last unit, and upon herof the relative effectiveness of usingin a particular class. Of courserts or other types of written materialsd for class use, and charts and bul-

28

letin board materials can be studied by the entireclass. However, the teacher must decide whetheror not the topic suggested for an oral presentationis important for the entire class or crucial to theunit before she decides whether or not and in whatways to modify the suggested procedure,

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THESE MATERIALS

The curriculum Center at the University of Min-nesota had as its major goal the development andtry-out of a new curricular framework for gradesIC-12, The basic assumptions of the staff and thecriteria for selecting topics are discussed in theCenter's Background Paper # 1. A tentativecurricular framework was used in developing aseries of resource units and sample pupil materialsat various levels where they were needed. Noattempt was made to develop a complete set ofmaterials for pupils. Rather, the aim was to tryout the curriculum, using as many materialsavailable from other sources as possible, andsupplementing these materials with a few developedby the Center only where they were needed in orderto teach the units. At some future date, membersof the staff may work with publishers and audio-visual producers to develop more complete sets ofdraterials. However, tryout of these materialshas shown that the sixth grade course can betaught with materials currently available.

29

-15-

A background paper for the course, identifyingthe important topics to be taught in each unit,was written by the staff's historian, Robert F.Berkhofer, Jr. The resource units were writtenby Genevieve Berkhofer and Robert Beery of theCenter's staff, and Betty Lou Vlaszut of theBrooklyn Park Public Schools. All of the workwas coordinated by Mrs. Berkhofer.

The units were tried out under the general super-vision of Mrs. Berkhofer by one or more teachersin the following public schools of Minnesota:Robbinsdale, Richfield, and Mahtomedi. Theunits were then revised by Mrs. Berkhofer andEdith West.

The Center's staff members wish to thank Mrs.Wvemut and the following teachers who served asproject associates during the first year of tryoutand who provided valuable suggestions for changesand additions: Mrs. Virginia Schaefer and MissBetty Miller of the Richfield Public Schools, Mr.:Kenneth Wharton of the Mahtomedi Public Schools,and Mr. Richard Earl and Frank Dimberio of theR.obbinsdale Public Schools. The Center is indeedgrateful for their help. The Center's staff wouldwelcome additional suggestions from others whouse the course in the future.

SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLSIndianAmerica

Spanishand FrenchSettlement

EnglishSettle-ment

ATTACKS PROBLEMS IN A RATIONAL MANNER.

X

1. Is alert to incongruities and recog-nizes problems.

2. Sets up hypotheses. X X3. Identifies value-conflicts.LOCATES INFORMATION EFFICIENTLY.

X

1. Uses the index in a book to locate in-formation.

2. Skims to locate information. X X3. Knows where to look to obtain first-

hand accounts. X.4. Uses encyclopedias. XGATHERS INFORMATION EtbECTIVELY.

X

1. Uses effective reading skills; readswith understanding.a. Reads to find answers to questions. X X X*b. Reads for main idea or ideas. X Xc. Reads for details. X

*1) Reads for details which sup-port or contradict generali-zations and main ideas.

d. Reads to organize what is read. X Xe. Adjusts reading rate to purpose

in reading. X*f. Takes effective notes on reading. X X

2. Gains information by studying pictures. X X X*a. Draws inferences from pictures.

3. Gains information by studying films. X X X1.4. Gains information by constructing and

using mcdels. X X5. Gains information in the process of

developing murals. XE6. Gains information by listening. X X

a. Identifies the main idea of anoral presentation.

31

-16-

)F SKILLSIndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-meat

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion

CivilWar andReconst.

Expansionto GreatPlains

4TIONAL MANNER.

Xcities and recog-

X X X. X XInlets. XCIENTLY.

Xbook to locate in-

rmation. X Xto obtain first-

XX

CTIVELY.

X X

ng skills; reads

swers to questions. X X Xdea or ideas. X X Xs.

tails which sup-radict generali-main ideas.

X X

e what is read. X X Xrate to purpose

Xaotes on reading. X Xstudying pictures. X X X X X Xfrom pictures. Xstudying films. X X X X Xconstructing and

X X Xthe process of

Xlistening. X X X Xin idea of an

1. X

32

-17-

Indian SpanishAmerica and French

Settlement

EnglishSettle-ment

b. Listens for details.*c. Listens to discussion for main

ideas, supporting detail, and toevaluate what he hears.

d. Takes effective notes on oralactivities, including discussions,pupil reports, and informal talksor lectures.

7. Gains information by studying arti-facts. X

8. Uses sub-questions to guide him in col-lecting relevant data.

*9. Interprets graphs.EVALUATES INFORMATION AND SOURCES OF IN-FORMATION.

+1. Checks on the accuracy of informationand decides how much faith to put inthe source.*a. Distinguishes between primary

sources and secondary accounts.*b. Checks on the bias and competency

of witnesses and other authors.

X

X

X*1) Notes whether an author would

be hurt by an opposite report,what his purpose was in pre-paring his account, what at-titudes he expresses, what con-nections he may have whichmight affect his attitudes.

c. Compares sources of information.

X X

X*1) Looks for points of agreement

and disagreement among witnessesand authors.

2) Chooses the most reliable sourceof information in terms of biasand competency of authors.

X X X

X X

-17-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



or details. X:o discussion for main

X XTporting detail, and towhat he hears.'ective notes on oral.s, including discussions,orts, and informal talks.es.

X

Ition by studying arti-

tions to guide him in col -'ant data.aphs.

ION AND SOURCES OF IN-

X X X X X X

accuracy of informationlaw much faith to put in

shes between primarynd secondary accounts.the bias and competency

ses and other authors. X X X Xwhether an author would

:ct by an opposite report,'nis purpose was in pre-g his account, what at-es he expresses, what con-ons he may have whichaffect his attitudes.

X X X

sources of information.for points of agreement

isagreement among witnessesathors.

X X X X X X

es the most reliable sourceformation in terms of biasompetency of authors.

X X X

34

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

+d. Checks facts against his own back-ground of information and collectsinformation when he needs it tocheck the facts.

X X

2. Differentiates between statements offact and statements of opinion.

3. Distinguishes between facts and esti-mates.

. Checks on the completeness of data andis wary of generalizations based oninsufficient evidence.

X

5. Distinguishes between relevant and ir-revelant information.

6. Detects inconsistencies.USES EFFECTIVE GEOGRAPHIC SKILLS. X

Xa. Interprets maps.*a. Interprets map symbols according

to the map legend. X*b. Draws inferences from maps. X

*1) Draws inferences from a com-parison of different mappatterns of the same area.

X

2. Uses maps to depict information inorder to identify patterns in data. X

3. Compares opulation data. X, Compares areas with known areas. XHAS A SENSE OF TIME.(1. Looks for relationships among events.1.2. Makes and uses timelines. X

a. Makes and uses parallel timelines. X1.3. Compares lengths of periods or events. XORGANIZES AND ANALYZES INFORMATION AND

X X

DRAWS CONCLUSIONS.(1. Applies previously-learned concepts

and generalizations to new data.

35

-18-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion


Expansionto GreatPlains3t his own back-

.on and collects-1 needs it to X X X X

statements ofopinion.

X'acts and esti-

XJess of data and.ons based on X X X X X

elevant and ir-

XX

KILLS. XX X

ols according

X

,

Xom maps. X

X Xs from a com-erent mapsame area.

X X X

ormation inmils in data. X X Xb.. Xvrn areas. X

among events.X

. XLie] timelines. X

.

Lods or events. XI:MATION AND

X X X X X

ed conceptsew data.

-19-

Indian Spanish English Am. Nat'3America and French Settle- Revolu- Ex-

Settlement ment tion pansi.

2. Classifies or categorizes data. X X X X

3. Tests hypotheses against data. X

a. Revises hypotheses where neces-sary.

4. Generalizes from data. X X X X X5. Makes participant-observer distinc-

tions. X

6. Organizes his information accordingto some logical pattern which fits X X

his topic.*a. Organizes his material to fit this

theme and follows his organization. X X7. Idntifies differences in dataWORKS EFFECTIVELY WITH OTHERS.1. Schedules work on group projects and

helps to schedule. X

E2. Is able to empathize with others, see-ing things through their eyes. X

-19-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.

Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

ponsin



categorizes data. X X X Xses against data. X X X.ypotheses where neces-

X'-rom data. X X X X X X Xpant-observer distinc-

X Xinformation according

al pattern which fits X X X

his material to fit this,,_ follows his organization. X X_fferences in data X: WITH OTHERS.

X:k on group projects and-dule.

pathize with others, see -irough their eyes. X X X

SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDINALBEHAVIOR

IndianAmerica

-20-


Eng1i=11 Am.Settle- Revolu-ment Von

. Is curious about social data and desiresto read and study further in the socialsciences.

2. Is committed to the free examination ofsocial attitudes and data.

X X X

*3. Is sceptical of conventional truths anddemands that widely-held and popularnotions be judged in accordance withstandards of empirical validation.*a. Respects evidence even when it con-

tradicts prejudices and precon-ceptions.

*4. Desires to keep his values from affect-ing his interpretation of evidence,although recognizing the important roleof values in the process of makingdecisions.

X

. Evaluates information and sources ofinformation before accepting evidenceand conclusions.

*C. Is sceptical of single-factor causa-tion in the social sciences.

X X

*7. Is sceptical of panaceas or easy solu-tions to social problems.

8. Is sceptical of simplistic moral judge-ments.

*9. Appreciates and respects the culturalcontributions of other races.

*10. Believes that people of different in-terests, abilities, and backgroundcan contribute to American society.

*11. Values human dignity.12. Evaluates proposals and events on the

basis of their effects upon individualsas human beings.

39

-20-

NT OF ATTITUDINALOR

IndianAmerica


EnglichSettle-menu

X

Am.

Revolu-Mon

Nat'lEx-

p.-,1-,c4r:n.....

X

CivilWar and--'econf-t.


social data and desires'y further in the social X X X X

the free examination ofand data. X X

conventional truths and'ely -held and populard in accordance withdriesl validation.

X X

idence even when it con-ejudices and precon- X

his values from affect-tation of evidence,zing the important roleprocess of making

X

f-tion and sources of,re accepting evidence X X X

single-factor causa-al sciences. Xpanaceas or easy solu-problems. Xsimplistic moral judge-

Xrespects the culturalother races. X

ople of different in-es) and backgroundo American society.

X

nity. Xals and events on theffects upon individuals

X

40

-21-

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolution

13. Is sensitive to the feelings of others.1 . Treats people as individuals) not as

members of a particular group.15. Desires t^ protect the rights of

minorities.16. Believes in equality of opportunity

for all.

17. Accepts his share of responsibilityfor the work of a group; participatesactively without trying to dominate.

-21-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



3 the feelings of others. Xis individuals, not asarticular group. Xsect the rights of

Xlality of opportunity

Xire of responsibilitya group; participates

It trying to dominate.X

-22-

SEqUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS

Indian Fr, &Am. Spanish

Settlement

English Am.Settlement Rev.

GEOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS*1. Location X X

*a. Situation X*1) Relationships*2) Change

*b. Site*1Mandforms

*h) Mountains*b) Plains

*2) _Water*a) River*b) Lake

*3) .Climate*a) Precipitation*11) Temperature

*4) .Vegetation

X

X X XX

X

*a Forest*b) Grasslands

*5) Cultural features

i

*a Village X X*b City_c See 6) below

*6) Change -- man-made*a) Canals

XX

*b) Construction of landtransportation rcutes

*2. Diversity or variability X*3. Cultural Use of Environment X X

*a. Wa s of making a living X X*1 Hunting X X*2) Farming X*3) Industry

XX

X

43

-22 -

SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS

Indian Ft, & English Am. National Civil Expansioni Am. Spanish Settlement Rev. Expansion War to Greati Settlement PlainsTS

tionships(.;e

forms

livertakerte

precipitationtemperatureation?orest

rasslandsral featuresTilla.eitA2e belowe man-made.orals

onstruction of land.ransportation rcutes X Xvariability X X Xof Environment X X X Xaking a living

43 44

-23-IndianAm.

Fr. &Spanish

Settlement

EnglishSettlement

Am.Rev.

Nat

Exp

*b. Transportation*c. Technology

1i. Interrelatedness X X X X*a. Trade X X X X*b. Migration X X

ECONOMIC CONChTTS1. Output

4-

a. Technological development2. Exchange

*a. Barterb. See trade abovec. See price below

-3. Economic system X X X*a. Price

-----19 Supply*2 Demand

CULTURE1. Norms and values X X X2. Learned behavior patterns X-3. Diversity X X47Uniqueness X X-5. Universals (and psychic unity of

mankind) X6. Change X X X X

*a. Diffusion X X*b. Invention X X

q. Continuity8. Sub-culture9. Cultural perceptions . - X X X10. Cultural use of environment

(see above) X X X11. Integration of culture12. Attitudes

*a. Racism

45

-23-IndianAm.

Fr. &Spanish

Settlement

EnglishSettlement

Am.

Rev.NationalExpansion

CivilWar

Expansionto GreatPlainslsportation

X X XInologyX Xlatedness X X X X X X Xle X X X X X X Xmtion X

iChTTS

awlogical development

er

trade aboveprice belowsystem

eXSupplyXDemand

`d values X X X Xbehavior patterns X X Xy X X Xss X X XIs (and psychic unity of

Ision X .

ition':,y

are

perceptionsuse of environmentre)

.on of culture

xPm

46

7

IndianAm.

-24-

Fr. &SpanishSettlement

EnglishSettlement

13. StereotypesSOCIAL PROCESSES1. Socialization X2. Conflict X

a. Power Xb. Cultural*c. War X*d. Revolutione. Political

3. Application of sanctions to achievesocial control X

.4. Accommodation Xa. Compromise

.5. Communication Xa. Written Xb. Political

6. Discrimination7. -Agglomeration8. Decision-makingSOCIAL ORGANIZATIONF1. Roles Xf2. Division of responsibility and

labor XE3. Stratification and class X .-.

*a. Status X*b. Social mobility X*c. Caste

4. Minority groupf5. Functions Xkb. Leadership X*7. Institutions

*a. Family X*b. Church or religion , X X X*c. Government or political X

47

-24-IndianAm.

Ft. &Spanish

Settlement

EnglishSettlement

Am.Rev.

NationalExpansion

CivilWar


X X XX X X XX X X

X XX X X X

X

X Xactions to achieve

X X XX

XX X X XX

X XXX

X

X Xsibility and

X X X. class X X

X X XX X X

XX

X XX X

X X X Xpion X X X Xolitical X

48

IndianAm.

Fr. &Spanish

Settlement

EnglishSettlement

Am.

Rev.

NaticExpar

*d. Economic X X X8. Group cohesion9. Centralization XOTHERS1. Self

a. Internalized values2. Rationalization3. Frustration

. Democratic system5. National power

a. Alliances

IndianAm.

-25-Fr. &

SpanishSettlement

EnglishSettlement

Am.Rev.

NationalExpansion

Civil ExpansionWar to Great

PlainsX X

X

XXXXX

50

. -.5 -..

SEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GENERALIZATIONS

IndianAmerica

-26-Spanish

and FrenchSettlement

EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolt

tion

1. Ways of:.- living differ from one so-ciety tdaeother; indeed, each cul-

ture is uni0e,

X X

#a. Social organiaation differs fromone society to-&hgther. X

*1) Families differ-widely fromsociety to society'Ilsto howthey are organized (in theirstructure).

X

+a) Families in the same so-ciety may differ as tostructure.

X

P) Methods of mate selection varyfrom one society to another. X

#3) Societies differ in the rela-tive number of ascribed andachieved statuses they pro-vide and the relative emphasisupon each.

X

*b. Economic organization differs fromone society to another. X

c. Political organization differsfrom one society to another. X

d. Although all societies have somekind of religion(s), religiousbeliefs differ from society tosociety.

X.

+e. People in different societies andin different groups within a so-ciety differ as to how they expectpeople to act and as to what theythink good and bad.

* Introduced in an earlier course.+ Introduced in part in an earlier course.

# Taught but not listed aX An objective of this unx Taught but not listed a!

-26-

'IiIENT OF GENERALIZATIONSIndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.

Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion


Expansionto GreatPlains-, differ from one so-

:er; indeed) each cul- X X X X

-anization differs fromy to another.

_es differ widely fromy to society as to how.re organized (in theirure).

X X X

mines in the same' so-ety may differ as toructure.

XX

, of mate selection varyIle society to another.

ies differ in the rela-umber of ascribed anded statuses they pro-nd the relative emphasisach.

X

rganization differs fromv to another.

irganization differsociet to another.11 societies have someligion(s), religious:Ter from society to X

X

'fferent societies andIt groups within a so-'r as to how they expectict and as to what theyand bad.

X X

earlier course.t in an earlier course.

# Taught but not listed as an objective of an earlier course.X An objective of this unit.x Taught but not listed as an objective of this unit.

52

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion I

2. All people, regardless of where orwhen they lived or to what race,na-tionality or religion they belonged,have had many things in common.

X

*a. All people, everywhere have cer-tain basic drives, although theysatisfy them differently.

X

b. Any organized group delegates re-sponsibilities and rights; theyassign certain role behaviors;this division of labor createshierachial authority relation-ships.

X

*1) Families in all societiesdelegate responsibilities andrights (specific roles) todifferent family members; ageand sex are principles usedin all societies to differen-tiate family roles and status.

X

c. Every society provides for the dif-ferentiation of status among itsmembers. In some societies cer-tain material objects become statussymbols.

X

*d. All societies have potential con-flict and must develop means oftrying to settle disputes and ac-commodate differences.

X

e. There is almost always some mar.riage ceremony or ritual to sym-bolize contractual and futuremutual obligations.

X

*f. All societies develop rules fortracing kinship and thus the groupto which people can turn first forhelp in time of need.

X

53

-27-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



u, regardless of where orlived or to what racelna-or religion they belonged,,nany things in common.

X X X

aople, everywhere have cer-'oasic drives, although theyfy them differently.

X X

rganized group delegates re-ibilities and rights; theyn certain role behaviors;livision of labor createschial authority relation-.

X X

-......

umilies in all societiesclegate responsibilities andfights (specific roles) toifferent family members; agead sex are principles usedn all societies to differen-iate family roles and status.

X

,

society provides for the dif-Liation of status among itsrs. In some societies cer-:aterial objects become statusi.s.

X X

Dcieties have potential con-and muct develop means ofto settle disputes and ac-

late differences.

X

is almost always some mar.-ceremony or ritual to sym-

.-_ contractual and futurei dbligations.

X

?cieties develop rules forlg kinship and thus the group:eh people can turn first forn time of need.

X

-28-IndianAmerica


EnslithSettle-meat

Am.

Revolu-

ticn*g. All societies have some type of

religion(s).*h. In all societies people are ex-

pected to behave in certain waysand to believe that certainthings are good and certainthings are bad.

x x x

3. Not all members of any group areexactly alike.

U. A given culture is an integratedwhole, based on fundamental postu-lates or values. Two cultures mighthave the same list of traits but theway they are put together might betotally different.

X

5. People everywhere must learn to behavethe way they do, just as we learn tobehave in the ways we do. (Culture islearned, not inborn.)

X

*a. People direct expectations (or-ganized into roles) toward bothchildren and other adults. Theyreinforce these expectations withpositive and negative sanctions.*1) Within the family, the parents)

older siblings) and/or otherrelatives direct expectations(organized into roles) towardthe child.

X

2) The child, and lc ter the adult)internalizes expectations andacts out roles according to theway he interprets expectationsand defines the situation.

55

-28-IndianAmerica

Spanish

and FrenchSettlement

EnslishSettle-meat

Am.

Revolu-tien

Nat'l

Ex-pnilsion


Expansionto GreatPlains.ies have some type of

'). xieties people are ex-behave in certain waysieve that certaingood and certainbad.

x x x X

of any group are

- is an integratedn fundamental postu-s. Two cultures mightlist of traits but the,...t together might be:t.

XX

are must learn to behaveo, just as we learn toways we do. (Culture isreborn. )

XX X

act expectations (or-co roles) toward bothid other adults. Theyilese expectations withid negative sanctions.

X X

the family, the parents,. iblings, and/or other-es direct expectationszed into roles) towardld.

X

ld, and later the adult,lizes expectations andt roles according to theinterprets expectationsines the situation.

X

56

-29-

IndianAmerica


Eprli.7h

Settle-lani..,

Am.Revol1 4 r-

b. Through the process of socializa-tion, individuals become membersof a group by learning role ex-pectations and to perform a widevariety of tasks.

X

+1) The process of socializationtakes place through a numberof social agencies.

X.

c. Freedom is culturally determined;the individual has to be taughtwhat the options are, how one goesabout exercising them, why heshould exercise them.

d. A person's frame of reference isaffected by his total life ex-periences and affects his per-ceptions and interpretations.

X

+1) A person's frame of referenceaffects his perceptions andinterpretations.

X

e. An individual brought up in oneculture and then thrust into an-other faces serious problems ofadjustment to the new culture;the resulting culture conflictinvolves mental conflict andtension.

6. Social control is enforced by socialsanctions, formal and informal.

7. Written language facilitates communi-cation and the development of an on-going culture.

X

8. Communication may be hampered bylanguage and culture barriers as wellas by physical barriers

.

-29-IndianAmerica


EN:linSettle.-

la7.,nt

Am.Bevolu-1 4 ,-,

Nat'lEx-

, ^__7,i In

CivilWar andRecont.

Expansionto G .,!at

Plainsthe process of socializa-

ndividuals become membersclip by learning role ex-,ins and to perform a wideof tasks.

X X

process of socializationplace through a number

social agencies.X

is culturally determined;Lvidual has to be taughtoptions are, how one goes

::crcising them, why hexercise them.

X

.'s frame of reference is:_i by his total life ex-

:s and affects his per-.:, and interpretations.

X X

_rson's frame of reference:cts his perceptions and:rpretations.

X

:idual brought up in oneand then thrust into an-Ices serious problems of!it to the new culture;lting culture conflict: mental conflict and

X X

-01 is enforced by sociolormal and informal. X X:uage facilitates communi-ne development of an on-'P.

X

n may be hampered by. culture barriers as wellal barriers..

X X

-3U-

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.

Revolt

tion

9. Whenever things valued by a societyare scarce, there will be differen-tiated access to and control ofthese scarce and valued things bysub-groups within the society.

X

10. Groups may engage in power conflict;one group tries to don inate anotherin order to take something frOm it,such as labor or wealth.

X

11. In political conflict there is astruggle over goals; the conflictingsides attempt to use the authorityof the political system to win theconflict.

12. Conflict with another group leads tothe mobilization of the energies ofgroup members and to increased co-hesion of the group.

13. There are usually multiple, inter -'..related causes for wars. r ..

14. Wars have a serious impact upon bothsoldiers and civilians.

15. People may increase their power byworking together.

+a. Countries (or societies) seek toincrease their power by gainingalliances with other countries(or societies).

16. Military power is an important factor .

in the development of national power,but not the only or even the dominantone.

17. Differences in population, resources,and economy maybe reflected in dif-ferences in national power; that is to

say, they are important bases or com-ponents of national power.

59

-3U-

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx.

pansion


Expansionto GreatPlainsvalued by a society

re will be differen-o and control ofd valued things byin the society.

XX

ge in power conflict;to dominate anothersomething from it,

r wealth.

XX X

aflict there is apals; the conflicting) use the authority

system to win the X

pother group leads toof the energies of

Ad to increased co-ou .

.

X

y multiple, inter-or wars. r ..

X .

ous impact upon bothilians.

X Xase their power by

Xr societies) seek toit power by gainingth other countriess).

X

an important factor.

at of national power,or even the dominant X

Tulation, resources,e reflected. in dif-nal power; that is toortant bases or corr-al power.

X

59

-31-IndianAmerica


EnglinhSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

18. Compromise is easier where there isnot an ideological perception of theissues; that is, where the issues arenot moralized and not seen as relatedto other issues.

19. Accommodation is possible only if theantagonistic powers are aware of therelative strength of the parties.

X

20. Governments provide services whichpeople cannot provide individuallyfor themselves. For example, theyprovide protection both from withinand from the outside.

X

a. The community demands security- -a goal which may be incompatitlewith the demands of individuals.

21. The contrast between democratic andundemocratic political systems maybe looked at as a conflict in basicunderlying values.

22. Any decision is in part a product ofthe internalized values and the per-ceptions of the persons making thedecision.

23. Individuals know the political systemand people of other countries andgroups as a set of images and pic-tures created for them by ccmzunica-tors; they react to these impsrather than to the real world andreal people.a. Most political communication de-

pends on the use of symbols,stereotypes, and other communica-tion shortcuts; effective communi-cation depends on the effective

manipulation of these symbolic tools.

X

Indian

America

-31-


EnglinhSettle-ment

Am.

Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



easier where there isogical perception of theis, where the issues are

I and not seen as relatedues.

X

is possible only if thepowers are aware of the

2ngth of the parties.X

-rovide services whichprovide individually

os. For example, theyction both from withinoutside.

X

unity demands security--%ich may be incompatibledemands of individuals.

X

between democratic andpolitical systems mayas a conflict in basiclues.

X

is in part a product of_zed values and the per-he persons making the X

now the political systemother countries and

et of images and plc-1 for them by commnica-.act to these imageso the real world and

X

tical communication de-the use of symbols,es, and other communica-,cuts; effective communi-nends on the effective

on of these symbolic tools.

X

62

-32-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-went

Am.Revolt.

Lion

b. Effective political communicationdepends both on technologicalskills and on the skills of thepopulation (literacy or at least

a common language).c. Public opinion and propaganda may

help bring about wars.24. Non-governmental groups may be enemies

of freedom and may deprive the in-dividual of options just as surely asthe government may.

25. Whether an increase in Centralizationaccompanies the increase in cohesionthat accompanies or follows group con-flict depends upon boththe characterof the conflict and the type of group.

X

26. An institution is an interrelatedcluster of roles and the attached mean-ings and values. Every member of agroup has a position inrelation toevery other member of the group. Fbrevery position there is a fairly well -defined way of behaving (or a role)known both to the holder of the posi-tion and to the other members of thegroup.

.. ,

a. Any organization delegates re-sponsibilities and rights; it as-signs certain role behaviors.This division of labor createshierarchial authority relation-ships.

X

27. Discrimination against minority groupmembers tends to isolate members of thegroup and promotes retention of theircultural values and norms.

63

-32-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



ive political communicationz both on technologicaland on the skills of thetion (literacy or at leaston language).

X

opinion and propaganda mayring about wars. Xmental groups may be enemiesand may deprive the in-C options just as surely asrent may.

X

increase in centralization3 the increase in cohesizanies or follows gr con-Ids upon both.the character:net and the type of group.

X

zion is an interrelatedroles and the attached mean-ilues. Every member of aposition inrelation to

.. member of the group. For',ion there is a fairly well-7 of behaving (or a role)to the holder of the posi-the other members of the

.

X

-anization delegates re-ilities and rights; it as-ertain role behaviors.vision of labor createshial authority relation-

X X

don against minority groupAs to isolate members of theromotes retention of theirlues and norms.

X

-33-Indian Spanish EnglishAmerica and French Settle- R

Settlement ment28. The easier it is to distinguish a

minority group by some physicalcharacteristic, the harder it isfor that group to gain full ac-ceptance by the wider society andto move out of one social class in-to another one.

29. The nature of discrimination andprejudice against a specific groupis the result of particular groupinteractions over time.

30. People try to work out rationaliza-tions for actions which are incon-sistent with their basic values.a. Racism is a relatively recent de-

velopment which has served as arationalization for discrimina-tion against other races.

b. Racial beliefs involve strongly-held attitudes which affect be-havior both at the conscious andunconscious level.

31. People frequently base their actionsupon a stereotype or a generalizedpicture which assigns to all membersof a group a set of characteristicswhich are true for only some of them.

32. Frustration may result in aggression(physical or non-physical).

33. Frustration and self-doubts may leadto apathy.

34. Although culture is always changing)certain parts or elements may per- X X xsist over long periods of time.

65

-33-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



t is to distinguish aIv by some physical'icy the harder it isnip to gain full ac-the wider society andof one social class in-)ne.

X

,f discrimination and;ainst a specific group.t of particular groupover time.

X

;o work out rationaliza-tions which are incon-their basic values.

X X

.s a relatively recent de-It which has served as a.ization for discrimina-Jnst other races.

X

oliefs involve strongly-itudes which affect be-oth at the conscious andous level.

X

ently base their actionsotype or a generalizeda assigns to all membersset of characteristicsae for only some of them.

X X

nay result in aggressionnon-physical). Xand self-doubts may lead

Xture is always changingy3 or elements may per-ng periods of time.

X X I x X x X X

66

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

AmRevodo

a. Culture traits may change as aresult of both innovation andborrowing traits from other so-cieties (diffusion).

X

*1) Culture traits may changethrough a process of dif-fusion.

*a The migration of peoplesfrom one part of the worldto another also involvesthe movement of cultureand material objects, thusresulting in changes inthe use of the area towhich the people migrate.

X

..

X

b. People usually do not discard atrait completely; they are morelikely to modify it to fit intonew situations.

*c. Persistence of cultural traits maybe a result of the lack of exposureto conditions which further change.

*d. Some values are conducive to change;some make change difficult.

*e. Changes in one aspect of culturewill have effects on other aspects;changes will ramify whether theyare technological, in social or-ganization, in ideology, or what-ever else is a part of the culturalsystem.

,

f. Change in society is likely to oc-cur more frequently or readily inthe less basic, less emotionallycharged, more technical aspects

-34-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am,Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

ronsion



.ts may change as a:th innovation and:aits from other so-:fusion).

X.

traits may changea process of dif- X

migration of peoplesone part of the world

ulother also involvesmovement of culturematerial objects, thusating in changes inuse of the area toA the people migrate.

X X X X

ly do not discard arely; they are moredify it to fit intons.

1

X

X

)f cultural traits may)f the lack of exposures which further change.-tre conducive to change;ange difficult. Xne aspect of culturefects on other aspects;ramify whether they

,4ical, in social or-

fal ideology, or what-a part of the cultural

,

X X X

I

liety is likely to oc-luently or readily in.c1 less emotionally' technical aspects

X

GS

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-ti on 1

than in such things as basic values,primary group relations, religiousbeliefs, and prestige systems.

g. That which iv learned in early child-hood tends to be most resistant tochange.

h. To be successful, a person whotries to introduce change into asociety must analyze many factorsbefore selecting techniques to beused.

'35. Temperature is affected by the distancefrom the equator, elevation, distancefrcm warm water bodies, wind patternsincluding prevailing winds, and physi-cal features which block winds fromcertain directions.

*a. Places in the interior of continentstend to have greater extremes oftemperature than places along thecoast.

15. Rainfall is affected by distance from_bodies of warm water, wind direction,temperature, and physical featureswhich block winds carrying moisture.

. .

'37. Vegetation is affected by temperature,rainfall, and soil.

'38. Man uses his physical environment interms of his cultural values, percep-tions, and level of technology. (Or:

People living in the same type of en-vironment use it differently, Pqaend-ing upon their cultural values, knowl-edge, and technology. )

X

X X

1

-35-

7

IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.

Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

ransion


Expansionto greatMains

2h things as basic values,)up relations, religiousId prestige systems.is learned in early child-to be most resistant to

X

ssful, a person who.troduce change into a,t analyze many factors:cting techniques to be

z

affected by the distance)r, elevation, distancebodies, wind patterns.iling winds, and physi-Ach block winds from.ons.

X

_he interior of continents'e greater extremes ofthan places along the X

ected by distance fromwater, wind direction,i physical featuresis carrying moisture.

X

ffected by temperature,oil.

Xvsical environment inAural values, percep-L of technology. (Or:

1 the same type of en-differently, depend-

1.iltural values, knowl-)logy. )

X

X X

X X

-36-IndianAmerica


Erplith I

;:;ettJ.e- Ille

=nt Lt.:.olt

Am.lu-

1.

*a. The migration of peoples from onepart of the world to another alsoinvolves the movement of cultureand material objects, thus result-ing in changes in the use of thearea to which the people migrate.

X X.

*b. Types of agriculture in a regiondepend upon man's cultural values,perceptions, and level of technol-ogy, as well as upon climate, soils,and topography.

X

*c. The topography of a region may pre-sent limitations given a specificlevel of technology; however, manhas learned to overcome many ofthe earlier limitations.

X

*d. The significance of location dependsupon cultural developments both with-in and outside a country.

*1) A change in situation brings: about a corresponding changein the use of a site.

*a) Improved transportationfacilities make possiblewider and bigger marketsas well as better and lesscostly access to resources.

39. Division of labor and specializationmake possible increased production.

40. Machinery and power make it possibleto increase production and the preci-sion with which products are made andto make new products.

-36-IndianAmerica


Erplith;E.-ttkc-

me:,t

Am.ReNclu-L t.011

rat'lEn-

-1-::',.

X

CivilWar and13c.crct.

Fxpansionto Great

Plainspeoples from one

.d to another also'ement of culturesects, thus result-.n the use of the:e people migrate.

X X.

X

.ture in a regions cultural values,level of technol-

upon climate, soils,X X

i a region may pre-given a specific

ogy; however, manNercome many oftations.

X X

of location dependsvelopments both with-country.

X

Situation bringsasponding changel a site.

' X X

transportation.s make possibled bigger marketsis better and less2cess to resources.

X X

1 specializationed production. X

...

lake it possibleAl and the preci-lets are made and X

-37-IndianAmerica


EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu.tion

4:1. Some things can be produced betterin one place than in another becauseof climate, resources, transportationroutes, access to resources, accessto markets, people's skills, etc.

*a. A place needs cheap and rapidtransportation in order to carryon much trade with other places.

442. Specialization of individuals andregions makes for interdependence. X

*a. People who live in one communitydepend upon each other for dif-ferent goods and services and formarkets for their goods.

X

*b. People in most societies of theworld depend upon people who livein other communities and regionsfor goods and services and formarkets for their goods.

X

43. Poor living conditions, long hours ofhard work, poor diet and poor healthaffect a person's ambition and hisability to work.

'44. Some societies use barter rather thanmoney in the exchange of goods andservices. Barter consists of the ex-change of goods and services forother goods and services, without the

----use of money.

X

415. Prices are affected by supply and de-mand. (Other things being equal, theprice of a good rises when the good isin short supply as compared to the de-mand for the good.)

,

46. Maps make it possible to discern pat-terns and relationships among a vastamount of data.

73

-37-

Indian SpanishAmerica and French

Settlement

EnglishSettle-ment

Am.Revolu-tion

Nat'lEx-

pansion



3 can be produced better:e than in another becauseresources, transportation

:ess to resources, accesspeople's skills, etc.

X

! needs cheap and rapid)rtation in order to carrytrade with other places.

X

'ion of individuals and:es for interdependence.who live in one communityupon each other for dif-goods and services and forfor their goods.

X

in most societies of theepend upon people who liver communities and regionsds and services and forfor their goods.

X X

conditions, long hours ofpoor diet and poor healthrson's ambition and hiswork.

X

ies use barter rather thane exchange of goods and3arter consists of the ex-oods and services forand services, without the

v.

X X

affected by supply and de-r things being equal, the;ood rises when the good isoply as compared to the de-good.)

t possible to discern pat-

lationships among a vast,ta.

X

X X

74

The Sixth G

rade Curriculum

onT

he Formation of A

merican Society

:Robert 3eritofe.r.

The sixth grade curriculum

builds upon the work of previous

grades' coverage of families, com

munities, and regions in an at-

tempt to teach the history of N

orth Am

erican settlement and the

development of the A

merican nation.

For this reason, the coursestresses the m

igration of families and com

mtznties, their settle-

ment patterns, their architectural and m

aterial artifacts as cluesto social and cultural changes over tim

e. Different social and

cultural systems differentiate different eras. W

hile this goalresem

bles that traditionally found in the lower level A

merican

'historycourse, this curriculum

hopes to use the concrete rela-tionships exem

plified in family, com

munity, land pattern, build-

ings, and customs m

ore than ever before to stand for the abstractconcepts and system

s of which they are a part and w

hich, in ac-tuality, they represent.

Such an approach can easily lapse into crude material and

geographical determinism

unless the teacher is careful to avoidsuch im

plications.E

qually important, the teacher m

ust avoidthe A

merican derivative of such econom

ic and geographic deter-m

inism, nam

ely, the frontier hypothesis as. an explanation of his-torical change.

Throughout this grade, com

parison both between

national societies and within national societies is em

phasized toavoid these pitfalls.

If the teacher demonstrates that differences

exist simultaneously in the sam

e physical environment as w

ell asover tim

e, the student will not reach erroneous conclusions long

hallowed by a m

ythical Am

erican heritage.

The teacher, how

ever, in presenting different epochs throughdifferent custom

s and artifacts, should not deny the continuity ofsocieties and cultures.

Com

parison should not only enable astudent to perceive change, but com

parison between eras should

also give a student an idea of the conti..,uity of a society's culture-- a continuity that constitutes the genetic history of that society'sculture.

In Am

erican history, the student should perceive bothhow

the United States differs from

the Jamestow

n and Plymouth

settlements and also how

in the broad outlines, these early colo-nies laid the foundations for A

merican civilization

-- a civilization

-2-

that

wou

ld h

ave

been

far

dif

fere

nt, f

or e

xam

ple,

if th

e C

hine

seha

d se

ttled

the

Paci

fic

Coa

st a

nd s

wep

t eas

twar

d ac

ross

the

con-

tinen

t.

The

ext

ent t

o w

hich

abs

trac

t gen

eral

izat

ions

per

tain

ing

to s

o-ci

o-cu

ltura

l sys

tem

s ca

n be

taug

ht to

six

th g

rade

rs is

pro

blem

at-

ical

.M

uch

that

rel

ates

to th

e po

litic

al, e

cono

mic

, and

rel

igio

usse

ctor

s of

a c

ultu

re a

s sy

stem

can

not b

e ta

ught

in a

ll pr

obab

ility

.Fo

r th

is r

easo

n, s

uch

polit

ical

his

tory

as

cons

titut

ion-

mak

ing

and

part

y-fo

rmat

ion

and

such

eco

nom

ic d

evel

opm

ents

as

the

rise

and

impa

ct o

f in

dust

rial

ism

hav

e be

en le

ft f

or th

e te

nth

grad

e co

urse

in A

mer

ican

his

tory

.Y

et m

uch

rem

ains

, and

man

y of

thes

e ab

-st

ract

ions

can

be

taug

ht th

roug

h pi

ctur

es, m

aps,

and

art

ifac

ts.

Thu

s th

is c

ours

e ou

tline

str

esse

s th

e vi

sual

as

an a

id to

com

pre-

hend

ing

the

abst

ract

.

:Tar

rIN

DIA

N /-

11:1

E:I

ICZ

..

Pre-

whi

te c

onta

ct I

ndia

n cu

lture

s ar

e se

lect

ed to

dem

onst

rate

not o

nly

diff

eren

t lif

e-w

ays

invo

lvin

g di

ffer

ent p

oliti

cal,

soci

al,

relig

ious

and

oth

er p

atte

rns

(at d

iffe

rent

leve

ls o

f te

chno

logi

cal

adva

ncem

ent)

but

als

o to

pro

vide

sig

nifi

cant

bas

es f

or c

ultu

reco

nflic

t as

it de

velo

ped

betw

een

thes

e cu

lture

s an

d th

e Sp

anis

h,Fr

ench

, and

Eng

lish

settl

ers

in a

late

r pe

riod

.Fo

r th

ese

pur-

pose

s, it

was

fel

t tha

t thr

ee c

ultu

res*

invo

lved

the

min

imum

pos

-si

ble

num

ber

to b

oth

indi

cate

div

ersi

ty o

f pa

ttern

and

yet

pro

vide

the

vari

ous

basi

c co

mbi

natio

ns o

f ea

rly

and

late

con

tact

con

ditio

nsfo

r w

hite

Eur

opea

n co

ntac

t. T

he A

ztec

soc

iety

illu

stra

tes

a hi

gh-

ly-d

evel

oped

Nor

th A

mer

ican

Ind

ian

cultu

re a

nd is

use

ful f

or e

arly

Span

ish

cont

act;

the

Iroq

uois

sho

w a

sem

i-se

dent

ary

Indi

an tr

ibe

and

earl

y Fr

ench

and

Eng

lish

cont

act;

whi

le th

e Pl

ains

Ind

ians

dem

onst

rate

hor

se c

ultu

re o

n th

e pl

ains

and

late

r Sp

anis

h an

d A

n-gl

o-A

mer

ican

con

flic

t.In

eac

h ca

se th

e te

ache

r is

to d

evel

op th

eco

mpl

ete

cultu

re o

f th

e In

dian

s as

a u

niqu

e w

ay o

f lif

e to

teac

hth

e cu

lture

con

cept

as

wel

l as

to c

ompa

re th

e cu

lture

s in

ord

er to

*The

fir

st tw

o cu

lture

s on

the

Azt

ecs

and

the

Iroq

uois

are

tobe

taug

ht in

uni

t one

.T

he th

ird

on th

e Pl

ains

Ind

ians

is to

be

taug

ht in

the

unit

on W

estw

ard

Exp

ansi

on in

ord

er to

con

tras

tth

eir

use

of th

e pl

ains

with

that

of

the

whi

te m

en a

nd to

cla

rify

idea

s ab

out c

ultu

re c

onta

ct o

n th

e pl

ains

.H

owev

er, t

he P

lain

s In

-di

ans

will

be

disc

usse

d in

this

sec

tion

to h

elp

the

teac

her

note

dif

-fe

renc

es w

ithin

Ind

ian

Am

eric

a.

-3-

reinforce the culture-as-a-system idea.

In addition, the teacherm

ust stress the Indian way of life as a prelude to possible Indian-

White conflict, accom

modation, and acculturation.

The follow

ing pages do n^l: treat each Indian culture in its en-tirety but rather outlines these central them

es of each society'sculture that seem

particular?y teachable and will satisfy the

criteria of both uniqueness and a.ter Indian-White relations.

Inkeeping w

ith the entire course, blilding types, village layouts,and artifacts are used to engender interest in that society and topoint to the larger patterns of that culture.

Part A: T

he Aztec C

ivilization

Since the average Am

erican youth's sterotype of the Indian isprobably the w

arrior of the plains, the Aztecs should com

e as adelightful surprise because of their m

ore complex social organi-

zation and rudimentary w

riting system.

The easiest aspect of A

ztec society to teach would be the m

a-terial m

anifestations. While this people lacked the w

heel, beastsof burden, and any dom

esticated animals except the dog and tur-

key, they did possess a complicated calendrical system

, which

the students could learn.In addition, they utilized rebus-w

rit-ing, and students are encouraged to read excerpts from

suchw

orks as the Florentine Codex, w

hich tells the story of SpanishC

onquest in Aztec pictograph's and Spanish.

Agriculture form

ed the chief occupation of most people. Fields

were irrigated and farm

ing was a m

ale role.A

lthough maize w

asthe chief crop, other plants w

ere cultivated. Due to lack of land,

floating gardens were developed, or tribute w

as levied on con-quered peoples.

Although tools to raise and process the foods

were crude, agricultural m

ethods were sc.-1..-hioticatcd and even in-

cluded irrigation. VIM

le agriculture was the chief support of the

people, trade existed. A standard m

edium of exchange facilita-

ted comm

erce within the em

pire.

Housing and builc:tnE

rv3ranged from the crude w

atling houses ofthe poor to the hom

es of wealthy m

erchants, the palace of rulers,and the tem

ples of the gods. The plan of the city is perhaps best

taught by reference to the layout of Tenochitlan. (the site of pres-

ent M

exic

o C

ityH

ere

is e

asily

gra

sped

the

natu

re o

f A

ztec

citie

s an

d th

eir

rela

tions

hip

to la

nd a

nd ty

pes

of b

uild

ings

.

All

of th

ese

mat

eria

l man

ifes

tatio

ns o

f cu

lture

sho

uld

only

besh

own

in r

elat

ion

to th

e ra

ther

com

plic

ated

soc

ial o

rgan

izat

ion

of th

e A

ztec

peo

ple.

(The

bas

e lin

e fo

r st

udyi

ng th

is s

ocia

l str

uc-

ture

sho

uld

prob

ably

be

the

eve

of c

onqu

est w

hen

we

know

the

mos

t. )

The

mos

t str

ikin

g th

ing

to th

e m

oder

n ey

e is

the

appa

r-en

t cla

ss s

truc

ture

that

exi

sted

, whi

ch in

clud

ed a

kin

g ("

chie

f of

men

") o

r w

ar c

hief

ele

cted

fro

m a

line

age,

mili

tary

nob

ility

,pr

iest

s, w

arri

ors,

mer

chan

ts, f

arm

ers,

cra

ftsm

en, l

andl

ess

prol

etar

ians

, and

sla

ves.

As

to th

e de

gree

of

rigi

dity

and

the

natu

re o

f hi

erar

chic

al s

tatu

s, a

nthr

opol

ogis

ts a

nd h

isto

rian

s di

f-fe

r.H

isto

rian

s st

ress

the

rigi

dity

and

the

clas

s hi

erar

chy,

whi

leth

e an

thro

polo

gist

s co

mpa

ring

oth

er c

ultu

res

emph

asiz

e th

e tw

en-

ty c

lans

or

calp

ulli

com

posi

ng th

e fo

ur d

ivis

ions

of

the

tow

n. A

sa

resu

lt th

e an

thro

polo

gist

s po

int o

ut th

at s

lave

ry a

mon

gth

e A

z-te

cs w

as f

ar d

iffe

rent

than

the

inst

itutio

n by

the

sam

e na

me

in th

ean

te-b

ellu

m S

outh

ern

U. S

. and

that

eve

n th

e ki

ng w

as e

lect

ed.

Cer

tain

ly th

e te

ache

r sh

ould

poi

nt o

ut th

e lo

ose

natu

re o

f th

e he

ir-

arch

y in

this

soc

iety

, but

the

stud

ents

sho

uld

also

lear

n th

at th

eof

fice

s an

d th

e w

ealth

had

bec

ome

here

dita

ry to

a la

rge

degr

eeby

the

time

of th

e Sp

anis

h C

onqu

est.

Cer

tain

ly, t

he d

iffe

rent

con

-ce

ptio

n of

pol

itica

l and

soc

ial o

rgan

izat

ion

can

be s

een

in th

e na

-tu

re o

f th

e A

ztec

em

pire

whi

ch w

as a

con

fede

racy

of

conq

uere

dpe

ople

s at

bes

t, or

as

it is

cal

led,

a c

onqu

est S

tate

, with

man

yun

inco

rpor

ated

cap

tive

peop

les.

The

ver

y ri

se o

f th

e T

enoc

hans

,w

hich

we

asso

ciat

e w

ith A

ztec

soc

iety

pro

per,

illu

stra

tes

that

the

Azt

ec e

mpi

re w

as f

ar d

iffe

rent

fro

m a

mod

ern

Am

eric

an c

on-

cept

ion

of e

mpi

re, b

ut it

was

a p

rim

itive

sta

te n

ever

thel

ess.

To

this

soc

ial s

truc

ture

sho

uld

be ti

ed s

uch

attr

ibut

es a

s ho

us-

ing

type

s, la

nd o

wne

rshi

p; s

ocia

lizat

ion

in T

elpu

chal

li (t

he "

hous

eof

you

th,"

whi

ch p

rovi

ded

stan

dard

mal

e ro

le tr

aini

ng)

and

Cal

mec

ac (

scho

ol f

or p

ries

tly r

ole)

.ith

in th

e so

cial

str

uctu

re,

ther

e ex

iste

d se

x an

d ag

e-gr

aded

rol

es. T

he la

tter

is p

erha

psbe

st r

epre

sent

ed b

y th

e po

sitio

n of

the

old

man

who

cou

ld a

t lon

gla

st g

et d

runk

, in

such

a s

ocie

ty th

ere

was

. of

cour

se, a

n el

abor

ate

lega

l sys

tem

.

The

mos

t im

port

ant c

lue

to th

e na

ture

of

1.1z

tec

civi

lizat

ion,

and

prob

ably

the

mos

t dif

ficu

lt to

teac

h, is

the

fusi

on o

f th

e m

ilita

ry

-5-

and religious sectors of culture. Only by understanding

thoroughlythenature of the fusion can a student com

prehend suchdiverse

things as the seemingly barbaric custom

of human sacrifice,

theconcern w

ith the calendar, the male

role as warrior, and the im

-portance of the religious and political elites. Such an

understand-ing is not derived by learning the nam

es of gods or weapons or ar-

my organization, but it consists rather

in seeing the ideal way of

worshipping and the gods and their presum

ed relationship to man

and in seeing the war aim

s of capturing prisoners forritual purpos-

es. In the same m

anner the nature ofthe w

hole Aztec society be-

comes clearer as the student begins

to see it as a religio-military

society.

Part B: Iroquois Society

In the eyes of Iroquois scholars, two

aspects of that society asrepresented by the five tribes that resided in

Central N

ew Y

orkState loom

larger than any other. First, theplace of w

omen w

asm

ore important than in m

ost primitive societies, and secondly,

their confederacy or league is consideredunique am

ong Am

ericanIndians.

While descent w

as matrilineal and residence w

asm

atrilocal,Iroquois society w

as not matriarchal even though w

omen

did playan im

portant role in the lifeof the tribe. C

lan mothers selected

sachems, or chiefs, to succeed to a "nam

e, " and theycould re-

move the "horns" of office, or

depose a chief. How

ever, wom

ennever held office nor did they sit in

council. At best they could

play a behind-the-scenes advisory role.

Roles w

ere few and rigidly specified. i.griculture, one of the

mainstays of the econom

y, was totally clone by w

omen. W

iththeir

crude implem

ents, they cultivated the corn, beans,and squash in

cooperative groups. Since the tribe was m

atrilineal,the m

otherand uncle w

ere chiefly responsible for the childtraining, although

others helped. Men hunted, fished, w

arred,and held councils.

Even the carrying hom

e of game w

as doneby w

omen, as w

as theraising of food am

d the keeping of the home. T

heIroquois had no

beasts of burden, and the only domesticated anim

al was

the dog,w

hich they used for food.

The Iroquois lived in villages of long houses.

The fam

ous longhouse contained "m

any fires", that is, many

families. A

round the

villa

ges

wer

e pa

lisad

es f

or p

rote

ctio

n ag

ains

t atta

ck. O

utsi

de th

ese

wal

ls w

ere

the

culti

vate

d fi

elds

. Aut

hori

ties

disa

gree

abo

ut th

ena

ture

of

Iroq

uois

pro

pert

y co

ncep

ts, b

ut a

ppar

ently

cul

tivat

edla

nd w

as h

eld

by u

sufr

uct.

Fam

ilies

had

hun

ting

area

s w

ithin

the

trib

al h

untin

g te

rrito

ry.

War

fare

was

an

impo

rtan

t Iro

qiio

is a

ctiv

ity a

nd m

ade

thei

rna

mes

fea

red

by n

eigh

bori

ng tr

ibes

. V.'a

rs w

ere

cond

ucte

d fo

r re

-ve

nge,

not

for

pro

pert

y as

am

ong

whi

tes.

Mili

tary

exp

editi

ons

wer

eor

gani

zed

mor

e up

on th

e lin

es o

f a

priv

ate

ente

rpri

se th

an a

trib

alac

tivity

. The

goa

l was

the

capt

ure

of o

ther

Ind

ians

, par

ticul

arly

brav

e yo

ung

mal

es. T

he c

aptiv

es w

ere

eith

er a

dopt

ed in

to th

etr

ibe

to r

epla

ce d

ecea

sed

mem

bers

or

wer

e to

rtur

ed b

y m

en, w

om-

en, a

nd c

hild

ren.

Cru

el to

rtur

es w

ere

devi

sed

to te

st th

e br

aver

yof

the

capt

ive

who

was

sup

pose

to s

ing

and

hurl

insu

lts a

t his

tor-

men

ters

. The

hea

d an

d he

art o

f a

part

icuh

tzly

bra

ve v

ictim

mig

ht b

eea

ten

to tr

ansf

er th

is v

irtu

e to

the

eate

rs.

The

Con

fede

arcy

or

Lea

gue

of th

e Ir

oquo

is w

as f

ound

ed a

ccor

d-in

g to

lege

nd to

pre

vent

inte

rnal

war

fare

am

ong

the

five

trib

es.

Muc

h di

sput

e re

volv

es a

bout

the

exac

t nat

ure

of th

e L

eagu

e, b

ut it

was

bas

ed u

pon

a un

ion

of th

e fi

ve tr

ibes

thro

ugh

clan

s cu

tting

acro

ss tr

ibal

line

s. F

ifty

pea

ce c

hief

s, o

r sa

chem

s, c

onst

itute

dth

e co

unci

l of

the

Lea

gue.

Its

fun

ctio

ns w

ere

cere

mon

ial a

nd n

otpo

litic

al (

if w

e m

ean

activ

ities

oth

er th

an in

tern

al p

eace

-kee

ping

),al

thou

gh a

ppar

ently

ear

ly w

hite

per

cept

ions

saw

it a

s a

polit

ical

entit

y. H

owev

er, a

ctua

l pol

itica

l dec

isio

ns w

ere

appa

rent

ly ;1

20.e

at th

e tr

ibal

or

even

loca

l vill

age

leve

ls, a

s fo

r ex

ampl

e,. w

arri

ng.

In c

ompa

riso

n w

ith th

e A

ztec

s, I

roqu

ois

soci

ety

seem

s m

uch

less

com

plex

in p

oliti

cal a

nd s

ocia

l org

aniz

atio

n. T

he L

eagu

e is

not

the

Azt

ec C

onfe

dera

cy, n

or is

the

Iroq

uois

vill

age

of lo

ng h

ouse

s.

the

ci'.;

of

Azt

ec p

alac

es a

nd te

n pi

es. F

urth

erm

ore,

Iro

quoi

s ro

les

are

far

mor

e lim

ited

than

in A

ztec

life

. Eve

n th

e Ir

oquo

isre

ligio

usa.

ctiv

itt9s

sim

pler

by

com

pari

son.

Part

C: T

he P

lain

s In

dian

s

Whi

le th

e Pl

ains

Ind

ians

of

unem

otio

nal d

emea

nor

and

brill

iant

feat

her

head

dres

s ar

e th

e In

dian

s of

tele

visi

on a

nd m

otio

n pi

ctur

es,

a co

mpl

ete

anal

ysis

of

the

cultu

re c

an s

till p

rodu

ce n

ew in

tere

stin

stu

dent

s ja

ded

by th

e st

ereo

type

. It w

as th

e in

trod

uctio

n of

the

-7-horse by the Spaniards that led to the flow

ering of the culture asw

e know it.

The arrival of the horse accentuated som

e previous culture pat-terns, caused the decline or deem

phasis of others, and made for

innovation of still other patterns in many tribes of hitherto diverse

cu7f,,ral backgrounds. The early Plains tribes lived on the fringes

of the plains and only occasionally wandered onto it to hunt buffalo.

Migrations w

ere aided by the dog as a beast of burden to carry bag-gage. T

he horse enabled greater mobility on the

plains and couldcarry m

ore baggage. Thus tents increased in size

with the "m

ysterydog", as they called the horse, to haul the longer poles and the heav-y skins covering the tipi, the new

home.

Now

, men could concentrate m

ore on hunting buffalo and otherbig gam

e. From the buffalo cam

e rich meat for food; skins for tipis,

clothing, shields, bedding, and even boats; and sinew for tying

and sewing. H

unting loomed larger in the schedule of activities

and agriculture declined. Yet w

omen still cultivated crops as

well

as dressed the skins and erected and dismantled

the tipis duringthe hunt.

The changed cultural pattern through em

phasis and deemphasis

affords a splendid opportunity to discuss acculturation and innova-tion, indeed, culture change in general. W

ith the advent of thehorse, Indians had to copy or invent saddles, bridles, and otherhorse equipm

ent. Warring continued but now

the horse gave greaterstriking pow

er. War w

as still a private enterprise, but frequentlythe objective w

as the capturing of horses. Sacred bundles and reli-gious sites continued but now

buffalo hunting was involved. R

itualand regulations w

ere evolved for the hunt. Family, clans, clubs,

and bands remained but they adjusted to horse possession and buf-

falo hunting.

Plans Indian society stressed the young male

wax and hunting.

1%!?.r

not achieved by slaughter but by stealth in strikinga hray.? enem

y or stealing his horses. The degree of bravery w

asraed

a scale of importance, and w

oe to the ma3e w

ho counted"coup" for a deed he never achieved. T

he powerful m

ale possessedw

ar hcmorr: and horses, w

hich he gave away as a .s:.g,n of his status.

do puy7-.-Jes of teaching this unit one or two specific Plains

tribesbe chosen. D

epending upon the tribes selected therew

ill be aria' ions in the cultures, but no matter w

hich tribe, the

4=E

se

-8-

teac

her

shou

ld s

o se

lect

as

to a

naly

ze c

ultu

rech

ange

and

dep

en-

denc

e up

on th

e bu

ffal

o. T

he r

udim

enta

ry s

ocia

lor

gani

zatio

n of

any

Plai

ns tr

ibe

cont

rast

s vi

vidl

y w

ith th

e A

ztec

and

even

with

the

Iro-

quoi

s.

UN

IT T

WO

: TH

E C

OL

ON

IZA

TIO

N O

F NO

RT

H A

ME

RIC

A

Part A: T

he Idea of Colonization

It is problematical just how

much sixth-graders can grasp of all

the ramifications of the idea of colonization and the concept of em

-pire in this period. Still it is necessary for the

students to graspat least som

e of the sub-concepts, both inorder to put the usual

materials about explorations into perspective and to provide a

bas-is for the study of the A

merican revolution.

Since the culture concept has been emphasized in this

curriculum,

colonization should be treated, among other things, as an extension

of European culture. T

he explorers and the conquerorsperceived

the new w

orld in terms of their cultural biases, and

the settlersaim

ed to live in accordance with value-system

s learnedin the m

oth-er country. For exam

ple, while

gold was of little value to the A

z-tecs, the Spanish invaders w

ere greedy for the yellowm

etal. The

conquest of North A

merica for the glory of the king

and the glory ofG

od (and the glory of Mam

mon ?) m

eant the extension ofthe prevail-

ing concepts of political, religious, and economic

systems in the

mother country. In fact, conversion and exploitation

of the aborigin-al inhabitants seem

ed natural and not inconsistent tofriar, conquer-

or, and king. The fusion of these ideas

into the whole idea of colo-

nization should be presented to the students if possible,through

the actions of the invaders, if not in total abstraction.

In treating colonization, the teacher should always be

carefulto m

ake an elementary but im

portant distinction:the difference be-

tween 1) the m

otivation impelling groups and individuals

to come

to the colonies and 2) the supposed utility of coloniesto K

ing andcountry. For exam

ple, the greed for gain upon thepart of an indi-

vidual settler may or m

ay not be inconsistent with the

mercantil-

istic sentiments of the court at hom

e. Certainly, the

various motiv-

ations of individual settlers can be readilypresented to sixth grad-

ers, but the theories of colonialutility m

ay be more difficult for

them to com

prehend. To understand fully the latter,

the studentsw

ould have to understand the conditions in V!estern E

uropeat the

time of the discovery and settlem

ent of North A

merica.

The grow

-ing nationalism

,the religious strife between Protestant

and Cath-

olic, the stage of maritim

e technology, andthe evolution of capital-

ism go hand-in-hand to explain the explorations

and exploitation ofthe N

orth Am

erican continent,both as to tim

ing and man-

ner of activity by Spain, France,and E

ngland.

Tha

t Spa

in s

ettle

d M

exic

o in

the

sixt

eent

h ce

ntur

y, a

nd E

ngla

ndan

d Fr

ance

dev

elop

ed th

eir

colo

nies

in th

e ne

xt c

entu

ry g

oes

a lo

ngw

ay to

exp

lain

the

diff

eren

ce b

etw

een

thos

e co

untr

ies'

set

tlem

ents

,be

caus

e of

the

cultu

ral d

iffe

renc

es th

at e

volv

ed in

Eur

ope

in g

en-

eral

and

in th

ese

coun

trie

s in

par

ticul

ar d

urin

g th

e ce

ntur

y be

-tw

een

Col

umbu

s' d

isco

veri

es a

nd th

e fo

undi

ng o

f Q

uebe

c an

d Ja

mes

-to

wn.

The

dif

fere

nt f

orm

s of

gov

ernm

ent t

hat e

volv

ed in

Fra

nce

and

Eng

land

in th

e se

vent

eent

h ce

ntur

y ex

plai

n w

hy th

e St

. Law

renc

ean

d th

e A

tlant

ic C

oast

col

onie

s ha

d qu

ite d

iffe

rent

pol

itica

l sys

tem

s.Y

et, i

n sp

ite o

f m

any

diff

eren

ces,

the

colo

nies

qua

col

onie

s ha

dm

any

sim

ilari

ties

too.

Per

haps

som

e id

ea o

f th

e co

mpl

exity

of

the

situ

atio

n ca

n be

pre

sent

ed th

roug

h th

e st

udy

of s

hips

, ast

rola

be,

and

com

pass

; the

so-

calle

d th

eory

of

mer

cant

ilism

;th

e th

eori

esof

land

ow

ners

hip

in th

e N

ew W

orld

; and

the

atte

mpt

s to

con

vert

the

nativ

es. I

n sh

ort,

the

new

wor

ld o

f th

e pe

riod

was

not

so

muc

hth

e W

este

rn H

emis

pher

e bu

t the

new

way

s fo

r th

e O

ld W

orld

that

allo

wed

its

disc

over

y an

d ex

ploi

tatio

n.

Part

B: S

pani

sh S

ettle

men

t of

New

Spa

in (

Mex

ico)

To

the

Span

ish

goes

the

cred

it fo

r th

e re

disc

over

y of

Am

eric

aby

Eur

opea

ns. H

owev

er; d

ue to

mis

conc

eptio

ns, C

olum

bus

pres

umed

that

he

land

ed u

pon

an is

land

off

the

Asi

an c

oast

, and

it w

as s

ome-

time

befo

re A

mer

ica

was

"in

vent

ed",

to u

se o

ne s

chol

ar's

term

.Fe

w in

stan

ces

show

so

clea

rly

the

filte

ring

of

perc

eptio

n by

a c

ul-

tura

l sys

tem

as

this

pro

cess

by

whi

ch th

e su

ppos

ed N

ew W

orld

v.,a

.s r

e-co

gniz

ed a

s "n

ew"

by th

e "o

ld."

Eve

n af

ter

the

reco

gniti

on o

f th

e W

este

rn h

emis

pher

e as

new

and

ther

efor

e op

en to

set

tlem

ent a

ccor

ding

to th

e in

tern

atio

nal l

awco

ncep

ts o

f th

e E

urop

eans

, the

cla

ims

to th

e ne

w te

rrito

ry a

nd th

eex

ploi

tatio

n of

it w

ere

conc

eive

d in

term

s of

Old

Wor

ld id

eas.

Ex-

plor

ers

and

conq

uero

rs m

arch

ed a

cros

s N

orth

Am

eric

a in

hop

es o

fcl

aim

ing

new

dom

ains

for

thei

r m

onar

chs

and

enri

chin

g th

emse

lves

by g

old

min

es a

nd la

rge

esta

tes.

Bec

ause

of

the

reco

nque

st o

f Sp

ain

from

the

Moo

rs, t

he p

eopl

e of

Spa

in p

artic

ular

ly s

tres

sed

the

Cat

h-ol

ic r

elig

ion

as th

e on

e tr

ue f

aith

(es

peci

ally

aft

er th

e ad

vant

of

Lut

her)

and

the

test

of

loya

lty to

the

stat

e.T

hus

New

Spa

in h

ad to

be C

atho

lic.

The

rec

onqu

est o

f Sp

ain

had

also

mad

e m

ilita

ry v

irtu

es p

ara-

* (n

ote

on m

erca

ntili

sm a

bove

: In

line

with

the

sim

ulat

ion

ofec

onom

ic a

ctiv

ities

in la

ter

grad

es, m

erca

ntili

sm c

ould

be

deve

l-op

ed a

s a

gam

e at

this

leve

l. )

mount, as m

all as the acquisition of lands and laborers by thesuccessful w

arriors.T

hus, the Conquistadores sought in N

eWSpain that w

hich -their predecessors had sought in Old Spain:

military success, crow

ned by gain in land, laborers, and wealth.

Extensive lands and rich m

ines were useless w

ithout labor,and so the Spanish in M

exico turned to the exploitation of thenatives. A

t first this was done sim

ply repartimiento or "divi-

sioning, " by which conquered land w

ith the inhabitants to work it

were distributed am

ong the conquerors as had been done duringthe reconquest of the m

other country. Later repartim

iento meant

temporary allotm

ents of Indians to do given tasks. The encom

ienda,derived from

encomendar m

eaning to "entrust," was a grant of

land and a town of Indians to w

ork it.T

he encomendero w

as tocivilize and C

hristianize the natives entrusted to him .in return for

their labor for a certain period of time.

These term

s were never

precisely defined at any one time, and m

uch controversy existsover their m

eaning, but nevertheless the exploitation implied in

each is apparent to all.

Labor for the m

ines was obtained by levies on Indian tow

ns'population. D

ue to cultural perception, the rich silver mines

were not even discovered by the A

ztecs, let alone developed, forthey valued the w

hite metal little.

The Spanish prized it greatly,

both for personal wealth and for the w

ealth of the empire. T

houghnatives w

orked the mines, the law

s regarding mining and the

methods of w

orking the mines w

ere transferred from Spain.

Of

all the forms of native exploitation, m

ining was the m

ost fatal forthe Indian.

Ironically, Spanish humanitarians urged the im

porta-tion of A

frican slaves to work the m

ines in order to save thena-

tive population.

The conquest and subsequent exploitation of the A

ztecsw

asfacilitated by the aboriginal w

ay of life.T

hat the Conquest w

asaccom

plished by surprisingly few Spaniards w

as due to the natureof the A

ztec confederacy which contained

numerous unincorporated

peoples who w

ould eagerly ally with the C

onquistadores.In addi-

tion, the ritualistic warfare w

hich stressed captives rather thankilling the enem

y proved highly ineffective against the tactics andtechnology of the Spanish invaders.

Militarism

was not a full

time A

ztec occupation, and they neither conducted sustainedcam

-paigns nor had a good battle organization. N

either did Aztec

gov-ernm

ent officials make speedy decisions.

All these factors m

ee

for

an e

asy

Span

ish

vict

ory.

Acc

ordi

ng to

his

tori

ans,

the

Span

-ia

rds

easi

ly a

ccom

plis

hed

the

expl

oita

tion

of th

e pe

ople

's la

bor

beca

use

they

mer

ely

subs

titut

ed th

eir

over

lord

ship

for

that

of

the

Azt

ec m

aste

rs .

Such

an

inte

rpre

tatio

n m

ay b

e qu

estio

ned

if th

ean

thro

polo

gist

s ar

e ac

cura

te a

bout

the

natu

re o

f cl

asse

s an

d th

etie

s of

the

conf

eder

acy.

Thi

s m

eans

, of

cour

se, t

hat t

he c

lass

-ro

om te

ache

r m

ust r

esea

rch

thor

ough

ly th

e ac

tual

Azt

ec-S

pani

shsy

stem

that

cam

e in

to b

eing

und

er c

onqu

est.

man

y w

ays

the

Span

ish,

unl

ike,

say

the

Eng

lish,

inco

rpor

-at

ed I

ndia

n el

emen

ts in

to th

eir

syst

em o

f ex

ploi

tatio

n an

d ev

en-.

!inv

ersi

on.

Abo

rigi

nal c

usto

ms

abou

t suc

cess

ion

and

priv

ilege

sof

nat

ive

chie

fs (

who

fre

quen

tly e

xplo

ited

thei

r fo

llow

ers

for

Span

ish

favo

r), I

ndia

n vi

llage

org

aniz

atio

n, th

e re

gula

tion

of la

bor

(as

trib

ute)

, and

agr

icul

tura

l pra

ctic

es, a

mon

g ot

her

thin

gs w

ere

abso

rbed

into

Spa

nish

law

abo

ut th

e na

tives

.T

he c

ulm

inat

ion

ofth

is tr

end

is f

ound

in th

e R

ecop

ilaci

on d

e le

yes

de lo

s R

eyno

s de

las

Indi

as o

f 16

81.

Ano

ther

inte

rest

ing

thin

g ab

out t

he r

elat

ion-

ship

bet

wee

n Sp

ania

rd a

nd I

ndia

n is

the

sim

ilari

ty o

f A

ztec

and

Span

ish

tow

npla

n of

squ

are

and

publ

ic b

uild

ings

.T

his

rela

tion-

ship

is w

ell d

emon

stra

ted

by th

e sq

uare

of

Ten

ocht

itlan

, in

whi

chth

e pa

lace

and

tem

ple

beca

me

the

plaz

a of

Mex

ico

City

with

Gov

-er

nor's

pal

ace

and

cath

edra

l.V

.' ha

t can

be

seen

arc

hite

ctur

ally

in a

Spa

nish

bui

ldin

g st

andi

ng u

pon

Azt

ec f

ound

atio

ns c

an a

lso

bese

en in

the

sync

retis

m o

f M

exic

an C

hris

tiani

ty.

The

Spa

nish

prie

sts

utili

zed

whe

neve

r po

ssib

le A

ztec

bas

es f

or C

atho

lic c

ere-

mon

ies

and

doct

rine

.T

he r

esul

t, as

was

to b

e ex

pect

ed,w

asth

at th

e In

dian

rel

igio

n is

a c

onfu

sion

of

paga

n an

d C

hris

tian

ele-

men

ts. M

estiz

o cu

lture

like

Ind

ian-

whi

te m

arri

age

was

a m

ixtu

real

so o

f th

e Sp

anis

h an

d th

e na

tive.

How

muc

h of

this

can

be

show

nin

an

atte

mpt

to te

ach

accu

ltura

tion

mus

t be

left

to d

emon

stra

tion

in th

e cl

assr

oom

.

Wha

t wor

ked

so.w

ell w

ith th

e ag

ricu

ltura

l Ind

ians

. of

Cen

tral

Mex

ico

faile

d m

iser

ably

whe

n th

e Sp

anis

h la

ter

cam

e in

con

tact

with

the

"wild

er I

ndia

ns"

of th

e N

orth

, who

use

d to

goo

d ad

van-

tage

the

hors

es s

tole

n or

str

ayed

fro

m th

e Sp

anis

h. T

he a

ttem

pts,

led

by m

issi

on a

nd p

resi

dio,

to p

acif

y th

em in

ord

er to

ext

end

Chr

istia

nity

and

exp

loita

tion

are

deve

lope

d in

Her

bert

Bol

ton'

sfa

mou

s ar

ticle

.H

ere

is.a

noth

er e

xam

ple

of I

ndia

n-w

hite

rel

a-tio

ns w

ith q

uite

dif

fere

nt r

esul

ts, a

lthou

gh o

ne o

f th

e cu

lture

s in

cont

act r

emai

ned

the

sam

e.

-13-

Part C.

French Settlement of N

ew France (C

anada)

In the settlement of N

ew France tw

o aspects should be stressed:first, the attem

pt to erect a rational, highly bureaucratized seig-neurial system

of settlement, and secondly, the developm

ent ofthe fur trade w

hich defeated the aims of the seigneurial system

and was the m

ajor form of Indian-w

hite accomm

odation. For thesake of analysis, these should be taught in the above order.

In view of this recom

mendation, the early exploration, the

history of the fur trading monopolies; '''and the C

ompany of the

100_Associates should be treated in the briefest possible

scope orby-passed in order to reach the plans for and the developm

ent ofN

ew France as a royal colony under L

ouis xrv. and his minister

Colbert after 1663.

The seigneurial system

envisaged a colonythat w

as Catholic and agricultural. N

ot only was the geom

etricland pattern specified but the duties of the seigneur and his vassal,the censitaire, w

ere laid down in detail and strictly enforced by

the officials of the central government.

;chile the system had the

appearance of feudalism, the strict supervision by the central

government prevented the autonom

y possessed by the genuinefeudal lords of the M

iddle Ages.

Colbert hoped to establish a

bureaucratic colony with a table of organization specifying ranks

of society and based upon family, agriculture, C

atholic Church,

and loyalty to the king.T

he nature of the plan is evident in theland pattern of the St. L

awrence V

alley as well as the placem

entof chateau, C

hurch, houses, and allotments of land in the typical

seigneury.

The plan w

as a notable failure in settling Canada. A

t the time

of its conquest by England, N

ew France had yet to becom

e self-sufficient agriculturally, and the seigneurial dom

ainsw

ere ofsm

all extent.Few

people wanted to leave L

a Belle France, and

many of the colonists escaped illegally into the fur trade. O

ne-third of the population w

as involved in the fur trade by 1680, oftenw

ith the connivance of the very public officials and seigneurs who

were supposed to prohibit such activity as contrary to the plan.

It is in relation to the fur trade that explorations become sig-

nificant.Interestingly enough,

from the earliest explorations on

the St. Law

rence, the Indians understood trading with furs and

eagerly stripped themselves of fur clothing in order to receive

the white m

an's goods.In a later period, the fur traders consti-

tute

d th

e st

aff

of e

xper

ts a

nd w

orke

rs f

or th

e fa

mou

s ex

plor

ers.

The

eco

nom

ic a

spec

ts o

f th

e fu

r tr

ade

shou

ld b

e ta

ught

alo

ng w

ithth

e co

lorf

ul c

usto

ms

of th

e m

en w

ho tr

avel

ed a

nd tr

aded

. Lon

gte

rm c

redi

t was

ess

entia

l to

the

trad

e, a

nd, i

n th

e en

d, it

was

cond

ucte

d w

ith th

e ho

mel

and

and

for

prof

it by

all

enga

ged.

The

lines

of

cred

it ca

n be

see

n in

the

flow

of

trad

e go

ods

from

Fra

nce

to M

ontr

eal t

o th

e in

teri

or f

ur f

orts

and

the

flow

of

fur

back

toth

e m

othe

r co

untr

y.In

line

with

the

emph

asis

on

capi

talis

ticen

terp

rise

, the

bou

rgeo

is, o

r pr

opri

etor

, as

wel

l as

the

voya

geur

s,or

sub

trad

ers,

sho

uld

be p

rese

nted

to th

e st

uden

ts.

The

chi

ef I

ndia

n-w

hite

con

tact

occ

urre

d in

the

exte

nsio

n of

the

fur

trad

e.T

he s

mal

l dem

ands

of

land

for

the

fur

fort

s an

d th

ead

apta

bilit

y of

the

voya

geur

s w

hile

livi

ng a

mon

g th

e na

tives

led

to li

ttle

conf

lict b

etw

een

the

two

peop

les,

exc

ept w

hen

the

Indi

ans

wer

e ar

ouse

d to

war

by

the

natio

nalis

tic a

spir

atio

ns o

f E

nglis

htr

ader

s or

age

nts.

In a

dditi

on to

this

acc

omm

odat

ion,

mis

sion

-ar

ies

atte

mpt

ed to

con

vert

the

Indi

ans

with

littl

e of

the

succ

ess

seen

in M

exic

o. M

any

of th

e In

dian

s en

coun

tere

d by

the

fur

trad

eran

d fr

iar

had

cultu

res

sim

ilar

to th

at o

f th

e Ir

oquo

is, e

xcep

t for

the

stru

ctur

e of

the

Lea

gue.

-15-:;

UN

IT:T

HR

EE

: EN

GL

ISH SE

TT

LE

ME

NT

OF N

OR

TH

AM

ER

ICA

From the view

point of our analytical framew

ork, the English

settlements of Jam

estown and Plym

outh do not deservea separ-

ate unit1n themselves, because the tw

o comm

unities are but theextensions of E

ngland in the same w

ay that New

Spain andN

ewFrance are the extensions of those tw

o countries. The

same

general cultural assumptions about colonies and life w

ithin thosecolonies governed E

ng lish.settlement.just.as ithad governed the.

other European nations of the period found in U

nit ILT

he lengthof the m

aterial and the significance for.the ultimate developm

entof A

merican civilization cast aside these analytical considera-

tions, however, in favor of m

aking initial English settlem

ent inthe m

ain land of North A

merica another unit.

The teacher,

though, should be prepared to treat English settlem

entno differ-

ently than that of France or Spain from the cultural point of view

.

Traditional A

merican colonial history, therefore, offers

a goodopportunity to com

pare the similarities and differences of E

nglishsettlem

ents with those of the Spanish and French. T

hese compari-

sons should be attributed to the national differences within E

uro-pean culture, for colonies are but extensions of their m

othercountries.

Students, as the teacher has been warned previously,

should not leave colonial history believing that changes in colonialinstitutions w

ere caused solely by the impact of repeated frontier

experience, 'crude geographical determinism

neither accounts fortobacco-raising, the use of slaves in the South,

or pioneering assuch despite m

any traditional histories to the contrary.

While the tem

ptation is to resort to antiquarianism in

por-traying the quaint custom

s of colonial times

or to present thesepeople as the forerunners of

a great nation, the teacher shouldrem

ember that the colonists w

ere seventeenth centurym

en andw

omen w

ith the cultural assumptions and folkw

ays of their day.O

nly by so representing them w

ill the teacher be true to themand to history, and only then w

ill the students truly understandhow

they both were sim

ilar to and different fromus today.

Part A. V

irginia in the Colonial Period

Although plantations w

ere the most conspicuous feature

on theJam

es River in later years, Jam

estown did not start outas a

com

mun

ity o

f pl

anta

tions

.R

athe

r it

was

a c

omm

erci

al e

stab

lish-

men

t for

a c

apita

listic

ally

incl

ined

Eng

lish-

base

d co

mpa

ny. T

heL

ondo

n C

ompa

ny h

oped

like

all

othe

r se

ttlem

ent a

genc

ies

for

the

New

Wor

ld to

mak

e a

prof

it on

the

labo

r of

the

serv

ants

sen

t to

the

wild

erne

ss. T

he C

ompa

ny p

rom

oter

s ho

ped

that

the

trad

i-tio

nal m

erca

ntili

st g

oods

wou

ld b

e fo

und

in V

irgi

nia.

Thu

s th

eea

rly

settl

ers

hunt

ed f

or g

old,

wer

e ur

ged

to r

aise

silk

wor

ms

and

to e

xpor

t tro

pica

l fru

its--

all t

o no

ava

il.T

o th

is e

xten

tth

e ph

ysic

al e

nvir

onm

ent d

eter

min

ed th

e ex

peri

ence

s of

the

ini-

tial s

ettle

rs a

nd d

ashe

d th

e ho

pes

of th

e L

ondo

n pr

omot

ers.

But

the

envi

ronm

ent d

id n

ot d

estr

oy th

e va

lues

by

whi

ch th

e pr

o-m

oter

s an

d th

e se

ttler

s vi

ewed

the

valu

e of

the

new

land

.T

hey

still

hop

ed f

or p

rofi

t, an

d th

ey s

till b

elie

ved

that

the

econ

omy,

the

relig

ion,

the

fam

ily li

fe, a

nd th

e so

cial

str

uctu

re tr

aditi

onal

to E

ngla

nd s

houl

d al

so b

e th

e fo

unda

tion

of li

fe in

Vir

gini

a.In

fact

, thi

s cu

ltura

l bas

e sh

aped

the

two

mos

t sig

nifi

cant

eve

nts

inth

e hi

stor

y of

ear

ly V

irgi

nia.

Bot

h th

e ra

isin

g of

toba

cco

and

the

failu

re a

nd d

isso

lutio

n of

the

Vir

gini

a C

ompa

ny r

esul

ted

asm

uch

from

the

cultu

ral b

agga

ge b

roug

ht b

y th

e ea

rly

Eng

lish

settl

ers

as th

ey d

id f

rom

the

natu

re o

f th

e ph

ysic

al e

nvir

onm

ent.

The

eve

ntua

l ris

e of

pla

ntat

ions

gro

win

g st

aple

cro

ps (

par-

ticul

arly

toba

cco

in th

e C

olon

ial p

erio

d an

d co

tton

late

r) w

as n

otdu

e to

the

inev

itabi

lity

of "

geog

raph

y" a

s tr

aditi

onal

ly c

once

ived

and

expl

aine

d.St

aple

cro

p-ra

isin

g w

as d

ue a

s m

uch

to th

e de

sire

for

get-

rich

-qui

ck e

xplo

itatio

n of

the

new

land

as

it w

as d

ue to

the

poss

ibili

ty o

f gr

owin

g su

ch c

rops

in th

is c

limat

e.T

his

can

be d

emon

stra

ted

in th

ree

way

s.Fi

rst,

the

perc

eptio

n of

util

ityof

Vir

gini

a as

a c

olon

y ra

pidl

y ch

ange

d fr

om g

old-

seek

ing,

totr

opic

al p

rodu

cts,

to f

inal

ly th

e cr

op o

f to

bacc

o -

-all

get-

rich

-qu

ick

sche

mes

. Sec

ondl

y, th

e to

bacc

o gr

own

in c

olon

ial V

irgi

nia

was

not

indi

geno

us to

the

area

.but

impo

rted

fro

m th

e W

est I

ndie

s.L

astly

, the

fer

tile

tidew

ater

land

cou

ld h

ave

been

use

d fo

r ot

her

crop

s t h

an

toba

cco,

but

non

e w

ere

so p

rofi

tabl

e on

the

mar

ket .

as th

e "h

unbl

e w

eed"

that

sat

isfi

ed th

e E

urop

ean

smok

ing

craz

e.T

his

who

le s

ubje

ct a

ffor

ds a

won

derf

ul o

ppor

tuni

ty to

sho

w th

ere

latio

nshi

p of

cul

tura

l val

ues

and

the

perc

eptio

n an

d ut

iliza

tion

of p

hysi

cal e

nvir

onm

ent.

The

fai

lure

of

the

Vir

gini

a C

ompa

ny is

fre

quen

tly h

aile

d as

triu

mph

of

priv

ate

ente

rpri

se o

ver

soci

alis

m, b

ecau

se th

e in

itial

colo

nist

s ha

d to

con

trib

ute

all t

heir

wor

k to

the

com

mon

goo

d of

-17-

the comm

unity. The only problem

with this interpretation of

events is that the comm

on good happened to be the treasury ofa

very capitalistically-oriented corporation chartered by the King

to conduct settlement for the purposes of exploiting the

resourcesof the new

domain. T

he failure of thecom

pany is a complicated

matter, but surely socialism

was not one of the

causes. One of

the primary problem

s was the conflict betw

een thecapitalistic

desires of the company's servants and their loyalty to the

com-

pany;but this, too, was not caused by the physical environm

ent,as som

e have claimed. T

o attract workers the

company had to

make property and political concessions, but the

more the colo-

nists gained the more they w

anted and demanded. T

rue,the

physical environment as w

ilderness unsettled (except bysavages

in English opinion) fostered

a belief that Englishm

en had always

held about their own w

elfare. The frontier did not,

however,

produce the violation of statuses prescribed by thecom

pany butm

erely lent its presence, so-to-speak, to the scarcity oflabor

which m

ade these violations prossible. What the colonists

wanted

was not equality but higher status according to the E

nglish systemw

hich they had known in the hom

e country and which they

contin-ued to reproduce as best they could on this side of the

ocean.T

he early political and social history of the colony should there-fore be presented in light of this cultural background of facts.

Com

plicated and abstract as these generalizationsm

ay be,they are essential to the illum

ination of them

en and events usu-ally studied about early V

irginia in this grade level.B

oth men

and events take on added meaning by being placed in this

broadersocial and cultural context.

The attitudes and actions of the m

enlike John Sm

ith, John Rolfe, G

overnor Dale, and others

become

meaningful only in so far as they

are related to the English cul-

ture of their times.

In this way, early V

irginia is picturedas a m

i-crocosm

of English life but w

ith some differences.

Early V

irginiais also a typical colony and should be show

nas such.

To continue the analysis of Indian-w

hite relations frompre-

vious units, the early contact and warfare of the

tidewater V

irgin-ians w

ith the Powhatan C

onfederacym

ay be studied briefly.L

ittle is known about this tribe, and it

was uaique com

pared tom

ost tribes encountered by the English in the colonial

period.T

he Pocahontas story illustrates that both redand w

hite men

conceived of marriage alliances

among rulers as an aid to trade

and to the expansion of political influence.T

he causes of the

-18-

mas

sacr

e of

132

2 an

d th

e E

nglis

h re

actio

n to

it s

how

the

inco

m-

patib

ility

of

Indi

an-w

hite

land

use

.It

wou

ld s

eem

mor

e us

eful

to p

ostp

one

the

stud

y of

Ind

ian

cont

act t

o th

e pe

riod

of

rem

oval

and

rese

rvat

ion-

form

atio

n af

ter

the

Rev

olut

ion.

The

pla

ntat

ion

as tr

aditi

onal

ly ta

ught

was

not

rea

lly s

o m

uch

of a

sev

ente

enth

cen

tury

phe

nom

enon

as

one

of th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

-tu

ry.

How

ever

the

begi

nnin

gs o

f th

at d

istin

ctiv

e So

uthe

rn e

nter

-pr

ise

stem

fro

m th

e ve

ry e

arly

per

iod

of V

irgi

nia

hist

ory,

and

so th

e te

ache

r's p

rese

ntat

ion

in th

e ea

rlie

r pe

riod

sho

uld

fore

-sh

adow

the

late

r so

cial

and

eco

nom

ic c

onse

quen

ces

of th

e m

atur

epl

anta

tion

econ

omy

of th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

.C

are

shou

ld b

eta

ken

in th

e pr

esen

tatio

n of

the

plan

tatio

n to

avo

id a

too-

sim

ple

appr

oach

to a

com

plex

soc

ial a

nd e

cono

mic

org

aniz

atio

n (e

ven

com

mun

ity).

Whi

le th

e pl

anta

tion

was

a f

orm

on

the

land

scap

e,it

was

als

o an

org

aniz

atio

n of

labo

r an

d a

larg

e-sc

ale

com

mer

-ci

al a

gric

ultu

ral o

pera

tion.

It w

as th

e ch

ief

surp

lus-

prod

ucin

gun

it in

the

econ

omy,

hen

ce th

e m

ajor

pro

duce

r of

the

expo

rts

from

the

Sout

hern

col

onie

s.T

his

mea

nt p

lant

atio

n pr

oduc

tsne

eded

an

over

seas

mar

ket (

in E

ngla

nd, a

ccor

ding

to th

e N

avi-

gatio

n A

cts)

, and

as

a re

sult,

the

plan

ter's

pro

sper

ity w

ascl

osel

y lin

ked

with

inte

rnat

iona

l tra

de c

ondi

tions

.T

his

can

bem

ade

com

preh

ensi

ble

to s

ixth

gra

ders

thro

ugh

the

pers

on o

f th

efa

ctor

in L

ondo

n an

d th

e w

orki

ngs

of th

e fa

ctor

ing

syst

em. T

hus

colo

nial

eco

nom

ic li

nks

to th

e m

othe

r co

untr

y ca

n be

sho

wn

inte

rms

of p

erso

ns a

nd th

e fl

ow o

f pr

oduc

ts in

trad

e.

The

pla

ntat

ion

was

als

o pa

rt o

f a

soci

al s

yste

m a

s ev

iden

t in

the

patte

rn u

pon

the

land

as

in th

e ri

gid

clas

s st

ruct

ure.

The

plan

tatio

n w

as s

urro

unde

d by

sm

all f

arm

s ju

st a

s th

e pl

ante

r w

asex

ceed

ed in

num

bers

by

yeom

an f

arm

ers.

Whi

le m

ajor

in th

e ex

-te

nt o

f ac

reag

e an

d in

the

quan

tity

of s

urpl

us p

rodu

ced,

the

plan

ta-

tion

was

min

or in

the

tota

l num

ber

of a

gric

ultu

re u

nits

in th

eSo

uth.

Lik

ewis

e, p

lant

atio

n ow

ners

wer

e th

e hi

ghes

t cla

ss in

the

soci

al s

truc

ture

but

thei

r nu

mbe

rs w

ere

few

.So

uthe

rn s

ocie

tyco

ntai

ned

man

y ye

oman

far

mer

s w

ho d

id n

ot o

wn

slav

es, a

nd it

had

only

a f

ew a

rtis

ans,

mer

chan

ts, a

nd p

rofe

ssio

nals

of

the

mid

dle

clas

s.T

hus

tow

ns in

the

Sout

hern

col

onie

s w

ere

few

eran

d sm

alle

r th

an th

ose

in th

e N

orth

ern

colo

nies

.E

ven

plan

tatio

nsva

ried

in n

umbe

rs o

f ac

res

and

slav

es. T

he v

ario

us p

lant

atio

nsi

zes

can

be s

how

n by

pic

ture

s bo

th o

f lo

g pl

anta

tion

hous

es a

ndla

rge

bric

k, G

eorg

ian

man

sion

s as

wel

l as

map

s of

the

vari

ous

-19-

counties.T

he role of indentured servants will portray in hum

anterm

s the class structure, as will references to the differing

ways of life of the different classes--w

hether it be pleasure,housing, or dress.

Class structure should be dem

onstratedtherefore by m

ore than reference to the great planters with their

battalions of slaves.(T

he nature of slavery as a system should

be saved for WO

Civil V

..ar unit. )

While the planttion ow

ner numbered few

in the population,his position at the "top of the heap" gave him

influence far ex-ceeding his num

erical strength. The political system

was un-

democratic and he dom

inated the county organization of theSouthern colonies. T

he patrician class in the South aped theirversion of the E

nglish squire who united the political, econom

ic,social and religious in his person; the im

portant planters heldlocal or provincial political office, extensive lands, unofficialtitles of squire or gentlem

an, and posts as vestryman in the local

Anglican C

hurch. Regardless of this im

itation of English squir-

archy, the very wealthy of the Southern colonies rarely equalled

the very wealthy of E

ngland as can be seen in the comparison of

Mount V

ernon (George W

ashington was one of the richest m

en inm

id-eighteenth century Am

erica) with a palace in E

ngland atthe sam

e time.

For the purposes of teaching this section, Jamestow

n shouldbe used for the focus of the early seventeenth century period be-cause an abundance of sources exist.

The very reconstruction

of Jamestow

n offers interesting material in historical m

ethod.For the eighteenth century W

illiamsburg provides the focus, and

again the recontructed town offers m

aterial on historical method

as well as good audio-visual and printed m

aterials. As is clear

from this content outline, the colonial period of V

irginia shouldbe divided into tw

o sections:(1) the initial settlem

ent and devel-opm

ent of Jamestow

n and the area around it, and (2) Virginia in

the eighteenth century with W

illiamsburg as its cultural and polit-

ical focus.In the latter period the T

idewater and the Piedm

ontshould not be separated as is traditional because they form

ed aw

orking social and cultural unity.

Part B: M

assachusetts in the Colonial Period

The colonial history of M

assachusetts cannot be so neatly divid-ed into tw

o periods focused around two tow

ns as can be done with

-20-

Vir

gini

an h

isto

ry. P

lym

outh

, unl

ike

Jam

esto

wn,

doe

s no

t rem

ain

the

chie

f to

wn

of s

ize

or o

f in

tere

st in

ear

ly iv

iass

achu

sets

his

tory

.Pu

rita

n B

osto

n so

on s

uper

sede

s th

e fa

mou

s to

wn

foun

ded

by th

ePi

lgri

ms.

Bot

h to

wns

, how

ever

, are

ref

lect

ions

of

Eng

lish

cultu

re.

The

chi

ef d

ange

r to

be

avoi

ded,

in f

act,

is c

onve

ying

an

impr

es-

sion

of

too

grea

t a d

iffe

renc

e be

twee

n th

e tw

o to

wns

rel

igio

usly

or

othe

rwis

e an

d ev

en w

orse

, im

plyi

ng th

at N

ew E

ngla

nder

s, a

s th

eyw

ould

hav

e it,

re s

aint

lier

or v

ery

diff

eren

t fro

m th

eir

fello

wco

untr

ymen

in V

irgi

nia.

Eng

lishm

en a

re E

nglis

h no

mat

ter

whe

reth

ey a

re s

ettle

d at

that

tim

e.

The

Pilg

rim

s an

d th

e Pu

rita

ns s

houl

d no

t be

used

to p

erpe

tuat

eho

ary

myt

hs d

ear

to th

e so

-cal

led

Am

eric

an h

erita

ge, f

or th

eyw

ere

far

mor

e liv

ely

and

inte

rest

ing

than

that

. Nei

ther

gro

upca

me

for

relig

ious

fre

edom

; rat

her

they

cam

e to

est

ablis

h th

eir

own

form

of

relig

ious

into

lera

nce.

The

Pilg

rim

s ar

e fr

eque

ntly

used

to s

how

the

failu

re o

f co

mm

unis

m b

y th

e fa

ilure

of

the

com

-m

on s

tore

hous

e, y

et th

is s

tore

hous

e w

as th

e tr

easu

ry o

f a

com

-pa

ny th

at w

as p

riva

tely

ow

ned

and

as c

apita

listic

ally

incl

ined

as

the

one

send

ing

fort

h th

e co

loni

sts

to V

irgi

nia.

In

shor

t, bo

thgr

oups

sho

uld

be tr

eate

d as

rat

her

typi

cal E

nglis

hmen

who

cam

eto

the

New

Wor

ld s

eeki

ng o

ppor

tuni

ty to

hav

e th

eir

desi

res

--pi

ety

and

pros

peri

ty.

The

phy

sica

l env

iron

men

t did

not

for

ce th

e N

ew E

ngla

nder

s in

-to

trad

e; r

athe

r th

eir

sear

ch f

or p

rofi

ts m

ade

this

seem

nat

ural

.E

ven

the

Plym

outh

col

ony

show

s th

e m

ixtu

re o

f re

ligio

n an

d ec

on-

omic

mot

ives

that

for

med

the

base

s of

New

Eng

land

set

tlem

ent.

The

sup

pose

d co

mm

on s

tore

hous

e of

Ply

mou

th s

houl

d be

rep

rese

nt-

ed f

or w

hat i

t rea

lly w

as, h

owev

er, t

he tr

easu

ry o

f th

e su

ppor

t-in

g co

rpor

atio

n, a

nd n

ot s

ome

soci

alis

tic e

nter

pris

e. T

he s

uppo

sed-

ly p

oor

soil

of N

ew E

ngla

nd p

rodu

ced

crop

s fa

r in

exce

ss o

f ho

me

cons

umpt

ion,

and

so

fore

ign

mar

kets

wer

e so

ught

. The

suc

cess

of th

is tr

ade

with

its

Atla

ntic

con

nect

ions

hel

ped

its e

xpan

sion

. in

New

Eng

land

the

rich

may

hav

e be

en m

erch

ants

, but

the

man

yw

ere

farm

ers,

and

bot

h gr

oups

ass

umed

a r

igid

cla

ss s

truc

ture

was

nat

ural

, eve

n G

od-o

rdai

ned.

The

mer

chan

ts s

oon

aros

e to

chal

leng

e th

e m

inis

ters

and

mag

istr

ates

of

the

earl

y m

igra

tions

.H

ere

as in

pre

cedi

ng u

nits

, the

con

nect

ions

of

the

mer

chan

ts,

henc

e th

e na

ture

of

ship

s' c

argo

es a

nd p

erso

ns in

volv

ed o

n bo

thsi

des

of th

e A

tlant

ic in

the

trad

e.

-21-

New

England is fam

ous for its towns. iathough m

any New

Eng-

landers did live in houses clustered together in some pattern sur7

rounded by fields, many others did not. E

ven the nature of thetow

n plan varied from place to place. T

his variation was not due

to physical environment but to the nature of the villages of those

who m

igrated, whether, for exam

ple, the home village had an

open or closed field system. In light of the variety of tow

n plan-ning and even isolated farm

s evident from the very beginning of

settlement, it is not feasible to speak of the decline of the tow

ninto the extended farm

ing pattern of modern tim

es with the as-

surance of yesterday's-historians. Thus it w

ould seem safest not

to overstress the village pattern nor imply its traditional concom

-itant, the ideal unity of church, farm

ing, and local government.

The m

eeting house was im

portant, but many N

ew E

nglandersw

ere neither comm

unicants nor even attendants at services. Po-litical participation, here as elsew

here in the colonies, was lim

-ited to freem

en of worth, and in several N

ew E

ngland colonies,to m

embers of the C

ongregational Church in som

e elections.Since suffrage requirem

ents were transferred from

Old E

ngland,their basis in social classes w

as also brought. Contrary to pop-

ular belied then, New

England tow

n meetings could not have been

havens of democracy. T

hat the political customs w

ere transport-ed m

ay be seen by comparing the nam

es of officers, their dut-ies, and the requirem

ents for voting and officeholding.

Much scholarly controversy exists about the exact nature of

seventeenth century Puritanism, but at least a few

points can beagreed upon in order to teach sixth graders. Puritanism

was on-

ly a slight variation of Anglicanism

, and certainly far less toler-ant of diversity of belief. Furtherm

ore, it is doubtful whether the

bulk of so-called Puritans practiced their beliefs with any m

orefaithfulness than the settlers at Jam

estown. L

astly, all authori-ties agree that the original Puritans bear slight resem

blance tothe stereotypes of them

popular today in motion pictures, com

icstrips, and cartoons. E

very endeavor should be made to present

them as flesh -and -blood seventeenth century hum

an beings rath-er than cardboard figures w

ith dour faces, wearing black.

Regardless of the difficulty in separating colonial M

assachu-setts history into tw

o different periods based upon towns to show

seventeenth and eighteenth century differences, the teacher must

somehow

do this in order to show the changes that occurred be-

-22-

twee

n th

e tw

o ce

ntur

ies.

In

this

way

Ply

mou

th a

nd e

arly

Bos

ton

mus

t be

the

focu

s of

the

earl

y hi

stor

y; la

ter

Bos

ton

mus

t pro

vide

the

cent

er o

f at

tent

ion

for

the

late

r pe

riod

of

colo

nial

his

tory

,so

that

the

stud

ents

will

und

erst

and

the

chan

ge a

s w

ell a

s th

e co

ntin

-ui

ty o

f M

assa

chus

etts

his

tory

for

its

own

sake

and

as

the

back

grou

ndof

the

Am

eric

an R

evol

utio

n.

...0"

-...

i 1

...

i 1 i 1

-23-

UN

IT FO

UR

: RE

VO

LU

TIO

N/ 2,Y

AM

ER

ICA

The A

merican R

evolution is extremely difficult to teach upon

any level because the term contains such a m

ultiplicity of mean-

ings for the historian. These m

any meanings are sum

marized in

the phrase for him but are not alw

ays apparent to the layman be-

cause the phrase seems so obviously sim

ple. The m

ost obviousim

age of the Revolution is the actual hostilities betw

een the Ccilo-

'lists and England, but m

ost historians mean far m

ore by the termthan the fighting. T

hey are concerned with the causes of the hos-

tilities. Why did the C

olonists believe it necessary to fight, andw

hST.did the E

nglish government believe troops w

rre necessaryin the colonies? B

ut these are only the imm

ediate causesas

conceived by the actors in the situation. Why did the colonists

and English as actors see things in the w

ay they did? In otherw

ords, historians look for what they call long-range

causes ofthe R

evolution.

The attribution of long-range causes is a com

plex task thatinvolves theories of m

an and society as much as the search for

data, for facts of this kind are observers' constructions erectedfrom

evidence gathered according to certain perspectiveson

social, political, and economic processes.

In this sense theR

evolution concerns the revolution in Am

erican nationality andpolitical identification.

It also includes the whole developm

entof the colonies in so far as it contributes to understanding howthe colonists got to be w

hat they were and thus m

ade them act

as they did.Y

et the causes of the Revolution cannot be said to

be all of colonial history and still possess valid meaning

ascaL

ces as separate from all of the past.

Selection is necessaryto w

riting the history of the Revolution as it is to w

riting of otherhistories.

When w

e turn from the causes of the R

evolution to ;.11Pcom

9lishments w

e are as perplexed as before.A

cccr.:11:1;.: :orecent interpreers, the colonists fought to

preserve ;,..nt,,2 al-ready possessed rights, not

go gain new ones.

If tt.j.s is so,then w

as the Revolution a "R

evolution" in thesense that the w

ordis usually used? T

o interpret thew

ar as a "conservative revolu-tion," as is now

popular, does notm

ean, however, that certain

thingsthat represented a changed condition did not

occur.B

ut were these aim

ed-for or unaimed-for

consequences of theinitial urge to fight? If they w

ere unaimed-for, then

can we call

them

par

t of

the

Rev

olut

ion

in th

e sa

me

sens

e th

atw

e sa

y th

eai

med

-for

con

sequ

ence

s w

ere?

For

exa

mpl

e, th

e co

loni

sts

obvi

ousl

y w

ante

d w

ritte

n co

nstit

utio

ns f

or th

eir

new

ly-e

stab

-lis

hed

gove

rnm

ents

, but

was

the

fede

ral c

onst

itutio

nso

obv

ious

-ly

the

resu

lt of

the

Rev

olut

ion

from

the

view

poin

t of

the

acto

r ?

Las

tly, t

he A

mer

ican

s co

ncei

ved

of th

e R

evol

utio

nas

a r

eal

revo

lutio

n in

the

hist

ory

of W

este

rn C

ivili

zatio

n.A

ccor

ding

to th

em, i

t ush

ered

in a

new

kin

d of

nat

ion

neve

r be

fore

exi

st-

ent i

n th

e w

orld

.T

his

is y

et a

noth

er m

eani

ng o

f th

e te

rm A

.-m

eric

an R

evol

utio

n in

com

para

tive

pers

pect

ive.

To

teac

h fu

lly th

e A

mer

ican

Rev

olut

ion,

the

teac

her

wou

ldha

ve to

cov

er a

ll th

ese

man

y m

eani

ngs

of th

e ph

rase

and

still

mor

e. T

he e

xten

t to

whi

ch th

is c

an b

e ac

com

plis

hed

even

inth

e hi

gh s

choo

l lev

el is

dou

btfu

l, an

d it

is c

lear

ly im

poss

ible

inth

e si

xth

grad

e.Y

et s

ome

imag

e of

this

cru

cial

per

iod

in A

mer

-ic

an h

isto

ry m

ust b

e co

nvey

e d

even

toa

stud

ent u

pon

this

leve

l.In

ord

er to

do

this

, the

str

ateg

y m

ust b

e tc

sele

ct th

ose

aspe

cts

of th

e cl

uste

r of

mul

tiple

mea

ning

s th

atca

n be

und

erst

ood

in a

nel

emen

tary

leve

l with

out d

isto

rtio

n an

d le

ave

the

rem

aind

er f

orco

mpr

ehen

sion

at a

n ad

vanc

ed g

rade

. Var

ying

am

ount

s of

un-

ders

tand

ing

can

be a

chie

ved

on a

ll th

ree

phas

es o

fca

uses

,hO

stil-

ities

, and

res

ults

of

the

Rev

olut

ion,

but

none

will

be

unde

rsto

od.

P.n

com

plet

ely

by a

six

th-g

rade

r.

The

eas

iest

pha

se to

teac

h is

, of

cour

se, t

he a

ctua

l war

, but

even

her

e th

e st

uden

ts w

ill n

ot b

e ab

le to

lear

n ev

eryt

hing

.B

attle

s po

sses

s a

broa

der

cont

ext t

han

the

mer

e cl

ash

of a

rms

and

the

phys

ical

mov

emen

t of

arm

ies.

Bas

icst

rate

gy a

nd lo

gis-

tic c

once

ptio

ns o

f th

e pe

riod

"ex

plai

n" th

ena

ture

and

pla

ce o

fba

ttles

.T

he s

tude

nts

can

also

be

taug

ht to

appr

ecia

te th

is"s

tyle

" of

war

fare

use

d by

the

two

arm

ies.

So e

ven

in w

arfa

re,

cultu

ral p

erce

ptio

ns a

nd a

ttitu

des

form

ea

foun

datio

n fo

r th

e na

-tu

re o

f th

e cl

ash.

Aft

er th

e ba

ttles

, the

seq

uenc

e of

eve

nts

imm

edia

tely

prec

ed-

ing

the

Rev

olut

ion

coul

d be

mos

t eas

ily p

rese

nted

. How

ever

,th

em

emor

izat

ion

of a

list

of

even

ts w

ith d

ates

atta

ched

doe

sno

t con

-st

itute

an

anal

ysis

of

imm

edia

te c

ausa

tion.

Sinc

e th

e cu

lture

conc

ept h

as b

een

the

cent

ral t

hem

e of

this

cour

se th

us f

ar, i

tso

mew

hat p

rede

term

ines

an

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

the

caus

es o

f th

eA

mer

ican

Rev

olut

ion.

Aft

er a

ll, if

the

Eng

lish

colo

nies

hav

ebe

en p

rese

nted

as

an e

xten

sion

of

Eng

lish

norm

s, v

alue

s, a

ndfo

lkw

ays,

one

can

not c

laim

that

gre

at c

ultu

ral

diff

eren

ces

-25-

suddenly deceloped within the decade of 1765-1775. T

he colonistsm

ust be considered as a sub-culture of English society, and the

Revolution as a struggle betw

een two groups w

ith the same cul-

tural base.

Fortunately the most current interpretation of the period, pos-

tulated in Edm

und Morgan's T

he Birth of the R

epublic, fits nicelyinto the pattern of the course. A

ccording to Morgan, the colo-

nists who began agitating after 1763 against the Sugar and Stam

pA

cts had no intention of creating a new nation.

He m

aintains thattheir intent w

as to preserve their politico-economic traditions,

using Anglo-Saxon m

ethods to achieve Anglo-Saxon ends. T

he ser-ies of events, 1763-1774, caused m

isunderstanding and conflictbetw

een mother country and colonists but, M

organ maintains, a

strong desire to remain w

ithin the British E

mpire continued. T

heevents did, how

ever, change the colonists' perception of theirrole w

ithin the empire.

First, they adhered to the principle thatParliam

ent could legislate for them but not tax them

; next, theym

oved to the position that Parliament could neither legislate nor

tax them and thus that the colonial assem

blies were to their re-

spective colonies what Parliam

ent was to m

ainland England. T

hisshift cam

e, according to Morgan, through no predeterm

ined planor thought of independence but w

as rather a result of evolvingcircum

stances and events, 1763-'14.T

he real crisis came be-

cause neither Parliament nor the K

ing realized that thecolonists'

perception of their role within the E

mpire had changed.

Parlia-m

ent as well as the K

ing maintained the suprem

acy of Parliament

over the colonies.

In Morgan's interpretation, the final step cam

e when the colo-

nists found it necessary "to choose between their rights and their

King, and in spite of everything the K

ing had done or failed to do,the choice w

as not easy." The colonists, using E

nglish prece-dents and the language of an E

nglishman (John L

ocke), declared-their independence of the then current E

nglish government, w

hichthey felt had exceeded its pow

ers. Morgan holds that throughout the

years 1763-1776, the colonists favored English governm

ental trad-itions, exercised E

nglish means of seeking change in governm

ental.policy and ultim

ately sought independence to preserve their English

heritage.

In teaching this interpretation, every effort should be made to

-26-

mak

e cl

ear

the

trad

ition

al "

righ

ts o

fE

nglis

hmen

" at

issu

e: ta

xatio

non

ly w

ith r

epre

sent

atio

n, tr

ial b

y lo

cal

juri

es, p

rope

rty

righ

ts,

and

no s

tand

ing

arm

y in

pea

cetim

e.T

hese

con

cept

s sh

ould

be

taug

htth

roug

h th

e us

e of

as

man

y ex

ampl

esas

pos

sibl

e so

that

a d

iscu

ssio

nof

the

inci

dent

s w

hich

led

to u

ltim

ate

inde

pend

ence

will

be

unde

r-st

anda

ble

to th

e st

uden

t. E

very

eff

ort

shou

ld b

e m

ade

to a

void

teac

h-in

g al

l the

pro

visi

ons

of le

gisl

ativ

eac

ts (

or a

ll th

e le

gisl

ativ

e ac

tsfo

r th

at m

atte

r) o

r al

l the

inci

dent

s.In

stea

d in

cide

nts

shou

ld b

ech

osen

to e

luci

date

onl

y th

e fo

ur b

asic

rig

hts

at is

sue

nam

ed a

bove

so th

at th

e in

terp

reta

tion

can

be m

ade

as c

lear

as

poss

ible

. The

follo

win

g su

gges

ted

inci

dent

s sh

ould

be ta

ught

in d

etai

l: 1)

Sta

mp

Act

and

its

repe

rcus

sion

s, 2

) se

izin

gof

- ia

ncoc

k's

Lib

erty

, 3)

the

Bos

ton

Mas

sacr

e (i

nclu

ding

the

tria

l of

Bri

tish

sold

iers

), 4

) B

os-

ton

Tea

Par

ty, a

nd 5

) th

e B

attle

of L

exin

gton

.

The

con

sequ

ence

s of

the

conf

lict

are

surp

risi

ngly

dif

ficu

lt to

teac

h st

uden

ts, i

f an

atte

mpt

is m

ade

to p

rese

nt th

e cu

stom

ary

list

of m

en a

nd th

eir

activ

ities

inan

ana

lytic

al p

ersp

ectiv

e. F

or e

xam

-pl

e,th

e Fe

dera

l Con

stitu

tion

was

not

an

inno

vatio

n in

the

fram

e-w

ork

of g

over

nmen

t,for

a th

ree-

bran

ched

stru

ctur

e w

as tr

aditi

on-

al in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es b

y 17

87; r

athe

r it

was

an

inno

vatio

n in

the

0ce

ntra

l gov

ernm

ent o

f re

publ

ics.

The

exte

nt to

whi

ch h

igh

scho

olst

uden

ts c

an u

nder

stan

d su

ch c

once

pts

as c

onst

itutio

nalis

m, r

epub

-lic

anis

m, p

oliti

cal p

arty

sys

tem

s,or

nat

iona

lism

as

back

grou

ndfo

r th

e m

en's

idea

s an

d ac

tions

in th

epo

st-R

evol

utio

nary

per

iod

is d

oubt

ful,

let a

lone

to r

epre

sent

thes

e co

ncep

ts u

pon

a lo

wer

gra

dele

vel.

No

list o

f m

emor

ized

dat

esan

d ev

ents

can

be

a su

bstit

ute

for

this

kin

d of

ana

lysi

s.

Perh

aps

the

best

that

can

be d

one

here

and

for

the

war

per

iod

itsel

f is

to tr

eat t

he e

raas

one

of

the

Col

onia

lists

see

king

an

idea

of n

atio

nalit

y an

d id

entif

ying

with

a ne

w p

oliti

cal c

omm

unity

. An

at-

tem

pt s

houl

d be

mad

e to

sho

w th

e pr

oble

ms

of "

natio

nalit

y" d

urin

gth

e w

ar, i

. e. a

ttitu

des

of V

irgi

nian

sto

war

d m

en o

f M

assa

chus

etts

,se

ekin

g of

a f

lag

for

natio

nal i

dent

ity,

stru

ggle

of

loya

lists

ver

sus

patr

iots

, lac

k of

a "

natio

nal"

arm

y, th

e ri

se o

f "n

atio

nal"

her

oes.

Polit

ical

uni

ty (

and

the

Con

stitu

tion

whe

re s

tate

s re

quir

e th

e te

ach-

ing

of it

) sh

ould

be

trea

ted

as a

pro

blem

of

natio

nalit

y id

entif

icat

ion,

stem

min

g fr

om th

e co

loni

sts'

perc

eptio

ns o

f th

emse

lves

as

Eng

lish-

men

and

col

onis

ts r

athe

r th

an a

s A

mer

ican

s.(A

ctua

l pol

itica

l ma-

chin

ery

for

the

acco

mpl

ishm

ent o

f th

is s

houl

dbe

igno

red

here

, be-

caus

e th

at w

ill b

e ta

ught

in g

rade

s 8

and

10.)

Thu

s th

eun

it sh

ould

-27=

end on the theme of A

merican search for a new

group 'identification,resulting from

their achieved political independence from the B

rit-ish E

mpire. It should be em

phasized, however, that the E

nglishcultural base rem

ains predominant and that nationalism

was not

fully attained.

Hardest to teach on this level, or any level, w

ould be the longterm

causes of the Revolution, not only because of their com

plexi-ty but also because historians so differ am

ong themselves about the

factors that caused the split between the colonists and G

reat Bri-

tain.T

eachers upon advanced levels side-step the problem by

presenting the various interpretations as a lesson in critical think-ing, but this course seem

s precluded in the sixth grade.Perhaps

the most the teacher can do here is to show

that considerab lechange as w

ell as continuity occurred between the days of the

seventeenth. century colonists and the period of the Revolution. O

urpresentation of eighteenth-century life, N

orth and South, must be

primarily in the form

of description, but the goal should always be

to show the cultural m

ilieu of the founding fathers of the Am

ericanN

ation as a reflection of the society that became the U

nited States.T

hese men cam

e from diverse subcultural backgrounds, but all

shared certain English conceptions of the ideal society and the w

aysto go about achieving this in politics, econom

ics, religion, andother aspects of life.

For this reason change, continuity, diversi-ty, and uniform

ity are evident in the development of tow

ns, cities,and the background of the founding fathers.

These m

en were

Virginians, or Pennsylvpians, or N

ew Y

orkers as well as E

nglish-m

en or later Am

ericans.C

ities in the northern colonies differedfrom

cities in the southern colonies.A

lthough the vast majority of

Am

ericans farmed on the eve of the R

evolution, the crops raised,the m

ethods of agriculture, and the styles of life differed within

regions or among regions.

The concrete selections of m

en to rep-resent the era of the R

evolution in Am

erican life should reflect thediversity as w

ell as the similarity of regional attitudes and behav-

ior..,

It is important to develop this overall picture of A

merican life

on the eve of the Revolution for several reasons.

First, the totalpicture gives an im

pression of the amount of change that occurred'

since the initial settlement of Jam

estown and Plym

outh. The

changes should not obscure, however, the continuity that character-

ized Am

erican civilization.T

he teacher must not im

ply that thesechanges or this continuity caused the R

evolution; at best, one can

-28-

say

they

acc

ompa

nied

the

Rev

olut

ion

(or

wer

e th

e. R

evol

utio

n ?)

.Se

cond

ly, t

he p

ictu

re s

erve

s as

the

cultu

ral f

ound

atio

n fo

rw

estw

ard

expa

nsio

n of

Am

eric

an s

ocie

ty a

cros

s th

e co

ntin

ent.

V. h

at is

trad

ition

ally

taug

ht a

s a

post

-Rev

olut

iona

ry p

heno

men

aha

d its

ori

gins

in e

ight

eent

h ce

ntur

y co

loni

al li

fe.

By

1'75

0 th

em

etho

ds o

f pi

onee

ring

, for

exa

mpl

e, h

ad b

een

"per

fect

ed"

byco

loni

al A

mer

ican

s. T

hus

the

over

all s

tate

of

"Am

eric

an"

de-

velo

pmen

t in

the

mid

-eig

htee

nth

cent

ury

is e

ssen

tial t

o di

scus

-si

ng th

e ca

uses

of

the

Rev

olut

ion

and

to p

ortr

ayin

g th

e hi

stor

yof

the

natio

n af

ter

the

war

and

wel

l int

o th

e ni

nete

enth

cen

tury

.

From

thes

e co

mm

ents

, it i

s ob

viou

s th

at a

ny p

rese

ntat

ion

of th

e A

mer

ican

Rev

olut

ion

is d

iffi

cult

upon

any

leve

l, an

d th

elo

wer

the

grad

e le

vel,

the

less

that

can

be

unde

rsto

od in

an

an-

alyt

ical

fas

hion

.In

the

end,

the

teac

her

mus

t car

eful

ly s

elec

tfe

atur

es f

or th

e na

rrat

ive

of th

e ca

uses

,co

urse

, and

con

sequ

en-

ces

of th

e R

evol

utio

n th

at im

ply

the

soph

istic

ated

inte

rpre

tatio

nsof

whi

ch th

ey a

re p

art.

Sim

plis

tic li

sts

impl

y si

mpl

e an

alys

esof

a v

ery

com

plex

per

iod

in A

mer

ican

his

tory

,a

peri

od n

ot y

etfu

lly a

naly

zed

by th

e hi

stor

ians

des

pite

: the

mul

titud

e of

vol

umes

wri

tten

on th

e su

bjec

t.R

egar

dles

s of

how

the

Rev

olut

ion

is p

re-

sent

ed a

t thi

s gr

ade

leve

l, it

can

show

that

the

war

was

larg

erth

an a

mer

e se

ries

of

battl

es o

ra

list o

f m

isce

llane

ous

date

dev

ents

.

-29-

UN

IT FIV

E: N

AT

KiN

AL

EX

PLN

SION

Traditionally, this unit is taught as the expansion of the

nation westw

ard before the Civil W

ar; but this is to present apartial picture of A

merican history at best.

The eastern por-

tion of the nation also changed from the tim

e of the Revolution.

Therefore, the unit should im

ply change in the time as w

ell as thechange ir; space so custom

ary,,,..-;W

hen taught-as westw

ard movem

ent, this unit is taught stres-sing the discontinuity betw

een the West and the E

ast, but as thiscourse em

phasizes the migration of cultural system

s, this unitshould exam

ine the continuity of Am

erican civilization in ex-panding w

estward. M

odern scholars seriously question thefrontier interpretation of A

merican history both factually and

theoretically. Many of the changes betw

een 1760 and 1860 for-m

erly attributed to the frontier are no longer seen in this per-spective.

Although changes due to the settlem

ent of cheap,sparsely settled land are not denied, such changes seem

con-fined m

ainly to the material sector of culture.

The continuity can be seen best in the persistence of instifui

tions during the internal migration w

hich occurred in the nine-teenth century. T

he internal migrants flow

ed in three basicstream

s for the first half of the century when they settled the

area from the A

ppalachians to the Mississippi: 1) a Y

ankee-Yon-

ker stream w

hich flowed from

New

England and through W

esternN

ew Y

ork to the northern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois as

well as M

ichigan, Wisconsin and parts of M

innesota and Iowa;

2) the Southern migration w

hich moved from

the Old South to the

New

South or Old Southw

est; and 3) the Southern Upland stream

that came from

the hills of Kentucky and T

ennessee to the South-ern portions of O

hio, Indiana, and Illinois and moved into M

issouriand part of Iow

a. As these m

igratory streams travelled, they

carried different ways of farm

ing, cooking, speaking, and living.W

here they flowed can be seen in the different village patterns

and architecture as well as form

s of local government. D

espitethese differences, each stream

was but a variation of the basic

Am

erican society.(In addition to the internal m

igration, thelater influx of G

ermans, Irish, and E

nglish imm

igrants must be

remem

bered. )

Pioneering may be presented as process, but it should be

presented in proper perspective.T

rue, the initizi farm-m

aking

was

con

fine

d to

ere

ctin

g ca

bins

, cle

arin

g fi

elds

, and

cul

tivat

ing

a fe

w c

rops

, and

, if

the

settl

ers

wer

e ill

egal

ly s

quat

ting,

sub

-je

ct to

Ind

ian

raid

s. Y

et th

e pi

onee

rs h

oped

to b

ecom

e ri

chco

mm

erci

al f

arm

ers

,an

d th

ey w

ere

subs

titut

ing

hard

labo

r fo

rca

pita

l.Se

lf-s

ubsi

stin

g fa

rms

wer

e m

ere

tem

pora

ry e

xped

ient

sto

take

adv

anta

ge o

f ch

eap

land

in o

rder

to a

chie

ve a

pro

sper

ous

com

mer

cial

agr

icul

tura

l uni

t--N

orth

or

Sout

h.In

bot

h ar

eas,

Am

eric

ans

soug

ht c

omm

erci

al f

arm

s, e

xcep

t sla

ve.-

labo

r w

asus

ed in

the

Sout

h.Fu

rthe

rmor

e, in

equa

lity

exis

ted

upon

the

fron

tier,

for

mon

ey, s

lave

s an

d/or

edu

catio

n di

ffer

entia

ted

the

pion

eers

into

cla

sses

fro

m th

e be

ginn

ing.

By

pres

entin

g th

ese

stre

ams

of in

tern

al m

igra

tion,

the

stu-

dent

will

.rea

dily

see

the

cont

inui

ty o

f in

stitu

tions

rat

her

than

the

inno

vatio

n of

new

one

s du

e to

sup

pose

d fr

ontie

r in

flue

nce.

Eve

ryat

tem

pt s

houl

d be

mad

e to

sho

w th

at A

mer

ica

civi

lizat

ion

mar

ched

wes

twar

d in

its

entir

ety

and

not i

n st

ages

a la

Tur

ner.

At t

heve

ry--

sam

e..ti

me

that

log

cabi

ns w

ere

built

in s

mal

l cle

arin

gs,

larg

e es

tate

s an

d pl

anta

tions

wer

e be

ing

put i

nto

oper

atio

nne

ar-

by.

Gra

phic

illu

stra

tion

may

be

foun

d in

Jam

es F

enim

ore

Coo

p-er

's f

athe

r's e

stat

e in

cen

tral

New

Yor

k,or

Mor

ris

Bir

kbec

k's

hom

e in

Illi

nois

, or

a pl

anta

tion

in M

issi

ssip

pior

Ala

bam

a. I

nfa

ct, t

he S

outh

ern

mig

ratio

n de

mon

stra

tes

that

inm

any

case

s,sl

aves

wer

e pi

onee

rs, a

nd b

onds

men

eve

n ac

com

pani

edso

me

ofB

oone

's s

ettli

ng e

xped

ition

s in

to K

entu

cky.

In e

very

way

,A

mer

ican

s ca

rrie

d th

eir

cust

omar

y w

ays

with

them

, inc

ludi

nged

ucat

ion.

gov

ernm

ent,

econ

omy,

and

soc

ial s

truc

ture

.T

hus

whi

le, f

or e

xam

ple,

And

rew

Jac

kson

was

a "c

hild

of

the

fron

tier,

"w

hat t

his

mea

ns is

that

he

was

a s

ucce

ssfu

l pio

neer

who

gai

ned

apl

anta

tion,

sla

ves,

and

a w

ell-

to-d

o w

ife

by u

tiliz

ing

his

law

de-

gree

and

his

ner

ve.

Onc

e su

cces

sful

, he

insi

sted

upo

n hi

s st

a-tu

s th

roug

h du

els

and

polit

ical

off

ice.

liem

erel

y ac

com

plis

hed

wha

t all

othe

r st

rove

for

in th

e ne

wly

ope

ned

land

s.

Tho

ugh

chan

ges

occu

rred

in A

mer

ican

his

tory

dur

ing

this

peri

od, c

ompa

riso

n w

ill s

how

that

the

Vie

stw

as n

ot r

espo

nsib

lefo

r in

nova

tion.

Vhe

ther

one

com

pare

s th

e ri

se o

f th

e M

etho

dist

and

Bap

tist r

elig

ions

or

chan

ges

in s

uffr

age

qual

ific

atio

n, a

naly

-si

s sh

ows

inno

vatio

n in

the

Eas

t or

equa

l cha

nge

in th

e E

ast

as w

ell

as L

I th

e V

.7es

t at t

he s

ame

time,

In o

rder

to a

void

suc

h fa

lse

impr

essi

ons

of c

hang

e an

d th

eref

ore

aner

rone

ous

cuas

e fo

rth

ose

chan

ges,

the

teac

her

need

s to

dev

elop

car

eful

ly th

e m

id-

eigh

teen

th c

entu

ry p

ictu

re o

f so

ciet

y.T

rue,

cha

nges

do

occu

r

-31-

in terms of political, social, and econom

ic democracy in the

nineteenth century, but these are not due to the frontier inlight of com

parison .between east am

d west

as to attitudesand actions. T

ime is m

ore a factor in these changes than isspace, but neither accounts for the changes.

To avoid further the usual biased presentation

of national growth as due only to w

estward expansion

on thefrontier, the teacher should use the evolution of the transpor-tation netw

ork as a chance to summ

arize national growth,

east as well as w

est during the period from the R

evolution tothe C

ivil War. B

ecause of Eastern and W

estern desires form

arkets and profit, thesignificance of the co- called trans-

portation revolution lies not in the romance of technology,

but in its impact upon the A

merican econom

y. Canals, and

more particularly, railroads created a nation-w

ide market

by "knitting togethdr" the various sections of the United

States.A

t the same tim

e that the railroad physically createda huge "com

mon m

arket" (already provided for politically bythe C

onstitution), it enabled various areas to specialize indifferent products for the purposes of trade. T

he westw

ard-m

oving cereal crops and the rise of dairying and fruit-growing

demonstrate this crop specialization in term

s of food.T

heSouthern specialization in such staples as cotton and rice isw

ell-known and frequently taught in this period.

Lastly, the

embryonic industrialization of the N

ortheastern states offeredm

arkets for agricultural produce and the production ofm

anu-factured goods for the internal m

arket.A

riaps of changing com-

mercial routes and trading areas over tim

e reveal the chang-e s

in their greater significance. Lactly, the railroad cam

.be.

viewed as a com

munications system

binding the expandingU

nited States together.(T

he railroad network on the eve of

the Civil W

ar was "concentrated" m

ore in the North than in

the South and the major trunklines

ran East and W

est ratherthan N

orth and South with one exception

as can be seen on am

ap -- factors that have interesting implications for the w

arand national unity. )

the transportation system re-

fleets the larger economic and pcilitical structure of w

hichit

was part, and therefore offers a good opportunity to present

anoverall picture of the U

nited Stateson the eve of the C

ivil War

without

getting involved too deeply in the more profound is-

sues of economic developm

ent that caused the pattern the stu-dent sees.

-32-

UN

IT S

IX: T

HE

CIV

IL W

AR

AN

D R

EC

ON

STR

UC

TIO

N E

RA

The

Civ

il W

ar, l

ike

the

Am

eric

an R

evol

utio

n, is

a c

om-

plex

sub

ject

and

ther

efor

e em

broi

led

in m

uch

hist

orio

grap

h-ic

al c

ontr

over

sy. A

gain

like

the

era

of th

e R

evol

utio

n, th

eC

ivil

War

era

incl

udes

muc

h m

ore

than

the

mer

e fi

ghtin

g of

battl

es a

nd le

gend

ary

hero

ics,

bec

ause

it to

o ha

s ph

ases

in-

volv

ing

caus

atio

n, c

ours

e, a

nd r

esul

ts.

So h

ere,

too,

cho

ice

mus

t be

mad

e o.

,..no

ng s

uch

of th

e ba

sic

feat

ures

of

the

era

that

will

be

:. le

ast d

istu

rbed

by

pres

enta

tion

at th

is g

rade

leve

l.A

ll th

e st

rict

ures

app

lied

to th

e te

achi

ng o

f T

he R

evol

utio

n ap

-pl

y he

re a

lso.

With

the

repe

rcus

sion

s of

this

era

so

omni

pres

ent i

n to

-da

y's

Am

eric

a, a

ser

ious

atte

mpt

sho

uld

be m

ade,

nev

erth

e-le

ss, t

o go

bey

ond

the

trat

ition

al g

rade

-sch

ool a

ppro

ach

ofte

achi

ng th

is p

erio

d as

a c

olor

ful d

ram

a in

whi

ch b

roth

erfi

ghts

aga

inst

bro

ther

.T

he c

ompl

ex, p

oliti

cal,

soci

al, a

nd

Ci:

taug

ht in

per

viou

s un

its, s

houl

d be

rev

iew

ed b

efor

e pr

ocee

ding

with

the

inst

itutio

n of

sla

very

itse

lf.

farm

ing

in th

e ni

nete

enth

cen

tury

. The

se g

ener

aliz

atio

ns,

sig-

nifi

cant

dif

fere

nce

betw

een

Nor

ther

n an

d So

uthe

rn c

omm

erci

al

Nor

ther

ners

and

Sou

ther

ners

, des

pite

cer

tain

dif

fere

nces

j, ha

dth

e sa

me

cultu

ral b

ase.

The

y w

ere

Prot

esta

nts,

cap

italis

ts,

to a

chie

ve p

rofi

t or

at le

ast h

e ho

ped

to a

chie

ve it

.T

he c

hief

Nor

-th

ern

farm

er a

s w

ell a

s th

e So

uthe

rn p

lant

er o

pera

ted

his

land

dist

inct

ion

was

that

the

Sout

hern

pla

nter

, if

he c

ould

aff

ord

it,

the

full

impa

ct o

f R

econ

stru

ctio

n ca

n be

bes

t dea

lt w

ith a

t a

Ang

lo-S

axon

s, a

nd f

or th

e m

ost p

art f

arm

ers.

The

Nor

-

used

sla

ve la

bor.

The

pre

senc

e of

sla

very

in th

e So

uth,

long

afte

r it

had

decl

ined

and

dis

appe

ared

in th

e N

orth

, was

the

sig-

post

-war

per

iod

on th

e N

egro

, as

slav

e an

d fr

eedm

an;

The

com

-pl

ete

anal

ysis

of

the

caus

es o

f th

e w

ar a

s w

ell a

s an

ana

lysi

s of

cour

se b

e re

tain

ed b

ut, l

ike

that

of

the

Rev

olut

ion,

pre

sent

edin

the

broa

der

cont

ext o

f lo

gist

ics

and

stra

tegy

. A m

ore

com

-

late

r sc

hool

leve

l.

mili

tary

his

tory

so

liked

by

stud

ents

at t

his

leve

l sho

uld

of

As

the

prev

ious

uni

t sho

uld

have

mad

e cl

ear

to th

e st

uden

ts,

econ

omic

pro

blem

s of

this

era

are

of

cour

se d

iffi

cult

to te

ach

in to

to to

Ii y

ear

olds

, but

per

haps

an

appr

oach

to th

em c

an b

est

be m

ade

at th

is le

vel t

hrou

gh f

ocus

ing

the

unit

in th

e pr

e- a

nd1.

4

-33-

Discovering the nature of slavery in the ante-B

ellumSouth is w

ill is ult, both for teacher and for student. Em

o-tional bias has colored both prim

ary and secondary accounts.In order to learn about slavery, then, the student m

ust beable to read and to think critically.

The availability of m

anyeasy-to-read sources, listed below

, makes feasible the teach

-ing of slavery from

such sources.

The best approach to the institution of slavery for this

level is perhaps that developed by Stanley Elkins in his m

ono-graph, Slavery. Starting w

ith the "Sambo" stereotype, he w

on-ders w

hy this particular stereotype of the Negro developed in

the Am

erican South but not in Latin A

merica or in A

frica it-self.

He ultim

ately concluded that the slave system as prac-

ticed in Am

erica was responsible for developing the personal-

ity traits associated with the stereotype.

Elkins m

aintains that the absolute power of the m

asterover the slave in all phases of life w

as the key factor in en-couraging the "Sam

bo" behavior of the slave.Since the m

as-ter (as w

ell as the law) considered the slave as property, he

demanded certain slave behavior standards: O

bedience, fidel-ity, hum

ility, docility, and cheerfulness. These standards

ap-plied to slaves .of all ages, the adults as w

ell as the children,and the rew

ards and punishments w

ere meted out according to

them.. T

he slave in learning to accomm

odate to the master-

dominated system

, adhered openly to these behavior standardsbut &

.:_-,o subverted the system.

Since the slave had nothing togains and often m

uch to lose, from initiative

or diligence atw

ork, he often became an irresponsible, lazy, and clum

sy work-

er, requiring more supervision by the m

aster or his agents toobtain industry and diligence. H

e sometim

es resorted to lyingor stealing, again requiring even. m

ore alert supervision onthe part of the m

aster.L

astly, he often carried the demanded

cheerfulness to its exrremes of silliness and playfulness,

re-quiring once m

ore additional supervision. Thus the system

developed the traits desired by the master

-- obedience, fidel-ity, hum

ility, docility, and cheerfulness, but it also encouragedthe undesirable traits of sloth, irresponsibi!ity, lying, stealing,silliness, and playfullness.

In other words, the brutality of the

system m

ade the Sambo personality the best adjustm

ent on thepart of the N

egro to the system, and that sam

e Sambo personal-

ity p

rove

d to

the

mas

ter

that

he

mus

t alv

ays

hand

le th

e sl

ave,

rega

rdle

ss o

f ag

e, a

s a

child

inca

pabl

e of

mat

urity

, hen

cefr

eedo

m. T

hus

the

syst

em w

as s

elf-

perp

etuh

ting

and

self

-fu

lfill

ing:

The

Neg

ro d

evel

oped

the

Sam

bo tr

aits

whi

ch th

ew

hite

s fo

rced

and

the

syst

em r

einf

orce

d. T

hese

Sam

bo tr

aits

wer

e th

e an

tithe

sis

of th

e de

sire

d tr

aits

in th

e W

hite

cul

ture

Sout

h or

Nor

th -

- w

hich

wer

e th

e m

iddl

e cl

ass

virt

ues

of in

-du

stry

, hon

esty

, fru

galit

y, r

espo

nsib

ility

, ind

epen

denc

e, a

ndso

brie

ty (

all o

f w

hich

mad

e fo

r lo

ng r

ange

pla

nnin

g an

d ec

o-no

mic

suc

cess

:. )

For

this

rea

son,

teac

hers

in u

sing

Sou

ther

nas

wel

l as

Nor

ther

n ac

coun

ts o

f sl

aver

y sh

ould

be

care

ful t

opo

int o

ut th

at th

e W

hite

val

ue s

yste

m d

irec

tly a

ffec

ts th

eW

hite

s' p

erce

ptio

n an

d of

ten

adve

rse

judg

men

t of

slav

e be

-ha

vior

.M

oreo

ver,

the

teac

her

shou

ld a

lso

be a

lert

to e

x-am

ples

in th

e so

urce

s of

Neg

roes

who

do

not f

it th

e Sa

mbo

type

and

to th

eir

acce

ptan

ce o

r re

ject

ion

in N

orth

ern

and/

orSo

uthe

rn s

ocie

ty.

If th

e E

lkin

s' a

ppro

ach

is u

tiliz

ed a

nd th

e so

cial

org

aniz

a-tio

n of

the

plan

tatio

n sy

stem

has

bee

n ta

ught

thor

ough

ly e

arlie

r,

0th

en th

e te

ache

r sh

ould

be

able

to m

ove

easi

ly f

rom

the

inst

itu-

tion

of s

lave

ry a

nd p

lant

atio

n to

the

will

ingn

ess

of m

any

Sout

her-

ners

to w

ithdr

aw f

rom

the

Uni

on a

nd to

fig

ht f

or th

e pr

eser

vatio

nof

sla

very

.A

fter

all,

if th

e av

erag

e So

uthe

rn p

lant

er d

id b

elie

veth

at th

e N

egro

was

a c

hild

inca

pabl

e of

mat

urity

, he

wou

ld e

nvi-

sion

gra

ve s

ocia

l as

wel

l as

econ

omic

con

sequ

ence

s st

emm

ing

from

em

anci

patio

n. T

he S

outh

erne

r w

ould

, as

man

y di

d, f

eel

that

the

entir

e so

cial

sys

tem

wou

ld c

olla

pse.

At t

his

leve

l, th

e te

ache

r sh

ould

be

able

to e

xpl

ain

why

man

y So

uthe

rner

s fe

lt th

at th

e in

stitu

tion

of s

lave

ry w

as th

reat

-en

ed, w

ithou

t get

ting

invo

lved

in th

e le

gal a

nd le

gisl

ativ

e co

m-

plex

ities

of

the

deca

de p

rece

ding

186

0.T

he a

ctiv

ities

of

the

abol

ition

ists

, the

und

ergr

ound

rai

lroa

ds, t

he f

ailu

re to

ret

urn

fugi

tive

slav

es, t

he d

esir

e of

the

Rep

ublic

ans

to k

eep

slav

esou

t of

the

terr

itori

es, t

he e

lect

ion

of L

inco

ln w

hose

sta

nd o

nsl

aver

y ap

pear

ed e

quiv

ocal

- -

all o

f th

ese

"thr

eats

" as

the

Sout

hsa

w th

em c

an b

e ex

plai

ned

in te

rms

of s

peci

fic

exam

ples

, with

-ou

t res

ortin

g to

a d

etai

led

chro

nolo

gy o

f th

e ev

ents

and

legi

sla-

tion

of th

e 18

50's

.(F

or e

xam

ple,

it is

pos

sibl

e to

teac

h st

uden

tsw

hy m

id-w

este

rn R

epub

lican

s w

ante

d to

kee

p sl

aves

out

of

ter-

rito

ries

with

out d

iscu

ssin

g al

l the

legi

slat

ion

and

cour

t dec

i-si

ons

on th

e su

bjec

t. )

In explaining the Southerners' fears for their peculiarinstitu-

tion, the teacher should try to make

a distinction between the

Southern perception of reality and the reality itself.H

e shouldtry to guard against creating the im

pression that all Northerners

wanted to abolish slavery and m

ake Negroes equal to W

hites.T

his can be done by emphasizing the size, effectiveness, and

program of the abolitionists and R

epublicans as well as other

Northerners' reactions to them

. One

can easily show that:

1) many N

ortherners did not like abolitionists (useL

ovejoy orG

arrison), 2) some N

ortherners did not favor Lincoln (analyze

election returns in Northern states in 1860), and 3)

some N

orth-erners did not agree w

ith Lincoln's w

ar effort (use the copper-heads).

The difference that existed betw

een Southern perceptionand N

orthern reality may w

ell be best explained at this levelthrough a discussion of the effectiveness of propaganda in m

old-ing public opinion.

The actual outbreak of the w

ar can be pre-sented as a result of L

incoln's determination to m

aintain theU

nion by his refusal to accept the Southern states' withdraw

alfrom

it peacefully.L

incoln's mobilization of resources as w

ellas public opinion can be m

ade the chief determinant in getting

the North to fight.

The w

ar itself should be taught througha discussion of the

objectives, comm

and, strategy, and tactics of thew

ar. The

failure of the military to appreciate the m

odern nature ofthe

war's objectives as w

ellas the difficulties of developing a m

od-ern com

mand pattern of civil-m

ilitary relations can be taughtthrough num

erous examples. T

he mobilization of

resources andm

anpower so vital for a m

odern total war effort

can also beshow

n through examples of the difficulties of the

programs de-

veloped in the North and South.

Conditions of life for civilians

in war areas can be vividly portrayed utilizing the

many easy-

to-read accounts of wom

en, adolescents, and soldiers.Strat-

egy and tactics should present no real problems for the teacher

as these are the interest-provoking items that students have

always enjoyed; indeed, the strategy and the tactics

can be suc-cessfully em

ployed as jumping off points for discussions of the

larger Significaace of the war.

In dealing with the R

econstruction of the South, it would be

best to avoid discussing the legal, political, and legislativeproblem

s facing the Union C

ongress and President.T

hese prob-lem

s are too complicated for sixth graders

since they have little

-36-

know

ledg

e of

the

intr

icat

e w

orki

ngs

of th

e po

litic

al a

nd le

gal

syst

ems:

Em

phas

is s

houl

d be

foc

used

on

the

soci

al a

nd e

cono

m-

ic p

robl

ems

of th

e fr

eedm

an.

The

phy

sica

l reb

uild

ing

of th

e So

uthe

rn d

evas

tate

d ar

eash

ould

be

rela

tivel

y ea

sy to

teac

h.D

estr

uctio

n ca

n be

sho

wn

thro

ugh

use

of m

any

pict

ures

sur

vivi

ng f

rom

the

era.

The

re-

duct

ion

of S

outh

ern

whi

te m

ale

pow

er c

an b

e de

mon

stra

ted

grap

hica

lly, e

mpl

oyin

g th

e fi

gure

s of

war

cas

ualti

es. M

any

easy

-to-

read

acc

ount

s of

the

effe

cts

of th

e lo

ss o

f m

ale

pow

eron

the

Sout

hern

hou

seho

ld a

re a

lso

avai

labl

e.T

he q

uest

ion

ofob

tain

ing

capi

tal a

nd la

bor

to r

enew

com

mer

cial

agr

icul

ture

can

also

be

disc

usse

d on

this

leve

l.St

uden

ts s

houl

d be

abl

e to

unde

rsta

nd w

hy a

nd h

ow s

hare

crop

ping

dev

elop

ed, i

f th

e te

ache

rta

kes

the

time

nece

ssar

y to

use

man

y ex

ampl

es to

sho

w it

sop

erat

ion.

Aga

in m

any

pict

ures

are

ava

ilabl

e to

teac

h th

is s

ub-

ject

.T

he r

ise

of th

e co

untr

y m

erch

ant c

an b

e ex

plai

ned

as a

link

in th

e ne

w c

redi

t sys

tem

est

ablis

hed

in th

e po

st-w

ar S

outh

.

The

labo

r qu

estio

n le

ads

dire

ctly

to th

e so

cial

and

eco

nom

icpr

oble

ms

of th

e fr

eedm

an.

If th

e te

ache

r di

d a

thor

ough

job

ofte

achi

ng th

e tr

aits

dev

elop

ed in

the

slav

e sy

stem

, the

re s

houl

dbe

littl

e tr

oubl

e in

exp

lain

ing

the

diff

icul

ties

of th

e N

egro

fre

ed-

man

in a

djus

ting

to th

e W

hite

man

's w

ork

and

soci

alw

orld

.A

fter

all,

as

was

poi

nted

out

abo

ve, t

he w

ork

and

soci

al h

abits

enco

urag

ed in

the

slav

e sy

stem

wer

e th

e an

tithe

sis

of th

ose

need

edto

suc

ceed

in th

e W

hite

man

's w

orld

--

to m

ake

long

ran

ge p

lans

and

to a

chie

ve e

cono

mic

suc

cess

. Wel

l-de

velo

ped

habi

ts a

nd p

at-

tern

s w

ere

not e

asily

cha

nged

, as

the

firs

t-ha

nd a

ccou

nts

of b

oth

Nor

ther

ners

and

Sou

ther

ners

indi

cate

.T

he te

ache

r, in

usi

ng th

ese

acco

unts

, can

dis

cuss

with

the

stud

ents

the

reas

ons

why

adj

ustm

ent

gene

rally

was

dif

ficu

lt, w

hy s

ome

form

er s

lave

s ha

d m

ore

diff

i-cu

lties

than

oth

ers

in li

ving

in a

"ne

w w

orld

," a

nd w

hy a

few

wer

eab

le to

mak

e tn

e ne

coss

ary

chan

ges

in th

eir

lives

.A

gain

, how

-ev

er, t

he te

ache

r m

ust b

e N

arne

d to

mak

e th

e st

uden

ts a

war

eth

atbo

qi N

orth

ern:

::rs

ar.1

Sou

thrn

ers

in v

iew

ing

the

free

dman

may

(and

oft

en d

rea

ct a

dver

sely

to th

e fr

eedm

an's

lack

of

whi

te m

id-

dle

clas

s va

luu.

; and

hab

its. T

he S

outh

erne

r, o

f co

urse

, cla

imed

that

adj

ustm

ew; w

as ir

opos

6ibl

e, f

or, a

s he

had

alw

ays

mai

ntai

ned,

the

Neg

ro w

as a

per

riet

ual c

hild

, inc

apab

le o

f th

e m

atur

ity n

eede

dto

live

a "

free

" lif

e.Fo

r th

is r

aiso

n, th

e St

y.It

heni

er, a

s so

on a

sw

as f

easi

ble,

:rea

sser

ted

the

supr

emac

y of

tii.c

iT. t

ats

s,pi

acin

g th

efr

ee N

egro

onc

e ag

ain

at th

e ve

ry b

otto

m o

f th

e so

cial

and

eco

nom

ic

-37-

structure of the South. The N

ortherners, especially theones w

how

orked with the N

egro in the Reconstruction

era, often acquies-ced in perm

itting "Jim C

rowism

" because he toow

as trapped byhis m

iddle class values and thus fai led to understandthe needs

and problems of the frpedm

an4

UN

IT S

EV

EN

: TH

E C

OM

PLE

TIO

N O

F N

AT

ION

AL

EX

PAN

SIO

N

From

an

anal

ytic

al v

iew

, the

trad

ition

al u

nit d

evot

ed to

the

tran

s-M

issi

ssip

pi s

ettle

men

t of

the

cont

inen

t aft

er th

e C

ivil

War

is a

con

tinua

tion

of th

e ea

rlie

r un

it on

wes

twar

d ex

pans

ion

afte

rth

e R

evol

utio

n. A

gain

the

trad

ition

al u

nit s

uffe

rs f

rom

, the

sam

edi

stor

tiops

as

the

earl

ier

one

with

an o

vere

mph

asis

on

wes

twar

dex

pans

ion

and

an u

nder

emph

asis

on

east

ern

deve

lopm

ents

.It

too

relie

s on

the

fron

tier

thes

is a

ser

rone

ous

expl

anat

ion

of c

hang

ean

d ne

glec

ts th

e in

dust

rial

ism

that

cou

nted

so s

igni

fica

ntly

in th

ede

velo

pmen

t of

the

wes

t as

wel

las

the

Eas

t in

the

Post

-Civ

il W

arpe

riod

.

Indu

stri

alis

m, n

ot f

ront

ier

cour

age,

pop

ulat

ed th

e w

este

rn p

lain

san

d m

ount

ains

with

peo

ple.

Cul

tura

l con

tinui

ty w

as a

s im

port

ant

here

as

it w

as e

arlie

r in

the

fron

tier

settl

emen

t.E

ven

chan

ges

that

can

onl

y be

attr

ibut

ed to

cha

nged

phy

sica

len

viro

nmen

t rev

eal

the

cont

inui

ty o

f ba

sic

valu

es a

nd in

stitu

tions

.Pe

rhap

s m

odif

ica-

tion

due

to c

hang

ed p

hysi

cal e

nvir

onm

ent i

s re

pres

ente

dbe

st b

yth

e m

igra

tion

onto

the

plai

ns b

eyon

dth

e ni

nety

-eig

hth

mer

idia

nm

ade

fam

ous

by W

alte

r P.

Web

b in

his

book

, The

Gre

at P

lain

s.T

he f

latn

ess,

dry

ness

, and

tree

less

ness

of

this

area

, acc

ordi

ng to

Web

b, n

eces

sita

ted

the

switc

h fr

om lo

g ca

bins

to s

od h

ouse

s, f

rom

woo

den

fenc

es to

bar

bed

wir

e, f

rom

hum

idfa

rmin

g to

dry

far

min

g,an

d m

ade

conv

enie

nt th

e us

e of

mac

hine

ry f

or c

ultiv

atin

gan

d ha

r-ve

stin

g. T

he b

est a

dapt

atio

n to

geo

grap

hic

cond

ition

s w

as s

uppo

s-ed

ly r

aisi

ng c

attle

on

the

unfe

nced

gras

s sp

aces

. Yet

all

Web

bre

ally

pro

ved

is th

e ad

apta

tion

of e

xist

ing

inst

itutio

ns.

Sod

hous

eslik

e lo

g ca

bins

wer

em

ere

prel

ude

in th

e ey

es o

f th

e ho

pefu

l bui

ld-

ers

to la

rge

whi

te f

ram

e ho

uses

in th

e la

test

Vic

tori

an s

tyle

. Dry

farm

ing

was

stil

l com

mer

ical

far

min

g an

d st

illpr

oduc

ed w

heat

,al

beit

a va

riet

y m

ore

suite

d to

dri

er c

ondi

tions

.C

attle

ran

chin

gw

as p

rofi

t-or

ient

ed, a

nd in

fac

t did

not

dif

fer

so m

uch

from

that

prev

alen

t in

the

Eas

t sin

ce c

olon

ial t

imes

.Fu

rthe

rmor

e, it

was

the

railr

oad

that

mad

e ra

nchi

ng a

nd w

heat

crop

s po

ssib

le o

n th

epl

ains

, for

itof

fere

d ac

cess

to th

e m

eat p

acki

ng p

lant

s an

d gr

ain

elev

ator

s an

d th

ence

to E

aste

rn w

orke

rs'

mou

ths.

With

out a

mar

-ke

t, th

ere

was

no

prof

it in

far

min

g, a

nd r

ailr

oads

mad

e po

ssib

leth

at m

arkb

t.(E

ven

the

long

dri

ve w

as to

a ra

ilroa

d de

pot!

) W

heth

erth

e se

ttlem

ent o

f th

e tr

ans-

Mis

siss

ippi

Ves

tis

trea

ted

befo

re o

raf

ter

the

Civ

il V

/ar,

thes

e co

nsid

erat

ions

sho

uld

not b

e fo

rgot

ten.

-39-

Despite the rom

ance surrounding them, the cow

boy, miner,

and fur trader were capitalists or em

ployed by capitalists. The

cowboy w

as a low-paid hireling, w

ho acted as a link between the

range and the packing plant in the cattle industry.T

he important

person in the industry was his boss. T

he forty-niners and hissuccessors sought w

ealth in the fastest of all get- rich -quickschem

es, but few succeeded. T

he mountian m

an roamed the

moan:-

tains at a Jacksonian entrepreneur and notas a nature-loving w

ildm

an. The im

portant but unsung "heroes" were the ranchers w

ho.

owned the cattle and "spread, ", the m

ineow

ners, and the fur mer-

chants. Everyw

here was the land speculator.

In the end, it was

the farmer w

ho converted much of the land to

a more intensive ag-

ricultural use.A

ll hoped for profit; none preferred unremunerated

courage or romance.

Again the extension of the railroad m

ay be used to summ

arizethe econom

ic development of the U

nited States.R

ails linked thenation together into a com

mercial entity of specialized

areal pro-duction, so once m

ore an explanation of them

ap will present an

overall picture of the state of the nation. By 1890 the

rail map

closely resembles its m

odern day layout, andso also does the

basic economic production of the various regions of

the United

States.

In this unit we m

ay return to Indian-white relations in order

to study the culture of the Plains Indians and their subsequentcon-

tact with A

mericans. Supposedly, the A

mericans desired

Indianassim

ilation of white culture, and yet w

hen the Cherokees, for

ex-am

ple, imitated W

hite plantation life, the Southerners still de-m

anded their removal w

estward.

(In presenting the "trail of tear,"teachers m

ust recall that the logistics ofm

ass migration w

ererudim

entary at that tine.) In relation to thePlainsindians, the

teacher should show the interdependence of buffalo

herds, exten-sion of railroads, and reservation form

ation.Plains Indians,

could not be kept upon reservations until the buffalo herdsw

eredestroyed. M

ass extermination of the buffalo could not

occur untilrailroads advanced w

estward to cart out the hides

collected by thebuffalo hunters. W

ithout the buffalo, the Indiansw

ere not so en-ticed to leave the reserves.

Lastly, cattle ranchers and w

heatfarm

ers could enter the area with safety for

their possessions onlyafter the Indians w

ere placed upon the reservations.In any exam

-ple of Indian-W

hite contact, Am

ericansdem

anded segreation of theIndian upon reserve lands, w

hether the Indianattem

pted to live like

Whi

te m

en o

r re

mai

n "w

ild. "

The

fam

ous

Indi

an b

attle

s in

the

peri

od a

fter

the

Civ

il V

ar a

re th

e la

st o

f th

e ho

stile

con

flic

ts b

e-tw

een

Am

eric

ans

and

Red

Men

and

rep

rese

nt th

e en

d of

the

re-

mov

al p

roce

ss. T

he r

emov

al o

f th

e 18

30's

may

ther

efor

e se

rve

as a

n in

trod

uctio

n to

the

natu

re o

f ;n

inet

eent

h ce

ntur

y In

dian

-W

hite

rel

atio

ns in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es.

-41-

CO

NT

EN

T B

IBL

JOC

TR

APH

Y

Introdiittion: See Discipline Papter

on history for an expositionof underlying prem

ises. Fora cultural approach to com

muni-

ties, see Conrad M

. Arensberg, "t..m

ericanC

omm

unities,"A

merican A

nthropologist, 57 (1955), 1143-1162.

Unit I: G

ood background reading isa thorough grounding in culture

theory.For a bibliography on Indian tribes

see George P.

Murdock, E

thnographic Bibliography of N

orth Am

erica(3rd

ed., New

Haven, 1960).

Aztec Society: G

ood brief introductionsare:

Victor V

on Hagen, T

he Aztec:

k.,:ian and Tribe (N

ew Y

ork,paperback, 1958).

Jacques Soustelle, Daily L

ife of theA

ztecs; On the E

ve ofSpanish C

onquest (New

York, 1962).

Eric R

. Wolf, Sons of the Shaking E

arth (Chicago,

1959,paperback, 1962).

Alfonso C

aso, The A

ztecs: People of theSun (N

orman, 1958. )

John E. T

hompson, M

exico Before C

ortez;A

n Account of

the Daily L

ife, Religions, and Ilitual of

the Aztecs; and

Kindred Peoples (N

ew Y

ork, 1933).

George V

alliant, The A

ztecs of Mexico;

Origin, R

ise, andFall of A

ztec Nation,

rev. ed. (Garden C

ity, N. Y

.,

1962).

Sources are:B

ernardina de Sahagun, FlorentineC

odex, General H

istoryof the T

hings of New

Spain, ed.A

nderson and Dibble,

Monographs of T

he School of Am

ericanR

esearch, No.

14.B

ooks I-V, V

II-IX, and ;L

ai havebeen published in

English from

Aztec.

Bernal D

iaz del Castillo, D

iscoveryand C

onquest of Mex-

ico, several editions, includingpaperback.

-42-

Iroq

uois

Lea

gue:

Bri

ef I

ntro

duct

ions

are

:G

eorg

e P.

Mur

dock

, Our

Pri

miti

ve C

onte

mpo

rari

es (

New

Yor

k, 1

934)

, Cha

p. X

I.

Rut

h U

nder

hill,

Red

Man

's A

mer

ica

(Chi

cago

, 195

3), C

hap.

VI.

Fran

k G

. Spe

ck, T

he I

roqu

ois:

A S

tudy

in C

ultu

ral E

volu

-tio

n (B

loom

fiel

d H

ills,

Mic

higa

n, 1

955)

, 2nd

ed.

Will

iam

N. F

ento

n, P

robl

ems

Ari

sing

fro

m th

e H

isto

ric.

.N

orth

east

Pos

ition

of

the

Iroq

uois

, Sm

ithso

nian

Mis

c.C

olle

ctio

ns, N

o. 1

00 (

Was

hing

ton,

194

0).

Geo

rge

Snyd

ernm

an,'B

ehin

d th

e T

ree

of P

eace

: A S

ocio

-lo

gica

l Ana

lysi

s of

Iro

quoi

s V

.Tar

iare

;' B

ulle

tin o

f th

eSo

ciet

y fo

r Pe

nnsy

lvan

ia A

rcha

eolo

gy, X

VII

I (F

all,

1948

),N

os. 3

-4.

The

old

cla

ssic

is: H

enry

L. M

orga

n, L

eagu

e of

the

Ho-

de-

1-x

no-s

an-n

ee, o

n Ir

oquo

is (

Roc

hest

er, 1

851)

, rep

rint

ed in

seve

ral e

ditio

ns, i

nclu

ding

one

in p

aper

back

.

Plai

ns I

ndia

ns:

Und

erhi

ll, o

p. c

it.I

Cha

pter

VII

I.

The

cla

ssic

boo

k is

: Rob

ert H

. Low

ie, I

ndia

ns o

f th

e Pl

ains

(New

Yor

k, 1

954,

pap

erba

ck, 1

964)

.

Uni

t II:

On

Col

onia

l the

ory

and

prac

tice,

see

the

gene

ral a

nd e

co.:-

.no

mic

text

s in

Eur

opea

n hi

stor

y, a

s w

ell a

s ar

ticle

on

mer

can-

tilis

m in

Enc

yclo

pedi

a of

Soc

ial S

cien

ces.

On

com

para

tive

settl

emen

t: Ja

mes

G. L

eybu

rn, F

ront

ier

Folk

way

s (N

ew H

aven

,19

35),

to b

e us

ed w

ith c

autio

n fo

r ba

sed

upon

fro

ntie

r hy

poth

esis

.

New

Spa

in: T

he b

asic

gui

de to

Spa

nish

cul

ture

in th

e N

ew W

orld

is: C

harl

es G

ibso

n, S

pain

in A

mer

ica

(New

Yor

k, 1

966,

pap

er-

back

, 196

6).

Oth

er w

orks

of

inte

rest

are

:B

ailp

y V

I. D

iffi

e, L

atin

Am

eric

an C

ivili

zatio

n: C

olon

ial

Peri

od (

Har

risb

urg,

Pa.

,10

45).

-43--

Clarence H

. Haring;*.T

he,Spanish Em

pire in Am

erica (N. Y

.,

1947, paperback, 196AL

Classic w

ork on Encom

ienda is: George Sim

pson, The E

n-com

ienda in New

Spain: The B

eginning of Spanish Mex-

ico (Berkeley and L

os Angeles, 1950).

Also see Sim

p-son's w

ork on Indian administration in Ibero-A

mericana,

Nos. 7, 13, 16 (B

erkeley, California, 1934-1940).

Classic article on m

ission and presidio is: Herbert B

olton,"T

he Mission as a Frontier Institution in the Spanish

Am

erican Colonies, " A

merican H

istorical Review

, 23(1917).

The best specific study of Indian-W

hite relations for ourpurposes is *C

harles Gibson, T

he Aztecs U

nder SpanishR

ule: A H

istory of the Indians of the Valley of M

exico,1519-1810 (Stanford, 1964).

New

France:.

On Seigneury:

Marcel T

r Ude', T

he Seigneurial Regim

e, Canadian H

istori-cal A

ssociation Historical B

ooklet No. 6 (1956), is a

recent brief treatment.

'41-1

William

B. M

unro, The Seigneurial System

in Canada: A

Study in French Colonial Policy (C

ambridge, 1907) is

the classic.

Sigmund D

iamond, "A

n Experim

ent in 'Feudalism': French

Canada in the Seventeenth C

entury, " William

and Mary

Quzzterly (1961), 3-34.

On Fur T

rade:G

race Nute, T

he Voyageur (N

.Y., 1931; reprinted St. Paul,

1955).

Harold A

. limes, T

he Fur Trade in C

anada (New

Haven,

1930; paperback edition also available).

On M

issions:J. H

. Kennedy, Jesuit and Savage in N

ew France (N

ewH

aven, 1950).

-44-

Uni

t III

: Eng

lish

Settl

emen

t of

Nor

th A

mer

ica

A r

ecen

t tex

t on

Col

onia

l Am

eric

an h

isto

ry is

Dav

idH

awke

, The

Col

onia

l Exp

erie

nce

(Ind

iana

polis

, 196

6).

An

inte

rest

ing

inte

rpre

tativ

e hi

stor

y of

this

per

iod

ispr

ovid

ed b

y C

lare

nce

Ver

Ste

eg, T

he F

orm

ativ

eY

ears

(New

Yor

k, 1

964)

. The

bes

t boo

kon

the

subj

ect o

f its

title

is W

alla

ce N

otes

tein

, The

Eng

lish

Peop

leon

the

Eve

of

Col

oniz

atio

n,1603-1630 (N. Y.

1954;

pape

rbac

k).

Vir

gini

a in

the

Col

onia

l Per

iod:

W. F

. Cra

ven,

The

Sou

ther

n C

olon

ies

in th

e Se

vent

eent

hC

entu

ry (

Bat

on R

ouge

, 194

9). S

tand

ard

wor

k.

Ric

hard

L. N

ewto

n, C

olon

ial V

irgi

nia

(Cha

pel H

ill, 1

960)

,2

vols

.

Jam

esto

wn

350t

h A

nniv

ersa

ry H

isto

rica

l Boo

klet

s, e

d.E

. G. S

wem

,(R

ichm

ond,

195

7), t

wen

ty-t

hree

inex

-pe

nsiv

e pa

mph

lets

on

vari

ous

aspe

cts

of s

even

teen

thce

ntur

y V

irgi

nian

his

tory

issu

ed to

cel

ebra

te 3

50th

anni

vers

ary

of f

ound

ing

of J

ames

tow

n.

Tho

mas

J.W

erte

niak

er, T

he O

ld S

outh

: The

Foun

ding

QD

of A

mer

ican

Civ

iliza

tion

(N. Y

. ,19

42; p

aper

back

).

Oth

er m

ore

spec

ializ

ed w

orks

upon

the

topi

cs o

f th

eir

title

s:L

ouis

B. W

righ

t, T

he C

olon

ial S

earc

h fo

ra

Sout

hern

Ede

n (U

nive

rsity

, Ala

.1953). On

initi

al s

ettle

rs'

perc

eptio

ns.

Ric

hard

H. S

hyro

ck, "

Bri

tish

Ver

sus

Ger

man

Tra

ditio

nsin

Col

onia

l Agr

icul

ture

, " M

issi

ssip

pi V

alle

y H

is-

tori

cal R

evie

w, 2

6 (1

939)

, 39-

54.

(Bob

bs-M

erri

llR

epri

nt).

On

why

Vir

gini

ans

rais

ed to

bacc

o.

Art

hur

P. M

iddl

eton

, Tob

acco

Coa

st: A

Mar

itim

e H

isto

ryof

Che

sape

ake

Bay

in th

e C

olon

ial E

ra (

New

port

New

s,V

a.19

53).

Lew

is C

. Gra

y, H

isto

ry o

f A

gric

ultu

re in

the

Sout

hern

Uni

ted

Stat

es to

186

0 (W

ashi

ngto

n, D

. C.

,19

33).

An

ency

clop

edia

of

deta

iled

info

rmat

ion

on it

s su

bjec

t.V

ol. o

ne c

over

s th

e co

loni

al p

erio

d.

1°1

-45-

Louis B

. VIright, First G

entlemen or V

irginia .(San Marie

on, California, 1940).

A. E

. Smith, C

olonists in Bondage: W

hite Servitude andC

onvict Labor, 1607-1776, (C

hapel Hill, 1947).

Good on indentured servants.

Clifford D

owdy, T

he Great Plantation: A

Profile ofB

erkeley Hundred and Plantation V

irginia fromJam

estown to A

ppomatox (N

ew Y

ork, 1957). On

aspecific plantation.

Susie B. A

mes, Studies of the V

irginia Eastern Shore

in the Seventeenth Century (R

ichmond, V

a.,

1940).B

est work on land patterns and local history.

Further bibliography on eighteenth-century Virginia w

ill befound under titles listed for U

nit N.

Massachusetts in the C

olonial. Period:

On the founding of tow

ns:Sam

uel E. M

orison, The Story of the "O

ld Colony" of

New

Plymouth, 1620-1692 (N

. Y., 1956).

George D

. Langdon, Jr., A

history of New

Plymouth,

1620-1691 (New

Haven, 1966).

'Jarrett B. R

utman, W

inthrop's Boston: A

n InstitutionalPortrait of a Puritan T

own, 1630-1650 (C

hapelH

ill, 1965).

Chilton Pow

ell, Puritan Village: T

he Formation of a N

ewE

ngland Tow

n (Middletow

n, Conn.

,1963; Paperback,

1963).

William

Haller, T

he Puritan Frontier: Tow

n-Planning inN

ew E

ngland Developm

ent 1630-1660 New

York,

1951).

Other books on the topics of their titles:

Edm

und Morgan, Puritan D

ilemm

a: The Story of John

Winthrop (B

oston, 1958; paperback).

-46-

Geo

rge

P. D

ow, E

very

day

Lif

e in

the

Mas

sach

uset

ts B

ayC

olon

y (B

osto

n, 1

935)

.

Ola

Win

slow

, Mee

tingh

ouse

Hill

, 163

0-17

83 (

New

Yor

k,19

52).

Ber

nard

Bai

lyn,

New

Eng

land

Mer

chan

ts in

the

Seve

n-te

enth

Cen

tury

(C

ambr

idge

, Mas

s.,

1933

; pap

er-

back

).

Edm

und

Mor

gan,

Pur

itan

Fam

ily: R

elig

ion

and

Dom

estic

Rel

atio

ns in

Sev

ente

enth

-Cen

tury

New

Eng

land

(H

ar-

per

Tor

chbo

ok n

ew e

d., 1

966)

.

Ala

n Si

mps

on, P

urita

nism

in O

ld a

nd N

ew E

ngla

nd(C

hica

go, 1

955;

pap

erba

ck, 1

961)

.B

est b

rief

intr

o-du

ctio

n to

sub

ject

of

title

.

Furt

her

bibl

iogr

aphy

on

Col

onia

l Mas

sach

uset

ts is

list

-ed

und

er th

e ne

xt u

nit.

Uni

t IV

: Re'

volu

tiona

ry A

mer

ica

The

gen

eral

boo

ks li

sted

in p

rece

ding

uni

t are

als

ore

leva

nt h

ere.

r,D

Max

Sav

elle

, See

ds o

f L

iber

ty: t

he G

enes

is o

f th

e A

mer

i-ca

n M

ind

(New

Yor

k, 1

948;

pap

erba

ck).

Clin

ton

Ros

site

r, ,S

eedt

ime

of th

e R

epub

lic: t

he O

rigi

nof

the

Am

eric

an T

radi

tion

of P

oliti

cal L

iber

ty(N

ev/ Y

ork,

195

3; is

sued

in th

ree

sepe

rate

pap

er-

back

s).

Edm

und

Mor

gan,

The

Bir

th o

f th

e R

epub

lic, 1

763-

1789

(Chi

cago

, 195

6; p

aper

back

, 195

6),

Stow

Per

sons

, Am

eric

an M

inds

:1.

His

tory

of

Idea

s(N

ew Y

ork,

195

8). C

hapt

er s

even

is p

artic

ular

lyen

light

enin

g on

the

repu

blic

an m

ind

of th

e pe

riod

.

Cec

ilia

Ken

yon,

"K

epub

lican

ism

and

Rad

ical

ism

in th

eA

mer

ican

Rev

olut

ion:

An

Old

Fas

hion

ed I

nter

pre-

tatio

n, "

1.7

illia

m a

nd M

ary

Qua

rter

ly, X

IX (

Apr

il,19

62),

153

-82.

Robeit F. B

erkhofer, Jr.,

"Taxation and the C

ausesof the A

merican R

evolution, " Bulletin of the

Minnesota C

ouncil for the Social Studies (Winter,

1963), 40-44.

Books on specific topics:

Charles Sydnor, G

entlemen Freeholders: Political

Practices in Washington's V

irginia (Chapel. R

IM,

1952; paperback /published as Am

erican Revolu-

tionaries in the Makihr), C

onveys thepolitical

atmosphere of the period very nicely.

T. H

arry William

s, Am

ericans at War: T

he Develop-

ment of the A

merican M

ilitary System (R

ev. ed.,paperback, N

. Y.

,1962). Places the m

ilitary yearin perspective.

The best available studies of specific places in the

period have been written, by C

arl Bridenbaugh:

Myths and R

ealities: Societies of the Old South

Baton R

ouge, 1952; paperback, 1963).B

riefaccount of southern society on coast and in-land at the m

id-eighteenth century.

Cities in R

evolt: Urban L

ife in Am

erica, 1743-

1776 (New

York, 1955; paperback).

.Seat of Em

pire: The Political R

ole of Eighteenth

Century W

illiamsburg (W

illiamsburg, 1950;

paperback).

(With Jessica B

ridenbaugh), :rebels and Gentlem

en:Phi ladelphia in the A

ge of Franklin (New

York,

1942; paperback).

For other works on the frontier relevant here, see

the next unit.

Unit V

: National E

xpansion

For an overall interpretation of the westw

ard movem

entof A

merican civilization see tw

o articles by Robert F.

Berkhofer, Jr.. "T

rends Tnv.inrcl r M

PWF

rontier "

Bul

letin

of

the

Min

neso

ta C

ounc

il fo

rth

e So

cial

Stud

ies

(Win

ter,

196

3), 2

-11;

"Sp

ace,

Tim

e,C

ultu

re-a

nd th

e N

ew F

ront

ier,

"L

.gri

cultu

ral

His

tory

, XX

XV

III

(Jan

uary

,19

60, 2

1-30

.

On

Inte

rnal

14.

iiigr

atio

n:

Ric

hard

L. P

ower

, Pla

ntin

g C

orn

Bel

tCul

ture

: The

Impr

ess

of th

e U

plan

d So

uthe

rner

and

Yan

kee

inth

e O

ld N

orth

wes

t (In

dian

apol

is,

1953

).E

xcel

lent

on it

s su

bjec

t but

bew

are

of it

s pe

culia

r m

oral

judg

men

ts.

Fran

k L

. Ow

sley

, "T

he P

atte

rn o

fM

igra

tion

and

Settl

emen

t on

the

Sout

hern

Fro

ntie

r, "

Jour

nal

of S

outh

ern

His

tory

, XI

(May

,19

45),

147

-176

.

Eve

rett

Dic

k, T

he D

ixie

Fro

ntie

r(N

ew Y

ork,

194

8;pa

perb

ack)

.

For

life

in O

ld S

outh

, Wes

t and

Old

Nor

thw

est i

nad

ditio

n to

abo

ve:

Lou

is B

. Wri

ght,

Cul

ture

on

a M

ovin

gFr

ontie

r(B

loom

ingt

on, 1

955;

pap

erba

ck, 1

961)

.

R. C

arly

le B

uley

, The

Old

Nor

thw

est

Pion

eer

Peri

od,

1815

-184

0 (I

ndia

napo

lis, 1

950)

, 2 v

ols.

Tho

mas

P. A

bern

ethy

, Fro

m F

ront

ier

to P

lant

atio

nin

Ten

ness

ee: A

Stu

dy in

Fro

ntie

rD

emoc

racy

(Cha

pel H

ill, 1

932)

.

Paul

W. G

ates

, The

Far

mer

's A

ge:

Agr

icul

ture

, 181

5-18

60 (

New

Yor

k, 1

960)

.

A g

ood

book

on

pion

eer

life

in a

fore

sted

env

iron

men

tis

J. E

. Wri

ght a

nd D

oris

S.

Cor

bett,

P f

.one

erL

ife

in W

este

rn P

enns

ylva

nia

(Pitt

sbur

gh, 1

940)

.

On

the

mea

ning

and

impl

icat

ions

of

the

subj

ect i

n its

title

, the

bes

t boo

k on

the

subj

ect i

sG

eorg

e R

.T

aylo

r, T

he T

rans

port

atio

n R

evol

utio

n,18

15-

1860

(N

ew Y

ork,

195

1).

-49-

Unit V

I: The C

ivil War and R

econstruction Era

Charles C

rowe has collected m

any of the currentview

s on this period of Am

erican history and addedvaluable introductions and good bibliographies inT

he Age of C

ivil War and R

econstruction, 1830-1900:A

Book of Interpretative E

ssays (Hom

ewood, Ill.

,1966).

The classic w

ork on plantation life is Ulrich B

.Phillips, L

ife and Labor in the O

ld South (Boston,

1929; paperback, 1966).Pro-southern and to

be especially watched on attitudes tow

ard theN

egro.

A standard w

ork on slavery as an institution isK

enneth M. Stam

pp, The Peculiar Institution:

Slavery in Ante-B

ellum South (N

ew Y

ork, 1956;paperback, 1964).

The analysis of slavery advanced in this unit is m

od-ified from

Stanley E1

s,Slavery: A

Problemin A

merican Institutional and Intellectual L

ife(C

hicago, 1959; paperback, 1963).

For a broader perspective on warfare, see again:

T. H

arry William

s, Am

ericans At V

iar; The D

evelop-m

ent of the Am

erican Military System

(Rev. ed.;

paperback, N.Y

., 1962).

There is no volum

e on Reconstruction w

ith the viewadopted here, but see John H

ope Franklin, Re-

construction After the C

ivil Tar (C

hicago, 1961;paperback, 1962), esp. bibliography; K

ennethStam

pp, Era of R

econstruction (New

York, 1965);

and C. V

ann Woodw

ard, Strange Care:-.r of :T

imC

row (R

ev. ed.N

ew Y

ork, 19Gt:.;

MO

:

Unit V

II: The C

ompletion of N

ational Expansion

Again see m

y article, "Space, Tim

e, Culture and

the New

Frontier, " cited at the beginning of Unit V

.

Lif

e in

the

Tra

ns-M

issi

ssip

pi Y

lres

t:

Eve

rtt D

ick,

Sod

-Hou

se F

ront

ier,

185

4-18

90(N

ew Y

ork,

193

7).

Ane

cdot

al b

ut s

till t

hebe

st s

ocia

l his

tory

ava

ilabl

e on

the

subj

ect.

Wal

ter

P. W

ebb,

The

Gre

at P

lain

s: A

Stu

dy in

Inst

itutio

ns a

nd E

nvir

onm

ent (

Bos

ton,

193

1;pa

perb

ack)

. Sta

ndar

d bu

t sho

uld

be c

orre

cted

by:

Fred

A. S

hann

on, "

An

App

rais

al o

f W

alte

r Pr

esco

ttW

ebb'

s T

he G

reat

Pla

ins

a St

udy

in I

nstit

utio

nsan

d E

nvir

onm

ent,"

Cri

tique

s of

Res

earc

h in

the

Soci

al S

cien

ces

(New

Yor

k, 1

040)

.

Fred

A. S

hann

on, T

he F

arm

er's

Las

t Fro

ntie

r, 1

860-

1897

(N

ew Y

ork,

194

5). H

as a

n ex

celle

nt b

iblio

-gr

aphy

on

subj

ects

of

cattl

e an

d fa

rmin

g in

dus-

trie

s, a

s w

ell a

s th

e be

st a

naly

sis

of th

ose

topi

cs.

Rod

man

.Pau

l, M

inin

g Fr

ontie

rs o

f th

e Fa

r W

est,

1848

- 18

80(N

ew Y

ork,

196

3). B

y fa

r th

e be

stbo

ok o

n its

topi

c.

Lew

is A

ther

ton,

The

Cat

tle K

ings

, (B

loom

ingt

on, I

nd.,

1961

). S

tres

ses

the

ranc

her

. as

entr

epre

neur

.

The

re is

no

wor

k th

at d

oes

for

the

post

-Civ

il W

artr

ansp

orta

tion

netw

ork

wha

t Geo

rge

Tay

lor'

sdi

d fo

r th

e pe

riod

bef

ore

1360

.

On

Indi

ans:

Will

iam

T. H

agan

, Am

eric

an I

ndia

ns (

Chi

cago

,19

61; p

aper

back

, 196

2). B

rief

gen

eral

his

tory

.

Rob

ert F

. Ber

khof

er, J

r., S

alva

tion

and

the

Sava

ge:

Prot

esta

rt M

issi

ons

and

Am

eric

an I

ndia

n R

espo

nse,

1787

-186

2 (L

exin

gton

, 196

4).

Prov

ides

an

anal

y-tic

al f

ram

ewor

k be

yond

the

scop

e of

its

title

.

Mar

ion

Star

key,

. The

Che

roke

e N

atio

n (N

ew Y

ork,

1946

). P

opul

ar b

ut g

ood

hist

ory

of th

at tr

ibe

at ti

me

of r

emov

al.

-51-

Robert H

. Low

ie, Indians of the Plains (New

York, 1954; paperback, 1964).

Classic be-

ginning reference on those tribes.

Ruth U

nderhill, Red M

an's Am

erica (Chicago,

1953), Chap. V

I contains general information

on Plains Tribes also.

There is no recom

mended w

ork on Plains Indian.-W

hite relations, but see James C

. Malin,

"Indian Policy and Westw

ard Expansion,"

University of K

ansas Bulletin 11 (1921).

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