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DOCUMENT RESUME ED 044 307 SE 010 169 AUTHOR Mackenthun, Kenneth M. TITLE Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Water, An Annotated Selected Bibliography of Their Biological Effects. INSTITUTION Public Health Service (DREW), Cincinnati, Ohio. Div. of Water Supply and Pollution Control. PUB DATE 1 May 65 NOTE 140p. AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent cf Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Public Health Service Pub. 1305, $0.65) EDRS PRICE DESCRIPTORS EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRS. *Annotated Bibliographies, *Biology, Ecology, *Environment, *Pollution, *Water Pollution Control ABSTRACT Included in this bibliography are annotations of quantitative date on the content or concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in plants and animals, the contribution to water of these elements from various sources (soil, fertilizers, excretion, sewage, precipitation, urban run-off), and the effect their presence has on aquatic standing crops and production rates of plankton, fish, higher aquatic plants and bottom organisms. Freshwater investigations predominate, but some marine studies are included. ?here is an author index and a cross-referenced table of contents to the 181 selected citations of journal articles, research reports, and looks published between 1922 and 1965. Some annotations contain citations of other documents not annotated in this bibliography. (AL)

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 044 307 SE 010 169

AUTHOR Mackenthun, Kenneth M.TITLE Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Water, An Annotated

Selected Bibliography of Their Biological Effects.INSTITUTION Public Health Service (DREW), Cincinnati, Ohio. Div.

of Water Supply and Pollution Control.PUB DATE 1 May 65NOTE 140p.AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent cf Documents, U.S. Government

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (PublicHealth Service Pub. 1305, $0.65)

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRS.*Annotated Bibliographies, *Biology, Ecology,*Environment, *Pollution, *Water Pollution Control

ABSTRACTIncluded in this bibliography are annotations of

quantitative date on the content or concentration of nitrogen andphosphorus in plants and animals, the contribution to water of theseelements from various sources (soil, fertilizers, excretion, sewage,precipitation, urban run-off), and the effect their presence has onaquatic standing crops and production rates of plankton, fish, higheraquatic plants and bottom organisms. Freshwater investigationspredominate, but some marine studies are included. ?here is an authorindex and a cross-referenced table of contents to the 181 selectedcitations of journal articles, research reports, and looks publishedbetween 1922 and 1965. Some annotations contain citations of otherdocuments not annotated in this bibliography. (AL)

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Nitrogen andPhosphorus

in WaterAn Annotated Selected Bibliographyof Their Biological Effects

bYKENNEI !I M. M4cKENinurr, BiologistTeohnical Advisory and Investigations SectionTechnical Services BranchDivision of Water Supply and Pollution ControlRobert A. Taft Sanitary Engineeting CenterCincinnati, Ohio

U.S, DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Public Health ServiceDivition of Water Supply and Pollution Control

1965

rat soh tifperietreakei Donnseeto. Coovirtett Minty Oiksresiaatta. D.C.. . nine $t ewe

Foreword

Nov, as during no other time in history, public attention is beingfocused more acutely on the water enrichment problem and attendantnuisance biological growths. Because the developing megalopolisand the expanding industry arc pouring nutrients into the nation'swaterways at an alarming rate, algal and aquatic weed nuisances haveincreased in areas where before they did not exist and have magnifiedin areas where before their growth was tolerable. rho public is de-manding that remedial measures be taken to make public watersbacteriologically safe and aesthetically pleasing fo: multiple recre-ational use.

This book is written for persons faced with recognizing criticalnutrient concentration values for algal development and with predict-ing the "ffects of nutrient loadings on aquatic life.

GORDON E. lkfcCALLuar,Assistant Surgeon General,

Chief, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control

III

Preface

For a great many years, man has been aware of the natural aging oflakes, a slow process immeasurable a ithin the normal span of humanlife. Within the past quarter-century, however, the literature hasdocumented the awareness and concern for that portion of eutrophica-tion that is attributable to man - associated pollution. Biologicalnuisances including dense algal and aquatic weed growths have oc-curred in waters which in the past have supported only incidentalpopulations of these plants. Plant gnwths in other waters have be-come increasingly more dense within a period of a few years. Thepublic has become alarmed and has sought technical and sometimeslegal and legislative help in rectifying local problems.

Excessive nutrients are most often blamed for the creation of plantnuisances. Among the nutrients, dominant roles have been assignedto nitrogen and phosphorus. These elements occur in natural waters,in soils, in plants and animals, and in precipitation. They are oftenadded to water in large quantities in both domestic and industrialwastes. Wastes and fertilizers applied to land often enter water-courses and ultimately enrich those standing bodies of water whosenatural plsical and chemical properties encourage algal and aquaticweed development. Such growths in turn often interfere with recrea-tion and other intended uses of water.

Yncestigation and research have been directed toward a solution oflocalized problems of accelerated eutrophication. Research and in-vestigation will be intensified and expanded in future years. All levelsof government have become vitally interested. To meet the growingneeds of an expanding population, radical solutions must be found forthe problem that threatens recreational and many other uses of water.

This book compiles a selected bibliography of literature with annota-tions specifically directed toward nitrogen and phosphorus and theramifications of these and closely associated elements in the aquaticenvironment. Related intimately to the aquatic environment is thesoil environment, the nutrients deposited thereon, and the atmosphere.These have not been neglected. Freshwater investigations have re-ceived preferential treatment but marine inmtigations and researchhare been considered as such may relate or furnish clues to the solutionof problems in freshwater.

This book was compiled for the engineer and the scientist who arefaced with predicting limnological changes resulting from nutrientloadings to standing bodies of water, with recognizing critical con-centration values for algal development, and with predicting theeffects of fertilizers on aquatic life. Information is given on expectedcontribiztions from various nutrient sources, aquatic standing cropsand production rates, and the nitrogen and phosphorus content orconcentration in plants and animals. This compilation is a beginning,not an end. It will be supplemented as additional data are amassed.

Cincinnati, OhioMay 1,1065

SUBJECT INDEX

ALGAE:Biochemical Oxygen Demand of:

Page

Lackey, 1958 49Mackenthun et al., 1084 64

Bloom, Definition of:Anov., 1949 10Lackoy, 1945, 1949.. 49

Chlorophyll, Chemical Content:Anderson, 1981 3

Crude Protein in:Phinney and Peek, 1961 80

Nitrogen and Phosphorus in:Bbge and Juday, 1922 15()erica and Skoog, 1054 30Phinney and Peek, 1961. 80Redfield et al., 1963 88Schuette and Alder, 1929b 97

Effects of:Beneficial:

Lackey, 1958 40Harmful:

Bennett, 1962 13

Lackey, 1958 49Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

Iron and Manganese in:Oerloff and Skoog, 1957a 31

Limiting Factors:Allen, 1955 7Chu, 1942, 1943... 19Oerloft and Skocg, 1957 31

Harvey, 1960 34Hutchinson, 1947 41Moore, 1058 72Muller, 1953... 73Noss, 1949 73Prescott, 190 82Pr.^.: &soli, 1961 83Sawyer, 1947, 1952, 1954 04, 95Whitford and Phillips, 1959 110

vii

A LOA E-- ContinuedKinds of

Anabatna: pareDirge and Juday, 1922 16

Dugdale and Dugdate, 1962 26Dugda le at al., 1964 26Goering and Neess, 1034 32Prescott, 1960 82

Aphathomenen:Pbinney and Peek, 1061- 80Prescott, 1960 82Sawyer and Ferullo, 1961 96

Botryococtua brauntii:McKee, 1962 67

Ceralium:Lackey, 1045 49

Schuette and Alder, 1929b 97Morella:

Allen, 1055 7

Cook, 1062 20Lackey, 1945 49McKee, I962 67

aadophora:Dirge and Juday, 1922 15

Prescott, 1960 82ltficradinum:

Lackey, 1958 49Afferocralio aeruginosa:

Dirge and Juday, 1922 15

Cler loff and Skoo3, 1954 30Goering and Neess, 1064 32Prescott, 1960 82

NI Wolk doderiven:McKee, 1962 67

Owl I:Writ]:Mackenthun et al., 1960 67

Osci /Mork rubtatv :Anderson, 1961 8Hasler, ',947 35McKee, 1962 67

Panderinu mentrn:Lackey, 1946

ALOAEContinuedKinds ofContinued

Phaeodadylum: PailHarvey, 19b0 34

Rhirodonium:Mackenthun et sl., 1960 67

Scinedamus:Allen, 1955 7

Cock, 1962 20Spiro

Prescott, 1960 82Sageodonium:

Mackenthun et al., 1960. 57Synethoccetua ceerorum:

McKee, 1962 67

Trichockstnium:Dugdale et al., 1964 28

Ulna:Lackey, 1958

rolooz:49

Birge and Juday, 1922 15

Nutrient Values 1...;Kciired for Mows:Oerloff and Skoog, 1954, 1957a 30, 31Prescott, 1960 82S&wyer, 1947, 1952, 1954 94, 95Sylvester, 1081 98

Oxidation Ponds, Algae in:Allen, 1955 7

Mackenthun, 1962 52Porges and Mackenthun, 1983 80Parker, 1962 79

Production:Allen, 1955 7Birge and Juday, 1922 16

Oerloff and Skoog, 1957 31

dotage, 1954 82Lekkoy, 1958 49Mackentbun et al., 1960 57

Parker, 1082. 79

Vitamins required:Burkholder and Biukholder, 1958 17

Cook, 1952 20(Willard and Cassie, 1983 83Mantel and Spaeth, 1962 88

Fromm% 1981, 1903. 83

kit

ANIMALS:Cyclops: Page

Dirge and Juday, 1922 15Glyplotendipes paripea:

Provost, 1958 84Chironomus ten tans:

Birge and Juday, 1922 15Daphnia pulez:

Birge and Juday, 1922 15CHEMISTRY:

Carbon-Nitrogen ratios:Provasoli, 1963 83

IIypolimnetic Oxygen Deficit:Anderson, 1961

Iron-Manganese:Oetloff and Skoog, 1957a 31

Oxygen-Nutrients:Millar, 1055 70Tucker, 1957a 102

Phosphate, Definition of Terms:Benoit, 195b 14

PhosphorusIron:Hasler and Tinsel°, 1948 36Tanner, 1960 10itTucker, 1957a 102

Phosphorus Arsenic:Macktnth en, unpublished 53

Phosphorus, Utilization by Algae:Krauss, 1958 47Rice, 1953 87

EUTRONIICATION:Cause:

Ohio, 1953 77Definition:

Hasler, 1947 35History:

Hasler, 1947 35Rate:

Hasler and &nolo, 1948 38Tanner, 1%0 101

FERTILIZATION, ARTIFICIAL:Elects on:

Algae:Ball, 1950 12B411 and Tanner, 1951 13Hooper and Bill, 1964 39

FERTILIZATION, ARTIFICIAL- -ContinuedEffects onContinued

Bottom Organisms: Page

Ball, 1949 12

Mc Int' and Bcnd, 1962 66

Fish Production:Andrews, 1947 8

Ball, 1949 12

Ball and 'Panne:, 1951 13

111,s:1-matt, 1962 13

Borgstrom, 1961 16

Odum, 1959 74

Swingle and Smith, 1939 98

Hypolimnetic Oxygen:Tanner, 1960 101

Plankton:Ball, 1949 12

Mektire and Bond, 1962 66

Thermocline:Tanner, 1960 101

Total Alkalinity:Tanner, 1960 101

Winterkill:Ball, 1950 12

Ball and Tanner, 1951 13

Rate of Application to Land:Andrews, 1947 8

Anon., 1964a 11

Donahue, 1961 23

Ignatielf and Page, 1958 42

Lackey and Sawyer, 1945 50

Mikkelsen et al., 1962 69

Millar, 1955 70

Rate of Application to Water:Andrews, 1947 8

Ball, 1949, 1950 12

Ball and Tanner, 1951 13

Hasler and Einsele, 1948 36

Hooper and Ball, 1964 39

Tanner, 1960 101

FERTILIZATION BY DUCKS:Lackey, 1958 49

Paloumpis and Starrett, 1960 79

Sanderson, 1953 93

Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

xl

LAKES:Douglas Lake, Michigan: Page

Tucker, 1957, 1957a 102Lake Erie:

Burkholder, 1929_ 17Chandler and Weeks, 1946 18Curl, 1959 21

Green Lake, Washington:Sylvester, 1961 98Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

Green Lake, Wisconsin:Rickett, 1924

Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon:Phinney and Peek, 1961 80

Lake Mendota, Wisconsin:Anon., 1949_ 10Birge and Juday, 1922 15Domogalla et al., 1925, 1926a 23Schuette, 1918 97

Lake Michigan:Domogalla et al., 1926a 23

Lake Superior:Putnam and Olson, 1959, 1960 85

Lake Tahoe, California-Nevada:Ludwig et al., 1964 52

Lake Washington, Washington:Anderson, 1961 8

Lake Zoar, Connecticut:Benoit and Curry, 1961 14Curry and Wilson, 1955 21

MIDGES:Cause and Control:

Provost, 1958 84NITRATE POISONING:

Livestock:Tucker et al., 1961 103Winks et al., 1950 110

Methemoglobinemia:Anon., 1950 11Bosch et al., 1960 16Campbell, 1952 18Com ly, 1945 20Sattelmacher, 1962 93Walton, 1951 108

xil

NITROGEN FIXATION BY ALGAE: Pape

Dugdale end Dugdale, 1962, 1965 25, 26Dugdale and Neess, 1961 26Dugdale et al., 1964 '25

Goering and Neess, 1964 32Krauss, 1958 47McKee, 1962 87Sawyer and Ferullo, 1961 98

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS:Content of or Concentration in:

Agricultural Drainage:Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1961 28Sawyer, 1947 94

Basic Sources:Mackenthun et al., 1964 54

Benthos:Birge and Juday, 1922 15

Vdlentyne, 1952 106Crops:

Ignatieff and Page, 1958 42Culture Solutions:

Douglas, 1959 25Fi -gzerald, 1965_ 29Get ,ff et al., 1950 30Sauuby, 1953 93

Fishes:Beard, 1926 13Borgstrom, 1961 16Love et al., 1959 51McGauhey et al., 1963 59Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

Forest Streams:Sylvester, 1961 98

Ground Water:Juday and Birge, 1931 44

Irrigation Returns:Sylvester, 1961 98Sylvester and Seabloom, 1963 100

Lakes:Anderson, 1961 8Benoit, 1955 14Benoit and Curry, 1961 14Burkholder, 1929 17Chandler and Weeks, 1945 18Curl, 1959 21Curry and Wilson, 1955 21

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUSContinuedContent of or Concentration in--Continued

LakesContinued PageDomogalla and Fred, 1926 22Domogalla et al., 1925, 1926a 23Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959 27Hutchinson, 1957 41Juday and Bitge, 1931 44Juday et al., 1927 44Moyle, 1956 72Putnam and Olson, 1959, 1960 85Rig ler, 1964 90Sawyer, 1947 94Sawyer et al., 1945 96Sylvester, 1961 98Tucker, 1957 102Whipple et al., 1948 110

Land Drainage:Abbott, 1957 7

Anon., 1949, 1964b 10, 11Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959 27Mackenthun et al., 1964 54

Manures:Andrews, 1947 8Anon., 1964 11

Donahue, 1961 23Ignatieff and Page, 1958 42Millar, 1955 70Rodale, 1960 90VanVuran, 1948 106

Oceans:Ryther, 1963 92

Plankton:Birge and Juday, 1922 15Harris and Riley, 1956.. 33Schuette, 1918 97Vaccaro, 1964 105

Plants, Algae:Ger loff and Skoog, 1954 30Kevern and Ball, 1965 45Phinney and Peek, 1961 80Prescott, 1960 82Schuette and Alder, 1929b 97

xiv

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUSContinuedContent of or Concentration inContinued

Plants, Other:Harper and Daniel, 1939Ignatieff and Page, 1958Millar, 1955Rodale, 1960Schuette and Alder, 1928, 1929aVanVuran, 1948

Pollens:McGauhey et al., 1963

Precipitation:Chalupa, 1960Hutchinson, 1957Matheson, 1951McKee, 1962Meyer and Pampfer, 1959Miller, 1961Moore, 1958Putnam and Olson, 1960_Tamm, 1951, 1953Voigt, 1960

Sawdust:Donahue, 1961

Sediments, Benthic:Holden, 1961Juday et al., 1941Mackenthun At al., 1964McGauhey et al., 1963Sylvester and Anderson, 1964

Sewage:Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959McGauhey et al., 1963Owen, 1953Parker, 1962Rudolfs, 1947Sawyer, 1947, 1952Stumm and Morgan, 1962VanVuran, 1948

Sewage Effluents:Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959Mackenthun et al., 1960, 1964Rudolfs, 1947

Sewage Sludge:Rodale, 1960

Page

3342709097

106

59

18

6769717285

106, .01107

23

3945545999

27597879929498

106

2754, 57

92

90

XV

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS ContinuedContent of or Concentration in---Continued

Soils: Pap

Deevey, 1940 22Donahue, 1961 23Juday and Birge, 1931 41Mikkelsen et al., 1962 69Millar, 1955 70Ryther, 1963 92Walton, 1951 108

Stabilization Ponds:Porges and Mackenthun, 1963 80

Streams:Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959 27Mackenthun, 1962_ 52Mackenthun at al., 1960 57Putnam and Olson, 1959, 1960 85

Street Drains:Sylvester, 1961 98

Terms, Definition:Benoit, 1955 14Odum, 1959 74

Tree Leaves:Donahue, 1961 23Ergelbrecht and Morgan, 1959 27

Urha:J. Runoff:Weibel at al., 1964 109

Critical Growth Values:Gerloff and Skoog, 1954 30Moore, 1958 72Muller, 1953 73Sawyer, 1947, 1952, 1954 94, 95Sylvester, 1961 98

Cycle in Lakes, Phosphorus:Hutchinson, 1957 41

Effects on Fish Production:Moyle, 1956 72

Excretion by Organisms:Johannes, 1964a, 1964b, 1964c_ 43, 44Kuenzler, 1961 48Millar, 1955_ 70Pomeroy at al., 1963 80Provasoli, 1963 83

Law of Minimum:Millar, 1955 70Redfield at al., 1963_ 86

xvi

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUSContinuedLoading to Lakes: Page

Anderson, 1961 8Anon., 1949 10

Benoit and Curry, 1961 14

Curl, 1959 21Hasler, 1947 35Lackey and Sawyer, 1945 50Imdwig et al., 1964 52Ma ;kenthun, 1962 52Sawyer, 1947 94Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

Losses from Soils:Andrews, 1947 8Fippin, 1945 29

Production in United Statos:Ignatieff and Page, 1958 42McVicker et al., 1963 68

Retention in Lakes:Hasler, 1947 35Ludwig et al., 1964 52Mackenthun, 1962 52Sawyer, 1947 94Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99

Released from Bottom Sediments:Hasler, 1957 35Hayes at al., 1952 37Holden, 1961_ 39Hooper and Elliott, 1953 40MacPherson et al., 1958 58Neess, 1949 73Oh le, 1953 77Sylvester and Anderson, 1964 99Wurtz, 1962 111Zicker et al., 1956 111

Released from Decomposing Plankton:Grill and Richards, 1964 32Provasoli, 1963 83

Released from Hypolimnion:Hayes and Beckett, 1956 36

Removal from Sewage:Curry and Wilson, 1955 21Hasler and Einsele, 1948 36Lea, Rohlich and Katz, 1954 50Malhotra at al., 1964 58McGauhey et al., 1963. 59

171-096-45-2 XVii

I

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUSContinuedRemoval from Sewage Continued Page

Neil, 1957 74Oh le, 1953 77Owen, 1953 78Rohlich, 1961 91Sawyer, 1952 94VanVuran, 1948 105

Removal in Stabilization Ponds:Forges and Mackenthun, 1963 80Stumm and Morgan, 1062 98

Turnover Rate and Time:Hayes et al., 1952 37Odum, 1959__ 74Rig ler, 1956 89Zilversmit et el 1943 111

'1tion by Plankton:Abbott, 1957 7Chu, 1942, 1943 19Dugdale and Dugdale, 1965_ 26Flaigg and Reid, 1954 29Harvey, 1960 34Hoagland, 1944 38Hoffman and Olive, 1961 38Kratz and Myers, 1955 47Krauss, 1958 47McKee, 1962 67Overbeck, 1961 78Pratt, 1950 81Provasoli and Pintner, 1960 84Redfield et al., 1963 86Rice, 1953 87Rigler, 1956 89Webster, 1959 109

ORGANISM STANDING CROPS:Bottom Organisms:

Ludwig et al., 1964 52Mackenthun et al., 1964 54

Fish:Moyle, 1956 72

Higher Aquatic Plants:Low and Bellrose, 1944 51Rickett, 1922, 1924 88, 89

ORGANISM STANDING CROPSContinuedPlankton. Page

Anderson, 1981 8Birge and Juday, 1922 15

Gotaas, 1954 32Mackenthun et al., 1960 67

Prescott, 1960 82Redfield et al., 1963 86

PLANTS, HIGHER AQUATIC:Cada lia odorala:

Schuette and Alder, 1929 97Myriophytturn;

Birge and Juday, 1922 16

Najo-s flexilis:Schuette and Alder, 1929 97

Potamogeton:Schuette and Alder, 1928. 97

Potamogeton amen:maw:Low and Bellrose, 1944 61

Vallisneria:Schuette and Alder, 1928 97

PRODUCTION:Macrophytes:

Knight and Ball, 1962 48Odum, 1959 74

Ryther, J;)(33 92

VanV,..tran, 1948 106

Periphy',on:Knight and Ball, 1962 46

Ehytoplankton:Knight and Ball, 1962 46

Krauss, 1958 47Parker, 1962 79Stumm and Morgan, 1962 98

Primary:Ludwig et ai., 1964 52Odum, 1959 74

Ryther, 1963 92

xix

Author Index

Abbott, W 1957*Meney, W. E 1908 (See Lackey, 1958)Alder, H 1928, 1029a, 1929bAl Kholy, A. A 1950 (See Krauss, 1958)Allee, W. C 1949 (See Moore, 1958)Allen, M. B 1952 (See McKee, 1962; See Fitzgerald,

1965),1955*Annul, M. 0 1957 (See Odurn, 1959)Alway, F. J_.. 1930 (See Donahue, 1901)Anderson, G. C 1961*, 1964Anderson, R. J 1964Andrews, W. B_. 1947*Anon 1949*, 1950% 1964*, 1964a*, 1964b*Ashton, F. M 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Atkins, W. R. G 1923 and 1925 (See Prescott, 1960)Ball, R. C 1949* (Also see bfackenthun et al., 1964),

1950*, 1951*, 1962, 196,.., 1965:lames, 0. K_ 1942 (See Odum, 1959)Bartsch, A. F 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Bay, 0. E 1957 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)Beard, H R 1926*Beckett, N. R 1956Bellrose, F. C., Jr 1944Bennett, G. 'W 1962*Benoit, R. J 1955*, 1961*Berger, I.C. C 1956Berry, L. J 1961Isineau, A 1856 (Sle McKee, 1962)Birge, E. A 1922*, 1927, 1931 (See Benoit, 1955), 1931,

1934 (See Provasoli, 1963), 1941Bond, C. E 1962Borgstrom, G 1961*Bosch, H. M 1950*Boury, M 1936 (See Borgstrom, 1961)Brehmer, M. L 1960 (See Knight and Ball 1962)

*Sole or Senior Author.

XX

Brenson, J. C 1962 (See McGauhey et al., 1963)Bridger, 0. I. 1963Brodie, H. W 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Bumpus, D. H 1949 (See Moore, 1958)Burkholder, L. M 1956Burkholder, P 1929*Burkholder, P R 1956*Burlew, J. S 1953 (See Fitzgerald, 1965)Burr, G. 0 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Bush, A. F 1954 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)Cameron, M. L 1952Campbell, J 1935 (See Borgstrom, 1961)Campbell, W. A. B 1952*Carter, R. C 1964Cassie, V 1963Chalupa, J_ 1960*Chandler, D. C 1945*Chandler, R. F., Jr 1941, 1943 (See Donahue, 1931)Chu, S. P 1942* (Also see McKee, 1962), 1943*Coleman, R. E 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Comly, H. H 1945* (Also see Walton, 1951)Cook, B. B 1962*Cooper, L. H. N 1941 (See Hooper and Elliott, 1953; Also

see Mackenthun 4 al., 1964)Cooper, R C 1962 (See McGauhey et al., 1963)Cordy, D R 1961Corlett, J 1957 (See Knight and Ball, 1962)Cramer, M 1948Cree, H K 1962 (See hit.,Gauhey et at, 1963)Curl, H 1959*Curry, J. J 1955*, 1961Cutting, C. L 1943 (See Borgstrom, 1961), 1952 (See

Odum, 1959)Daniel, H. R 1939De, P. K 1956 (See Krauss, 1958)Deevey, E. S., Jr 1940*Dietz, J. C 1953 (See Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959)Dineen, C. F 1953 (See Mtv-lumthur- et al., 1964)Domogalla, B. P 1925*, 1926*, 1926a*Donahue, R. L 1961*Douglas, J. S 1959*Dugdale, R. C 1961*, 1962, 1964*, 1965Dugdale, V. A 1962*, 1965*

Solo or Senior Author.

Eck, P 1957 (See Mackenthun et al., 196;)Einsele, W. G 1938 (See Tanner, 1960), 1941 (See Me

Kee, 1962), 1948Eliassen, R 1963Elliott, A. M 1953 (Also see Mackenthun et al., 1964)Emerson, A. E 1949 (See Moore, 1958)Engelbrecht, R. S 1959*, 1961*Entenman, C 1943Fair, G. M 1948Ferullo, A. F 1981Fippin, E O_ 1945*Fishier, M. C 1943Fitzgerald, G. P 1950, 1952 (See Fitzgerald, 1965), 1961

(See McGauhey et al., 1963), 1965*Flaigg, N. G 1954*Fogg, G. E 1951 (See Krauss, 1958), 1952 (See Pro-

vasoli, 1963), 1951 (See McKee, 1962)Frazier, W. C___..___. 1940 (See Walton, 1951)Fred, E. B 1926, 1926aFuller, T. 0 1961GerloiT, G. C 1950*, 1952 (See Fitzgerald, 1965), 1954*,

1957*, 1957a*Glancy, J. B 1949 (See Lackey, 1958)Goering, J. J 1964* (2)Golneke, C. G 1962 (See McGauhey et ^l.,1963)Gorham, P. R 1958 (See Fitzgerald, 1965), 1961 (Sos

Fitzgerald, 1965)Gotaas, H. B 1954*Grill, E. V 1964*Grzenda, A. R 1960 (Serb Knight and Ball, 1962)Guillard, R. R. L 1963*Harmenson, R. H___ _ 1958 (See Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959)Harper, H. J 1939`Harris, E 1956* (Also see Vaccaro, 1946)Hartt, H. E 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Harvey, H. W 1926 (See Redfield et al. 1963), 1953 (See

Krauss, 1958), 1960'Harvey, W. A 1961Hasler, A. D.. 1917*, 1948*, 1956, 1957*Hausteen, B 1899 (See McKee, 1962)Hayes, F. R 1952*, 1956*, 1958Hayes, 0. E 1957 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)Helfrich, P 1957 (See Odum, 1959)Hickling, C. F 1948 (See Odum, 1959)

Sole or Sentor Author.

Hoagland, D. R 1914*Hoffman, D A 1961*Irogetsu, K 1954 (See Odum, 1959)Holden, A. V 1961*Hooper, F. F 1953' (Also see Mackenthun et all 1964),

1964'Hughes, E. 0 1958 (See Fitzgerald, 1965)Hut, '%inson, 0. E 1941 (See Benoit, 1955; Hooper and El-

liott., 1953), 1957*Ichimura, S 1954 (See Odum, 1959)Ignatieff, V 1958'Ingram, W. M 1964Jackson, M. L 1957 (See Nfackerthun et al., 1964)Johannes, R. E 19640, 1964b*, 1904o*Jones, N. R 1959Juday, C 1922, 1925, 1927*, 1931 (See Benoit, 1955),

1931', 1934 (See Prova''li, 1963), 1940(See Odurn, 1959), 1041*

Kamen, D 1948Katz, W. J 1954Kazmierczak, E 1904Kemmerer, 0. I 1927Ketchum, B. II 1939a, 1949 (See Redfield et al., 1063) (See

Harvey, MO; Rice, 1953), 1939b (SeeHarvey, 1960; Rice, 1053)1 1963

Kevern, N. R 1965'Knight, A 1962'Kohn, A. J 1957 (See Odum, 1059)Kortschak, IL I' 1957 (See (Mum, 1959)Krantz, 13. A 1961Krata, W. A 1955* (Also see Krauss, 1958)Krauss, R. 1V 1958*Kuenzler, E. J 1961*Kuhn, P. A 19'.5 (See .1fd they et 41.11963)Lackey, J. 13 1945, 1915* (Also see Anon., 1949), 1919'

(Also see Lackey, 1958), 1958*Lang, R 1912 (See Odum, 1959)Lea, W. L 1950 (S-...e Sawyer, 1952),1051'Lee, G. F 1064Lenz, R. T 1916 (Also see Mackenthun et al., 1964)Letts, E. A 1908 (See Lackey, 1958)Liebig, J 1849 (Sce Millar, 1955)I.ndernan, R. I. 1941 (See Odum, 1059)Livingstone, D. A 1952

Sole o 1!..mblor Author.

alit

Love, R. M 1959*Lovern, J. A 1959Low, J. B 1944*Ludwig, H. F 1063,1064*

Lueck, B. F.. 1056 (S.eMackenthun et al., 1964)Luesch ow, r,.A 1060

Lund, H. A 1948 (See Donahue, 1061)MacFarlane, C 1952 (See Odum, 1959)MacPherson, L. B________ 1958*Mackenthun, K. M MO,* 1961 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964),

1962,' Unpublished,* 1963, 1964*Iliaclareth, F. J 1953 (See Krauss, 1958)Malhotra, S. K 1964*Handal, L. N 1956 (See Krauss, 1958)Martin, 1V. E 1962Matheson, D. II 1951*Mathews, II. M 1903McCarter, J. A 1952McCa rter, J. R 1940 (See Walton, 1051)McDermott, J. II 1061 (See Porges and Mackentliun, 1963)lic43auhey, P.11 1963*McIntire, C. D.. 1062'McKee, 11. S 1902*McLachlan, J 1961 (See Fit zgerald, 1965)McNabb, C. D 1960 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)MoVicker, M 1963*Melodic., V. W 1941Menzel, D. W 1962*

'z, 1954 (See Donahue, 1961)Metzler, D. F 1958 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)Meyer, J 1948 (See McKee, 1962), 1959*Mikkelsen, D. S. 1962*M illar, C E 1955*Miller, M. D IMPMiller, R. 13 1961Min, II. S 1963Monday, C. A., Jr 1961 (See Porges and Mackenthun, 1963)Moors, a NI 1939 (See Hooper and Elliott, 1953)Moore, II. 13 1958*Morgan, J. J 1959, 1961, 1962Mortimer, C. II 1911 (See Tanner, 1960)Moyle, J. 13 1940 (Sec Mackenthun ct, a1.,1964), 1956',

1961 (See Mackenthun et al., 1964)Mulford, S. F 1951 (See Mackent'nun et al., 1964)

*Sole et Seater Attke.

Mill'er, W 1953*Myers, J 1955 (Also see Krauss, 1953)Needham, P. R 1958 (See Mackenthun et, al., 1964)Ned, J. K 1061 (See Purges and Maekenthun, 1963)Neess, J. C 1949*, 1961,1964Negelein, E 1920 (See McKee, 1002)Neil, J. IL___ 1957Nelson, L. B 1063Nesselson, E. 1954 (See MeGauhey et al., 1963)Odum, H. T 1957 (Also see Odum, 1959) (See Knight,

and Ball, 1902)1 1959Odum, E. P 1957 (SeeOdum,1959),1959*OhIe, W_.. 1953*Olive, J. R 1961Olson, T. A 1959,1960Oswald, W. J 1062 (See McOauhey et al., 1062)Overbeek, J 1961'Ovington, J. D 1956 (See Odum, 1959), 1957 (See Odum,

1959)Owen, R 1953 (Also see MeGauhey et al., 1963)Page, H. J 1958Paloumpia, A. A 1960*Pampfer, E 1059Park, 0 1949 (See Moore, 1958)Park, T 1049 (See Moore, 1958)Parker, C. D 1962* (Also see MeGarhey et al., 1903)Pearsall, W. 1956 (See Odum, 1059)Pearson, E. A 1963Peek, C. A 1961Penfound, W. T 1950 (Set Odum, 1950Peterson, W. 11 1925,1926aPhillips, R. C 1059Phinney, H. K 1961'Pintner, I. J 1960Pomeroy, L. R 1968Porges, R 1963*, 1904Pratt, D. M 1950*Prescott, W 1960*Provasoli, L 1960% 1961*, 1963*Provost, M. W 1958Putnam, II. D 1959*, 1900*Rawson, D. S 1952 (See Odum, 1959)Reay, G. A 1943 (See 13orgstrom,1961)Redfield, A. C 1963'

Sole of &slot dinar.

Reid, O. WRenn, C. ERice, T. RRichards, F. ARickett, II. W

Rigler, F. IIRiley, 0. A

Robinson, R. JRodale, J. IRohde, WRohlich, la A

Rosenfield, A. 13Rousenfell, O. ARudolfs, W

Ryther, J. ILSalisbury, R MSanderson, W. WSarles, W. 13Sattelmacher, P. 0Saunby, TSawyer, C. N

Schelske, C. I.Schmitt, K. PScott, R. IISchuette, II. AShewan, J. MShipman, II. RSilrey, J. K.Sinclair, N. RSkoog, F

Smalley, A. ESmith, E. VSolimorsl:qa-Rodins, A.

C.Spaeth, J. PSpiegelman,S

'Sole or Sealer Attlfret.

19541937 (See Hooper and Elliott11953)1953* (Also see Krauss, 1958)1963, 19641922' (Also see Knight and Ball, 1962),

1924* (Also see Knight and Ball, 1962)1056* (Also see Bigler, 1964), 1064'1949 (See Moore, 1958), 1951 (See Ryther,

1963), 1956 (Also see Vaccaro, 1064;Also see Odum, 1959), 1957 (See Knightand Ball, 1962; Also see Odum, 1W9)

19271960*1948 (See Moore,1058)1050 (See Sawyer, 1952), 1954, 1961* (See

McOauhey et al., 1963), 1963, 196419501946 (See Odum, 1959)1947* (Also see Sawyer, 1952; Also see En-

gelbrecht and Morgan, 1959)1060 (See Redfield et all 1963) 1963*, 196419501053*1940 (See Walton,1951)1062'1953*1944 (See Sawyer, 1952), 1945 (Also see

Anon., 1949), 1945*, 1947*, 1952*, 1954'1960 (See Knight and Ball, 1962)1949 (See Moore,1958)1956 (See Mackenthun et 01.11064)1918*11928*,10290, 192%*1943 (See I3orgst rom, 1961)19501953 (See Engelbrecht and Morgan, 1959)19581950, 1952 (See Fitzgerald, 1965), 1954,

1957,195711957 (See Odum, 1959)1039,1947 (See Odum,1959)1940 (see Hooper and Elliott, 1953)

19021948

Starrett, W. C 1060Steel, J. II 1957 (See Knight and Ball, 1962)Steeman, N. E 1951 (See Knight and Ball, 1962)Stevenson, W 1949 (Sec Hooper and Elliott, 1053)Stommel, I1 1910 (See Moore, 1058)Strickland, J. D. II 1960 (See Knight and Ball, 1262)Stumm, W 1962*Sutherland, A. K 1950Swingle, II. S 1939'11947 (See Odum, 1059)Sylvester, 11. 0 1961*, 1063", 1064'Takahashi, D 1957 (See Odum, 1059)Tamiya, Ii 1957 (See Odum, 1959), (See Knight and

Ball 1962)Tamm, C. 0 1951'91953*Tani moto, T 1957 (See Odiun, 1959)Tanner, 11. A 1951,1060'Tebo, L. 13 1955 (See Mackenthun et al.11064)Tucker, A 1957"119570Tucker, J. M 1960VP,earo, R. F 1964'Vallentyne, J. II 1052*Vanderborgh, G., Jr 1019 (See Lackey, 1958)Van Slyi- L 1932 (See Millar, 1955)VanVu! .r. P. J 1948'Verdui .1 1956 (See Odum, 1959)Viosca, I' 1935 (See Odum, 1959)Voigt, G. K. 1960'Walton, G 1951'Warburg, 0 1010 (See McKee, 1962)Watanabe, A 1951 and 1956 (See Krams, 1958)Wearer, J. IP, 1954 (Ste Odum, 1959)Webster, G. C 1959Weeks, 0. 13 1945Weibel, S.11 1964'Whipple, G. C 1948°Whipplt, M. C 1948Whitford, L. A 1959'Wielding, 1941 (See Krau&A, 1958)Wiley, A. J 1956 (See Ma4enthun et a1.,1964)Wilson, S. L 1955Winks, W. 11 1950*Wisniewski, T. P 1956 (See Mackenthun et a1.,1964)Wol ft, M 1954 (See McKee, 1962)Woodward, IL L 1950,1960

'Soh sr kAlst Astfor.

urn

Woytinsky, E. S 1953 (See Knight and Ball, 1962) (Alsosee Odum, 1959)

1Voytinsky, W. S 1953 (See Knight and Ball, 1962) (Alsosee Odum,1959)

Wuhrmann, IC 1962 (See Megauhey et al., 1963), 1963(See McGauhey et al., 1903)

Wurtz, A. Q 1962Zehnder, V. A 1958 (Sce Fitzgerald, 1965)'ticker, E. L 1956'Zilversmit, D. 13 1913*Zon, R 1930 (See Donahue, 1961)

Sole or Sealer Autbor.

Introduction

In the press, around the conference table, and in the courts, thought-ful and extensive attention has been directed to the excessive enriclment of water, especially the standing water in recreational lakes andponds. At no time in history except the present has the focus ofpublic attention on the water enrichment problem been more acute,or more demanding that remedial measures be taken to make the wateraesthetically pleasing for multiple recreational use. Such a publ'aoreaction results either from a greater awareness of a chronic situationthat has existed over extended time or from recently produced, dynam-ically acute, or rapidly accelerating biological nuisances. Althoughit is well documented that many lakes throughout the country havebeen fertile reservoirs for algal development for many years, it isalso equally obviotta Cott the developing megalopolis and the expai.d-ing industry are uouring nutrients into the nat;un's waterways at anaccelerating rate, and that aquatic weed growths and algal nuisanceshave increased in areas where before they did not exist and haremagnified in areas where before there ing a tolerable growth.

The scope of eutrophication or water enrichment is broad and theramifications are many. In this book consideration has been limitedPrincipally to the nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, and to the rolethat these elements play in lake aging. The process of lake aging hasbeen termed irreversible when measured by the clock of geologic time.When the refuse and rejectamenta of civilization are the principalaccelerators of the process, corrective action can slow the eutrophi-cation proceka, and perhaps temporarily revert it. Although theysometimes require great effort and expenditure of monies, localizednuisances may be abated. Even when nonnatural pollution may besubstantially removed from a watercourse, many years may be requiredto effect a "flushing out" from the lake of those nutrients that havebeen recycling with the biomass therein. It is usually safe to assumethat the lake will nerer again attain its crystal-clear, pristine appear-ance that has been to well imprinted on the minds and in the thoughtsof long-time local residents. Unfortunately, in most instances, his-toric, scientific evidence is not available with which to compare recentstudies on a water body. Hopefully, as good data are amassed, thiswill be corrected in the future,

1

To properly assess a nutrient problem, consideration should be givennil of those sources that may contribute nutrients to the watercourse.A partial list of these would include the nutrients in sewage, sewageeffluents, industrial wastes, land drainage, applied fertilizers, precipi-tation, urban runoff, soils, and that which may be releas?d from bottomsediments and front decomposing plankton. Nutrients contributed bytransient ducks, falling tree leaves, and ground water may be impor-tant additions to the nutrient budget. Flow measurements are para-mount in a study to quantitatively assess the respective amountscontributed by various sources during different seasons and at differentflow characteristics. In the receiving lake or stream the quantity ofnutrients contained by the standing crops of algae, aquatic vascularplants, fish, and other aquatic organisms are important considerations.A knowledge of those nutrients that are annually harvested throughShe fish catch, or that may be removed from the system through theemergence of insects will contribute to an understanding of the nutri-ent budget.

For comparative purposes it is valuable to know nutrient concen-trations that hays been found in vs rious lakes and streams, the loadingsto specific lakes under retying situations, and the retention in lakesand ponds. The interaction of specific chemical components in water,prescribed fertilizer application rates to land and to water, criticalnutrient values required for algal blooms, vitamins required, otherlimiting factors, and the intercellular nitrogen and phosphorus con-centrations are likewise :mportant. Usually, it is necessary to deter-mine that portion of the nutritive imput attributable to man-madeor man-induced pollution that may be corrected as opposed to thatimput that is natural in origin and, therefore, usually not. correctable.A nutrient budget is used to determine the annual imput to a system,the annual outflow, and that which is retained within the water massto recycle with the biomass or become combined with the solHifiedbottom sediments. Ca: Alations can bt t..ade to determine those nutri-ent, portions that are incorporated in the standing crops of the respec-tive biomass components within the system. Calculations can also bemade to determine the quantity of those nutrients that are in solutionwithin respective vertical strata of the system and to predict thosenutrient concentrations that will be immediately available for plantgrowth during the critical spring season. Retention time or "flush-out"time may also be calculated.

In this publication, recorded data have been presented on these andassociated topics. A few of these data have been tabulated in theaccompanying table. More could be added but the subject indexpresents an almost equally convenient method of comparing data andhas the added advantage of keeping it more meaningful and withinthe context of the abstract.

2

Nutrtent source

Treated domestic contribution to sewage

kariereicadact

percent cornunotTI peftat , can

bee trilistion diversd terminir.

Bed sitse (rammer tntstrourn)Bed sured riotsash

Nutrient Populalion Equivalents(Prom It sr-kennings et s1. IOU)

Basic referenceCoo traction Pcpolstioo equivalent (PE Per 1990

N p N

'Bush sad Mulford, 195413tettler et 12., 1900

11-121 (9 itsryr) 2-4 (1 lb/77)94 itPir 1.

Sanderson, 1953 1.1 ley, 0.9 (Wm 093W OAS 0.2.Psioum pis anti Stsrrett, 1900 1.0 ;WV 0.4$ itr'ir 0.11 to 0.17 0.19.Et et 11., 1957 SS 11:A iblA 41 to VA 6%.Eck it st, 1957 Ig1b'Ai1 0.41W 9.tto$.ofA 0.144A.Sylestet, WI 1.4-21.0 11k1ji. 4S-11.9 I 0.97 to I.A to1.1/)..H u Weave, 1951 11.4 INA 06 to S.Pity NI 1 7sidsy, 1922 1$ IVA LS lb/A I.? to 9.3/A C.S/A.'Rkt et' 1922b Nita, Ina $2 ItJA its/A

40 It.too IhionSA to A

to 3.3,ton1.1/A.1 Aioo

X0n1141 twee of domeetic Pews,. kr Cstifarnts torninotilties wu riven as 20 to 40 met Nand PO..05 Ttis concentration In treated tel was subtracted trots the coner,tration In sewsie to obtain domatic contrib.:1U As.

2

If it is assumed that phosphorus is the key element in lake enrich-ment and that 0.015 mg/1 soluble phosphorus at the beginning of theactive growing season will produce subsequent nuisance algal blooms,then dilution becomes a prime factor of consideration. Assume, then,that a treated domestic waste with a soluble phosphorus concentrationof 8.0 mg/1-P is discharged to a stream with a soluble phosphorusconcentration of 0.003 mg/1 soluble P. Since a lake is ultimatelyinfluenced by the nutrient concentrations in its inflowing wet._ the8.0 mg/1-P waste must receive greater than a 888: 1 dilution with0.006 nig/1-P water to be below the critical algal growth value.

Considered another way, the inorganic nitrogen (NII,N +NO,N -ENOIN) and soluble phosphorus concentration occurring duringthe period of early spring growth that are believed to cause algalnuisances are 0.8 and 0.04 pound, respectively, per acre-foot of lakewater. Thus, assuming a mean water depth of 15 feet, 12 pounds peracre of inorganic nitrogen and 0.6 pound per acre of soluble phos-phorus availab:e for organism utilization in early spring might beexpected to stimulate troublesome nuisances. The treated domesticcontribution in sewage lies between 2 to 3 pounds per capita per year.Assuming further that the soluble phosphorus within thb water bodycould be calculated at 0.006 mg/1-P, the amount within 15 acre-feet ofwater would be 0.24 pound. With this amount present, the per capitacontribution would be theoretically suffic'ent to fertilize? acres of waterto a depth of 15 feet sufficient to produce algal nuisances. It becomesimperative that quantities of nutrients, however small, must te keptfrom natural watercourses.

From the standpoint of nutrient removal, harvesting the aquaticcrops annually would be advantageous. The economics of presentmethods of harvesting and the scope of the problem, however, necessi-tate a critical appraisal of the benefits versus the co;t& The expectedstanding crop of algae approaches 2 tons per acre (r et weight). Suchwould contain only about 15 pounds of nitrogen and 1.5 pounds ofphosphorus. Submerged aquatic plants would be expected to ap-proach at least 7 tons per acre (wet weight) and contain 32 pounds ofnitrogen and 8.2 pounds of phosphorus per acre. Values may behigher under severe nuisance condition&

Bottom-dwelling bloodworms (midge larvae) might be expected tooccur in population densities of 800 pounds per acre (wet weight).If 6 percent of this population is annually lost as emerged insects out-side the lake basin, this removes only % pound per acre of nitrogen andpossibly %, as much phosphorus.

The nitrogen content of fish flesh is approximately 2.5 percent (wetweight) and the phosphorus content 0.2 percent. 'Thus, to remove40 pounds of fish would remove 1 pound of nitrogen, but 500 poundsof fish must be removed to harvest 1 pound of phosphorus.

4

Phosphortu occurs in rocks and soils primarily as calcium phos-Cas(PO4):. Since the phosphate rock is sparingly soluble,

leach ; brings into solution small amounts of rho phosphorus. Innatural waters the element exists as secondary calcium phosphate,Ca 11P0,, its form being determined by the pH of the water. TheIt concentration of phosphorus available from geologic sources isfurther reduced by biological systems, since the element is necessaryfor all life processes. Thus in waters remote from human influence,phosphorus exists in very low concentrations as the secondary phos-phate ion and as organic phosphorus incorporated into biomass. Sea-sonal changes in plant and animal production result in cyclicutilization and release of phosphorus to the water.

The discharge of domestic sewage increases the concentration ofphosphorus markedly. Organic phosphorus in the sewage and sim-ple and complex phosphates from synthetic detergents are the prin-cipal contributions. Decomposition of the organic, material, alongwith soluble phosphates, results in phosphorus concentrations farabove the acquirements for plant growth. Therefore, in most pol-luted waters, soluble phosphorus is abundant. This readily availableform often furnishes a food supply for nuisance biological growths.

Nitrogen comes into solution in water as Vie result of nitrogen fixa-tion from the air, ammonia from rain-out, organic nitrogen fromdecomposing platts and animals, ,mad land drainage. In water solu-tion the element exists ss organic nitrogen, ammonium ion, nitriteion, and nitrate ion. In the familiar nitrogen cycle, the proteinaceousmaterial is decomposed by bacterial action, resulting in the inorganicions, which are in turn incorporated into new cell material. The rela-tive concentrations of the various forms of nitrogen depend upon thebiological systems involved, as influenced by environmental conditions.

When untreated domestic sewage is discharged to a watercourse,organic nitrogen (proteins) and ammonia are the principal nitrogenconstituents. In the water, nitrifying organisms decompose the or-ganic ms terials and oxidirk the ammonia to nitrite and nitrate. Sincethe nit:;;ct ion is a transient form it is usually present in very lowconcentrations.

Treated sewago has undergone partial oxidation in the treatmentprocca. Therefore the nitrite and nitrate forms are increased in welltreated sewage, while the organic nitrogen and ammonia are reduced.

The discharge of human wastes results in an abundance of nitrogenin all forms, causing an abrupt change in the nutrient balanen ofthe stream.

Stir-014-41S--S 5

Definitions and Equivalents

cfs=cubic feet per second; cfsX448.8=gallons per minute; cfsX 5.4 X10=pounds per day

g/1=grams per liter; g/1X1,000=parts per milliong/ms=grams per square meter; g/m'X8.922=pounds per acreha =hectare; ha X2.471= acreskg=kilograms; kgX2.2,,-poundskg/ha=kilograms per hectare; kg/haX0.8922=pounds per acremetric tonsX2,204=poundspg-at P/g=microgram atoms phosphorus per gram.-31 parts per

million phosphoruspg-at P/1=microgram atoms phosphorus per liter=31 parts per

billion phosphoruspg/gt---micrograms per gram=ppm43/1-----micrograms per liter=ppb; pg/IX10-1.parta per millionpgim'=micrograrns per square meter; pg/m1X8.02X10s=pounds per

ACM

mg/g=milligrams per gram; mg/g X103=ppmmicromoles P per 100 gramsX0.31=parts per millionrog/1=milligrams per liter=parts per millionmg/mi=milligrams per cubic meter; mglmiX0.00272=po Inds per

acre-footmg/0=milligrams per square meter; mem'X8,922=pounds per

acremg %=InWigrams percent=milligrams in 100 gran:1st-4 part in

100,000 parts wet weight; mg %X0.1=ppmragd=million gallons per day; rngdX1.847=cubic feet per secondppb=parts per billionppm=parts per millionP0,--,phosphorus pentoxide; 1110/X0.438=rPO,=phosphate; PO4X0.328=PNO,=nitrate; NO,X0.226=NParts per millionXcubic feet per secondXb.4= pounds per day

(gallons per minuteX2.228X10-'=cubic feet rer second)Parts per millionX8.34Xgallons per dayX10-=pounds per day

(gallons per minuteX1,440=gallons per day)As a bandy reference, these dednItIons and mill-100AB are presented In a

fold-oat sheet at the back of this book.

6

Abbott, W. 1957.Unusual Phosphorus Source for Plankton Algae. Ecology, Vol. 38,

pp. 152; Water Pollution Abstracts, Vol. 30, No. 8, Abs. No. 1248.

Tests were made to find the source of phosphorus used by planktonicalgae in Lake Ifouston, a new impounding reservoir in Texas. Chemi-cal analyses of plankton and noncolloidal detritus from the lake weremade, but no phosphorus was detected in these samples. It wasobserved that run-off from the watershed following rains produceda high load of colloidal clay particles in the water. Samples weretaken, half of which were filtered and half still contained collodialmaterial before being analyzed for phosphorus. Samples containingcolloidal matter contained an average of 85 micrograms per liter ophosphorus in the phosphate equivalent form while the filtered sam-ples contained only minute quantities. It was, therefore, deducedthat the planktonic eigae were deriving their nutritive phosphorusfrom complex polyphosphates or organic phosphorus compoundswithout the aid of dissolved phosphate equivalent intermediate stage.

Allen, M. B. 1955.General Features of Algae Growth in Sewage Oxidation Ponds.

California State Water Pollution Control Board, Sacramento,California, Publication No. 13, pp. 11-34.

The maximum yield of algae obtainable from domestic sewage inthe laboratory was 1 to 2 grams dry weight per liter of sewage. Theelement most severely limiting algal growth in the sewages studied wasnitrogen. To obtain any appreciable increase in algal production itwas necessary to supplement the sewage with nitrogen as well as withcarbon. The mass of algae present was determined by centrifugingthe cells from a known volume of medium, transferring to a taredcrucible, drying, and weighing.

ilgal crops in the field are more difficult to evaluate because ofuncertainty as to whether all the suspended solids should be consid-ered as algal ails, but 0.5 gram dry weight per liter appears to be themaximum observed. Chlorella and Scenedesmus were the photo-synthetic organisms most important in the functioning of the oxida-tion ponds. It was found that these algae did not grow on sewage inthe dark and that they did not reduce the content of oxidizable mat-

7

ter in sewage when growing on it in the light. Their development inthe oxidation ponds is thus possible only by pl,otosynthesis, for whichthey use carbon dioxide produced if. the oxidation of organic matterby colorless organisms.

Anderson, G. C. 1961.Recent Changes in the Trophic Nature of Lake WashingtonA

Review. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. Public HealthService, SEC TR W61-3, pp. 27-33.

Lake Washington near Seattle, Washington, a lake of 21,641 acreswith a maximum depth of R14 feet, receives the treated sewage of76,300 people; eutrophication has resulted. In 1955, ". . . for thefirst time, there appeared an increased growth of phytoplankton madeup mainly by the blue-green alga Oscillatoria rubescens, a notoriousindicator of pollution in many lakes." The nitrogen (N) loading onthe lake was 280 pounds per acre per year in 1957; the phosphorus(P) loading was 12 pounds per acre per year. The hypolimneticoxygen deficit has increased from 105 pounds per acre per month in1933 to 279 pounds per acre per month 1955. The maximumhypolimnetic concentration of phosphate (P0,P) reached in thedeepest waters was 23 ppb in 1950, 89 ppb in 1957, and 74 ppb in 1958.The standing crop of phytoplankton as indicated by measurements ofphytoplankton volume and chlorophyll measurements was 0.6 partper million by volume in 195( 1.6 in 1955, and 4.2 in 1956.

Andrews, W. B. 1947.The Response of Crops and Soils to Fertilizers and Manures.

Andrews, State College, Mississippi, 459 pp.W. B.

In North Carolina, when adequate phosphorus and potash wereused, 20 pounds of nitrogen per acre produced 32 bushels of corn, 60pounds of nitrogen per acre produced 59 bushels, and 120 pounds ofnitrogen per acre produced 72 bushels.

In the process of becoming soluble, nitrogr a is convected into nitricacid which combines with important elements in the soil, such as cal-cium and potassium, among other elements, to form soluble compoundswhich are subject to leaching, thus causing the loss of these mineralelements as well as nitrogen. In Kentucky, the pounds of nitrogenleached per acre ranged from 0 to 10 for alfalfa, and 0.3 to 12.2 forbluegrass to 29 to 165 where no crop was grown.

8

The fertilizing elements removed in harvested crops were givenas follows:

Crop Part of crop Yield per acrePounds ofnktogen

Pounds ofphosphoricacid (PION)

Alfalfa Hay 4,0001b3 93 25Corn Ora ln 26 bu 24 14

Stover 1,687 lbs 16 6Cotton Lint 200 lbs.

Seed 300 lbs. 14 6Stalks 600 lbs. 10 8

Potatoes Potato 200 bu 43 17Tops 40 7

Soybeans Hay 2,000 lbs 60 12Seed 15 bu 86 16

Tobacco Leaves 1,000 lbs 67 7Stalks 800 lbs 17 7

Soils that have a high amount of nitrogen before being broughtinto cultivation maintain a higher nitrogen content under cultivationthan du soils which have a low amount of nitrogen before being broughtinto cultivation. The average nitrogen content in soil organic matterin the surface 7 inches of 8 different soil types was 4,276 pounds peracre for firgin soil and 2,781 pounds per acre for cultivated soil for a35 percent loss in nitrogen through cultivation. Continuous croppingof corn depleted the total nitrogen in the upper 7 inches of soil by 52percent in the first 25 years and 5 percent in the second 25 years.

In the Southeast, 48 pounds of phosphate is generally recommendedeach year for continuous cotton production. Fertile soils may containas much as 5,000 to 10,000 pounds of phosphate per acre to a depthof 62/3 inches; however, most soils contain considerably less than5,000 pounds. Most of the phosphorus in the soil is in a form whichis not available to plants, and the rate at which phosphorus becomesavailable is too slow to supply the reeds of crops on most soils.

The pounds of nitrogen, phosphite, and potash in 1 ton of manurewas given as follows :

Animal Poundsdry matter

Nitrogen Phosphate Potash

Cattle:Solid 822 8.4 4.2 3.2Liquid 124 19.0 .6 19.0

Hens, solid 900 20.0 10.0 8.0Hogs:

Solid 300 12.0 9.2 8.8Liquid 68 6.0 2.4 20.0

Horses:Solid 488 10.0 6.0 4.8Liquid 198 24.0 Trace 30.0

Sheep:Solid 690 13.0 9.2 4.6Liquid 256 33.6 .6 42.0

Normally 500 to 600 pounds of fish per acre are produced in wellfertilized ponds and 100 to 200 pounds in unfertilized ponds in Ala-

9

bama. The fertilizers recommended nor fishing ponds by the AlabamaAgricultural Expuitnent Station per acre of water were ns follows :

40 pounds of sulfate of ammonia60 pounds of superphosphate (16%)5 pounds of muriate of potash15 pounds of lime.

or100 pounds of neutral 6-8-410 pounds of nitrate of soda.

Two to three fertilizer applications should be made at weekly inter-vals of four weeks thereafter until October. When the water becomesclear enough for the bottom of the pond to be seen through 11/2 to 2 feetof water, fertilizer is needed.

Anon. 1949.Report on Lake Mendota Studies Concerning Conditions Contribut-

ing to Occurrence of Aquatic Nuisances 1945-1947. WisconsinCommittee on Water Pollution, Madison, Wisconsin, 19 pp.(Mimeo.)

The soluble phosphorus contributions to Lake Mendota, Wisconsin,from September 1945, through August 1946, was 4,198 pounds corre-sponding to 0.43 pound per acre as P. The following year the contri-bution was 7,137 pounds or 0.76 pound per acre. Soluble phosphorusaveraged 0.048 mg/1 for all streams entering the lake.

The inorganic nitrogen entering Lake Mendota was 203,609 poundscorresponding to 20.8 pounds per lake acre as N. The contribution of185,472 pounds during the second year was equivalent to 19.0 poundsper acre.

During the survey, the arbitrary definition of 500 organisms of agiven species per ml as constituting an algal bloom was used with themodification that those organisms were included whose population wasless than 500 but whose volume was 10,000 volumetric standard unitsor more. The fertilization-bloom relationship using additional datafrom Lackey and Sawyer (1945) was given as follows:

Inorganic Inorganic Number ofLake nitrogen phosphorus algal blo( ms

(pounds peracre per year)

(pounds peracre per year)

per year

Mendota 19.9 0.69 10Monona 81 7.5 43Wanbesa 435 62.8 66Kegonsa 182 85.9 40

Since the concentration of inorganic nitrogen in Lake Mendotavaried between 0.15 and 0.58 mg/1 (N) from 1945 to 1947, and inor-ganic phosphorus varied from 0.008 to 0.082 mg/1 (P), it may be

10

concluded that a drainage area that is nonurban, such as that of LakeMendota, can supply by runoff through its drainage system sufficientnutrients to fertilize the water to the nuisance-producing level.

Lackey, J. B. and 0. N. Sawyer. 1445. Plankton Productivity of certainSoutheastern Wisconsin Lakes as related to Fertilization. Sewage WorksJournal, Vol. 17, pp. 573-585.

Anon. 1950.Water Supply. Progress Report of the Committt s on Water Sup-

ly of the American Public Health Association. American Journalof Public Health, Vol. 40, Na , 5, pp. 110-120; Water PollutionAbstracts, Vol. 23, No. 8, Abs. No. 9J2.

The majority of cases of methemoglobinemia are associated withwater containing at least 60 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen, but some rural sup-plies contain up to 530 mg/1 without the disease occurring.

Anon. 1964."Breakthrough" in Poultry Manure. Compost Science, Vol. 5, No.

2, p. 30.

A British firm, Hydraulics Developments Ltd., is reported to havedeveloped a process of drying poultry manure droppings and pro-ducing a dry sterile powder for use as a natural organic fertilizer.Ministry of Agriculture analyses of 10 samples gave an average read-ing of 5.3 percent nitrogen, 5.1 percent phosphate, and 2.1 percentpotash.

Anon. 1964a.Midwest Frxm Handbook. The Iowa University Press, Ames, Iowa,

474 pp.

Recommendations for continums fertilizer application to corn inthe midwestern States are about 80 to 100 pounds of nitrogen peracre and 40 to 60 pounds of phosphate (P20,) per acre; and to smallgrains, about 20 to 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre and 40 to 60 poundsof phosphate (P205) per acre. Some variation in the recommenda-tions existed because of different soil types given consideration.

Anon. 1964b.Activities Report, July 1,1963June 30,1964. Basic and Applied

Sciences Branch, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Con-teal, Public Health Service, 57 pp.

A year's measurements of storm runoff water quality and quantityfrom a 27-acre residential-commercial urban area indicated annual

11

amounts of PO, and total N to be 9 and 11 percent, respectively, ofthe estimated raw sewage content from sources on the area.

At Coshocton, Ohio, two storms with 2.21 to 5.09 inches of rainfallper storm produced a runoff of 6,600 to 76,300 gallons per acre;phosphate (PO4) in the runoff water ranged from 0.05 to 0.42 poundper acre, and total nitrogen (N) ranged from 0.20 to 6.12 pounds peracre.

Ball, R. C. 1949.Experimental Use of Fertilizer in the Production of Fish-Food Or-

ganisms and Fish. Michigan State College Agricultural Experi-ment Station Technical Bulletin No. 210, pp. 1-28.

Twenty-one ponds at three Michigan fish hatcheries were utilizedin the summer of 1946 for experimental work to determine the valueof fertilizers in the production of fish. Organic fertilizer in the formof barnyard manure was applied early in the spring at the rate of1 ton to each 11/2 acres of water surface. During the summer, in-organic fertilizer (10-6-4) was applied at a rate of 33.3 pounds peracre per week. The general indication was that there was a greaterproduction of fish in fertilized water. The production of invertebrateorganism, as determined by dredge sampling, was 42 percent greaterin the fertilized ponds than in the nonfertilized ponds, and the pro-duction of plankton organisms was 3.3 times greater.

Ball, R. C. 1950.Fertilization of Natural Lakes in Michigan. Transactions American

Fisheries Society, Vol. 78 (1948), pp. 145-155.

Inorganic fertilizer (10-6-4) was applied to two state-owned lakesin northern Michigan, one a 4.3-acre trout lake and the other a 27.5 -acre warm-water lake. Two nearby lakes were kept under observa-tion as controls. Fertilization was carried out at a rate of about 100pounds per acre from June until September, 1946, and from May untilAugust 20, 1947. Fertilizer brought about a plankton-algae bloomthe first summer in the warm-water lake and produced a heavy growthof filamentous algae the second summer. No appreciable oxygen de-pletion occurred during the winter following the first season of fer-tilization. Chemical analysis in February of the second winter showedsevere oxygen depletion, with oxygen levels at less than 1 mg/1 at alldepths. An almost complete winterkill occurred in both fertilizedlakes. No winterkill occurred in the control lakes.

12

Ball, R. C. and IL A. Tanner. 1951.The Biological Effec te of Fertilizer on a WarmWater Lake. Michi-

gan State College, AgOcultural Experiment Station, Tech. Bull.223, pp. 1-32.

Inorganic fertilizer (10-6-4) was applied in the shoal areas ofNorth Twin Lake, which comprises 27.5 acres, at a rate of 100 poundsevery 3 weeks from early May until mid-September of 1946 and 1947.A definite increase in plankton followed each application of fertilizer.Heavy mats of filamentous algae appeared during the second summerand were a nuisance to fishermen, overburdened higher aquatic plants,and had an unpleasant odor as they decayed. A statistical analysisA growth rates before and during fertilization showed a highly sig-nificant increase in growth following fertilization for all major gamefishes and for all ages for which data were available. An almostcomplete winter-kill of fish followed the second summer of fertilization.

Beard, 11 R. 1926.Nutr:tive Value of Fish and Shellfish. Rep 3rt U.S. Commissioner

of Fisheries for 1925, pp. 501-552.

The approximate nitrogen content of fish flesh is 2.5 percent (wetweight) and the phosphorus content 0.2 percent. Thus it would benecessary to harvest about 1 ton of fish to remove 50 pounds of nitrogenand 4 pounds of phosphorus; 40 pounds a fish would remove 1 poundof nitrogen and 500 pounds of fish would remove 1 pound ofphosphorus.

Bennett, G. W. 1962.Management of Artificial Lakes and Ponds. Reinhold Publishing

Corporation, New York, 283 pp.

The fertilization of ponds and lakes cannot be reccmmended as ageneral fish management technique outside of the southeastern UnitedStates, because the results are too variable and uncertain. Once thefertility of small impoundments in productive soils has been built up,this fertility may manifest itself in luxuriant annual crops 'Jf fila-mentous algae, blue-green algae, or rooted aquatic vegetation. Thereare already numerous examples of such ponds, most of which arequite Productive of fish; but they are problem waters because a treat-ment to kill rooted vegetation will be followed by obnoxious bloomsof algae which in turn may require chemical treatment. These lakeshave reduced aesthetic values, and fishing and swimming .re limitedby plant growths of one type or another. In ponds in some of the

13

S

least productive soil types in Illinois the addition of recommendedamounts of inorganic fertilizer increased the average standing cropof fish by only about 1.22 times. The improvement in fishing wassuch that uninformed fishermen could not tell which ponds were fer-tilized and which w ere not; yet in terms of total yield, rate of catch,and average size, the fertilized ponds produced considerably betterbluegill fishing than did unfertilized control ponds. In contrast, thecontrols usually produced a higher yield of bass, 10 inches or larger,than did the fertilized ponds.

Benoit, R. J. 1955.Relation of Phosphorus Content to Algae Blooms. Sewage and In.

dustrial Wastes, Vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 1267-1269.

The author cites Juday and Birge (1931) as reporting a mean of 23parts per billion total phosphorus for 479 lakes of northeastern Wis-consin, and Hutchinson (1941) as reporting a mean of 21 parts perbillion total phosphorus for 23 analyses of the surface water of LinsleyPond, North Branford, Connecticut.

An attempt is made to answer questions regarding the type of phos-phorus for which to analyze by a definition of terms. Total phos-phorus is determ)ned by digesting an unfiltered sample and determin-ing the phosphate content by the molybdat method. If a filteredsample is digested, and the sample analyzed for phosphate, the totalsoluble phosphate is determined. The difference between total phos-phate and total soluble phosphate is termed particulate phosphate.This form is not immediately suitable for algal metabolism, althoughall phosphate is potentially available when released into solution bythe activity of bocteria.

Juday, C. and E. A. Birge. 1931. A Second Report on the PhosphorusContent of Wisconsin Lake Waters. Ttansactions Wisconsin AcademySei., Arts, Letters, Vol. 28, pp. 353-382.

Hutchinson, G. E. 1941. Limnological Studies in Connecticut; IV Mech-anism of Intermediary Metabolism in Stratified Lakes. Ecological Mono-graphs, Vol. 11, pp. 21.

Benoit, R. J. and J. J. Curry. 196/.Algae Blooms in Lake Zoar, Connecticut. Algae and Metropolitan

Wastes, U.S. Public Health Service, SEC TR W61-3, pp. 18-22.

Lake Zoar was formed in 1919 by Stevenson Dam on the HousatonicRiver and by 1947 algae were so plentiful that a serious nuisance wascreated for lake-side property owners. The lake volume is estimatedto be 42,800 acre-feet and the average flow of the Housatonic River at

14

Lake Zoar is 2,500 cfs, indicating a (low through time of 9 days. Dur-ing the algal season, low monthly flows result in a replacement of thelake volume every 40 days. About 183 pounds per day of phosphorus(P) enter Lake Zoar giving rise to a concentration of 12 to 41 partsper billion in the water mass.

Birge, E. A. and C. Juday. 1922.The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Plankton. I. Its Quantity

and Chemical Composition. Wisconsin Geological and NaturalHistory Survey, Bulletin No. 61, Scientific Series No. 13, pp.1-222.

Computations based on the area and total volume of Lake Mendota,Wisconsin, show that the largest standing crop of spring planktonyielded 360 pounds while the largest autumn crop was 324 pounds peracre. The smallest summer minimum amounted to 124 pounds peracre and the mallest winter minimum, 98 pounds per acre. The aver-age amount of organic matter yielded by the entire series of planktoncatches from Lake Mendota was 214 pounds per acre. These figuresrepresent the weight of the dry organic matter in the plankton; thewet weight would be approximately ten times as large. In 166 analyseso,er a 7year period, the minimum man annual percentage of totalnitrogen (N) varied from 3.92 to 6.60 percent (dry weight) and themaximum mean annual percentage ranged from 7.02 to 9.97 percent.

The percentages of total nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) on a dryweight basis are presented for a number of organisms:

Organism

Percentage of the dryweight

N P

MicrocyatisAnabaenaVoltor

9. 278. 277. 61

0.52. 53

1. 10Cladophora. 2.77 .14Myriophyllum 3. 23 . 52Cyclops 9. 57 1.02Lsmnocalanus 7.18 .78Daphnia putty 6. 55 60Daphnia pulex 8. 61 54Daphnia pulex 7. 55 . 1Leptodora 9.28 1.5.Cambarus 6. 60 1. 16Ilyalella 7.37 1.20Htrudinea 11. 13 .76Zygoptera 10.62 .66Scalia 8. 07 .84Cheronomus tentans 7. 36 .93

15

Bergstrom, G. (Editor), 1961.Fish as Food. Academic Press, New York. 723 pp.

In fish cultivation, 30 to 50 kg. of pure phosphoric acid per hectareof water surface leads to a yield increase of about 100 kg. of fish fleshper hectare. On the basis of numerous experiments, it may be ex-pected that 1 kg. of phosphoric acid will render an additional yield of2.1 kg. of fish flesh.

In general, the protein content is calculated by multiplj theamount of nitrogen with the coefficient 6.25 although there is dis-agreement on the specific coefficient. Protein nitrogen is by far themost important nitrogen fraction. The distribution of nitrogen infish flesh was given as follows :

Species Total N Protein N Reference(%) (%)

Cod. Atlantlo. 2.83 2.47 Reny et al. 1943),Herring, A tImAtto . 2.90 2.83 Bourg (1936Sardine.. 8.48 2.97 Boury (1938 .Haddock. 2.85 2 47 Reay et aL 1943).Lobster 2.72 2.04 Campbell (1936).

The reported acid-soluble total phosphorus of the fish muscle rangedfrom 5,670 to 15,300 micromoles per 100 grams (approximately 1,814to 4,896 parts per million wet weight or 0.18 to 0.49 percent; 200 to600 pounds of fish would contain 1 pound of phosphorus).

Bourn M., 1936. Recherches sur l'alteration du poisson. Rev. tray, officeItches maritimes, Vol. 9, pp 401-419.

Campbell, J., 1935. The non-protein nitrogenous constituents of fish andLobster muscle. S. Biol. Board Can., Vol. 1, pp 179-189.

Reay, 0. A., C. L. Cutting, and J. M. Shewan, 1943. The Nation's Food.VI. Fish as Fcod. II. The Chemical Composition a Fish. J. Soc. Chem.Ind., Vol. 62, pp 77-85.

Bosch, H. M.; A. B. Rosenfield; H. R. Shipman, and F. L. Wood.ward. 1950.

Methemoglobinemia and Minnesota Well Supplies. Journal Ameri-can Water Works Association, Vol. 42, pp. 161-170; Water Pol-lution Abstracts, Vol. 23, No. 11, Abs. No. 1283.

Bek.ause 139 cases of cyanosis of infants had occurred in Minnesotasince 1947 an investigation was made of well water supplies through-out the state. Of the 125 dug wells and 4 drilled wells examined ashaving been directly concerned in cases of the illness, none containedless than 10 mg/I nitrate nitrogen (NO, N) and only 2 contained aslittle as 10 to 20 mg/1. The average concentration of nitrate nitrogen(NO, N) in all the wells suspected of being responsible for the devel-

16

opment of methemoglobinemia was 102 mg/1. None of the wellsreached the standards for safe water supplies specified by the Minne-sota Department of Health. Five hundred and fourteen municipalsupplies were examined throughout the state; of these 5.4 percentcontained over 5 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen, 3.1 percent contained 10 mg/1or more, and the highest concentration determined was 27 mg/I foundin a dug well in a section of the state from which most of the casesof methemoglobinemia had been reported.

Burkholder, P. 1929.Biological Significance of the Chemical Analyses. In: Prelim'.

nary Report on the Cooperative Survey of Lake Erie, Season of1928. Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Science, Vol. 14, Nit.3, pp. 56-72. [From Putnam and Olson, 1959]

Greatest concentration of ammonia was found at the surface of LakeErie in September (0.038 mg/I). At the bottom depth of 17 meters,there was 0.08 mg/1. Average for all stations showed a marked in-crease in ammonia content of the upper strata as the season advanced;in July it was 0.014 mg/1, in August, 0.015 mg/1, in September, 0.03mg/l. Nitrates were more abundant than other forms of nitrogen.The greatest amount was found at intermediate depths in July whenthe value leached 0.20 mg/l. An average for all stations ,vas 0.15mg/1 in July, 0.123 mg/1 in August, and 0.137 mg/1 in September.

Burkholder, P. R. and L. M. Parkholder. 1956.Vitamin B1, in Suspended Solids and Marsh Muds Collected Along

the Coast of Georgia. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 1, No.3, pp. 202-208.

The vitamin B1, content of suspended solids in river and sea watersand in marsh muds, collected along th A coast of Georgia, was deter-mined by means of the E. coli mutailt. assay. Appreciable amountsof vitamin B1, are carried on suspended particles of river water, thebrown water types showing highest concentrations, up to 6.4 g pergram of solids. Vitamin B1, content of particulate matter in the seawaters varied over the range 0.0027 to 0.130 irg per liter. Calculatedin relation to dried solids, the highest concentration of B1, was 0.736lAg per gram of solids. It was concluded that suspended particles areimportant in the vitamin nutrition of the sea and that bacteria aresignificant producers and carriers of vitamin B13 in the marineenvironment.

17

Campbell, W. A. B. 1952.Methemoglobinemia due to Nitrates in Well Water. British Medical

Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 371-373.

Cases of infantile nitrate poisoning have been reported to arise fromconcentrations ranging from 15 to 250 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen(NO3 N) .

Chalupa, J. 1960.Eutrophication of Reservoirs by Atmospheric Phosphorus. Sci.

Pap. Inst. Chem. Technol., Prague, Fac. Technol. Fuel. Wat., Vol.4, Pt. 1, pp 295-308 (English summary) ; Water PollutionAbstracts, Vol. 35, No. 5, Abs. No. 660.

Data collected over a 7-month period in 1958-59 at the Sedlice Reser-voir, Czechoslovakia, show that the whole reservoir (35.8 ha) receivedabout 3/4 kg. of inorganic phosphorus (as P20,) from the atmosphere.This source of phosphorus is important in stimulating primary pro-duction of organisms in the trophogenic zone during periods of normalthermal stratification when the penetration of inorganic phosphorusfrom the bottom layers cannot satisfy the demand of developingorganisms in the surface layers.

Chandler, D. C. and 0. B. Weeks. 1945.Iimnolog,ical Studies of Western Lake Erie. V. Relation of Lim.

nological and Meteorological Conditions to the Production ofPhytoplankton in 1942. Ecological Monographs, Vol. 15, pp.436-456. [From Putnam and Olson, 1959]

All analyses were made on composite samples prepared from surfacesamples and from samples at 5 and 9 meter depths. All analyses werecompleted within 6 hours of the time of collection.

Organic nitrogen varied from a high of 26 micrograms per liter onAugust 26 to a low of 2 micrograms per liter on September 18; theseextremes coincided with a high and low level of phytoplankton,respectively.

Soluble phosphate phosphorus values varied from 1 to 8 microgramsper liter with the high point occurring at three times : (1) at the timeof greatest organic phosphorus concentration, (2) during a period ofincreased turbidity which apparently resulted from increased riverdischarge, and (3) two v, eekE following the cessation of the autumnphytoplankton pulse. Lowest N alues occurred when the phytoplanktonpopulation was decreasing. Twenty-nine percent of the total phos-phorus content was in the soluble phosphate phosphorus state.

18

Nitrate nitrogen varied from 0 to 1,400 micrograms per liter, am-monia nitrogen from 8 to 120 micrograms per liter, and nitrite nitro-gen from 0 to 38 micrograms per liter.

Chu, S. P. 1942.The Influence of the Mineral Composition of the Medium on the

Growth of Planktonic Algae. Part I. Methods and Culture Medic.Journal of Ecology, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 284-325.

With few e.eceptio:.s the planktonic algae investigated grow equallywell in media supplied with nitrate and in those supplied with am-monium salts as long as the N concentration is within the optimumrange, but in lower N concentrations growth is generally better whennitrate is supplied. The requirements of N and P agree well amongthe different planktonic algae, although there are minor differences inthe upper and lower limits that are suitable. All of the algae studiedflourished in media with N ranging from 1 to 7 and P from 0.1 to 2mg/1 respectively. The algae are likely to suffer from a deficiencywhen the concentration of N is belov, 0.2 mg /1 and that of P below0.05 mg/1 and from an inhibiting effca when the concentration of Nand P exceed 20 mg/1. The optimum range of P concentration isoften wider when nitrate is used than when ammonium salt is used asthe source of N.

Chu, S. P. 1943.The Influence of the Mineral Composition of the Medium on the

Growth of Planktonic Algae. Part H. The Influence of the Concentration of Inorganic Nitrogen and Phosphate Phosphorus.Journal of Ecology, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 109-148.

The upper Innis of concentrations of b'trogen and vhospliorus foroptimum growth of the plankton organisms studied is always higherthan the highest concentrations occurring in ordinary waters, so thattheir growth is unlikely ever to be unfavorably affected by too high aconcentration of nitrogen or phosphorus. On the other hand, theconcentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in nearly all natural watersfrequently falls below, or in some nerer reaches, the lower limits foroptimum growth. The lower limit of the optimum range of nitrogenconcentration differs for different organisms. It generally variesapproximately from 0.8 to 1.8 and sometimes to 2.8 or 5.8 mg/1 when anammonium nett is t1-.e source of nitrogen; and from 0.8 to 0.9 mg/1ashen nitrate is the source of nitrogen. Below these limits the growthrate decrel.ses -frith decreasing concentration of nitrogen. The upperlimit of the optimum range of nitrogen concentration varies approxi-

19

mately from 5.3 to IS mg/I when an ammonium salt is the source ofnitrogen, and from 3.5 to 17 mg/I when nitrate is the source of nitro-gen. Beyond these limits there is an increasing inhibiting effect..Optimum growth of all organisms studiei can be obtained in nitrate-nitrogen concentrations from 0.9 to 3.5 mg/1 and phosphorus con-centrations from 0.09 to 1.8 mg/I, while a limiting effect on all orga-nisms will occur in nitrogen concentrations from 0.1 mg/1 downwardand in phosphorus concentrations from 0.009 mg/1 downward.

The lower limit of optimum range of phosphorus concentrationvaries from about 0.018 to about. 0.09 mg/1; and the upper limit from8.9 to 17.8 mg/1 when nitrate is the source of nitrogen, while it liesat about 17.8 for all the planktons studied when ammonium is thesource of nitrogen. Low phosphorus concentrations may, therefore,like low nitrogen concentrations, exert a selective limiting influence ona phybplankton population. The nitrogen concentration determinesto a large extent. the amount of chlorophyll formed. Nitrogen con-centrations beyond the optimum range inhibit the formation ofchlorophyll in green algae.

Comfy, II. II. 1945.Cyanosis In Infants Caused by Nitrates in Well Water. Journal

American Medical Association, Vol. 129, pp. 112-116.

The causative factor producing serious blood changes (methemoglo-binemia) in infants was first reported in 1945 in polluted water con-taining 140 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen (NO, N) and 0.4 mg/1 nitrite(NO,) ion in one case; in the second case, 90 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen and1.8 mg/1 nitrite ion.

Cook, 13. 13. 1962.The Nutritive Value of Waste-Grown Algae. American Journal of

Public Health, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 243-251.

The proximate analysis and amounts of calcium, phosphorus, iron,carotene, ascorbic acid, and eight 13-vitamins have been determinedin single-celled algae grown in symbiosis with bacteria in open, out-door ponds, on sewage and organic wastes. Dried Seenedevnuaquad rieaudat and Chlorella were found to contain 40 to 50 percentprotein and extremely large amounts of minerals. Compared withbeef on a weight basis, the algae contained more of all theexcept 13,,, than did beef. Because of the unpleasant odor and flavorof the algae, it would be extremely improbable that it would be eatenunless effectively masked with other foods in combination.

20

Curl, 1959.The Ort,s'in and Distribution of Phosphorus in Western Lake Erie.

Limnoiogy and Oceanography, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 66-76.

The phosphate phosphorus distribution in western Lake Erie inMay 1951 and the average concentration throughout 1950-1951 wereshown to bo a result of the drift current pattern and the dischargeof the Maumee and Detroit Rivers. The bedrock in the lake appearsto provide negligible quantities. The Detroit River supplies 406metric tons per year at an average concentration of 2.6 pg PO4 PAand the Maumee River supplies 125 tons per year at a concentrationof PO4 P/l. There is a loss of soluble phosphorus, possiblyas precipitating fen lc phosphate and by adsorption onto ferrichydrox-ids. The bottom sediments contained an average of 56.9 mg P/gof dried mud.

"Maumee River water averaged 60 lig Fe"./1 in 1950-51, whichcould be present as hydroxide or as ferric phosphate. In the latterstate M) pg of iron would be combined stoichiometrically with 27 ligof phosphorus. In an excess of ferrous ion, ferric hydroxide could beadsorbed onto the colloid, and the complex would then precipitate.A. mechanism such as this would account for the high phosphorusvalues of the lake sediments. If 27 itg of the average of 43 $gPA in Maumee River water were to be combined as ferric phosphateand lost by precipitation to the river and estuary bed, 16 pg wouldremain."

Phosphate phosphorus and turbidity in the lake are positively cor-related 'yid evidence from turbidity data indicates that the lake isenriched by a thin layered tongue of water from the south shorestreams which flows over or under the clearer, nutrient-poor water,and then mixes vertically with .

Removal of fish by man accounts for an annual loss of 29 metrictons, or 6 percent of the averages annual input, Approximately 01metric tons may be held ternpor.rily as phytoplankton. The densitjof the diatom cells wes taken as 1.1 and the average wet weight asorganic matter of freshwater and marine phytoplankton had beenfound to be 5 percent.

Curry. J. J. and S. L. Wilson. 1955.Effects of Sewage -borne Phosphorus on Algae. Sewage and Indus-

trial Wastes, Vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 1262-1266.

Since the formation of Lake Zoar on the Itousatonic River inConnecticut by the construction of the Stevenson Dam, the ntvnber ofalgae and aquatic weeds in the lake have increased considerably, and a

21

study of the problem was carried out in 1954. Phosphorus concentra-tions in the lake varied from 12 to 41 ppb and averaged about 25 ppb.

Preliminary studies using 200 mg/1 Alum in 4,000-gallon batch treat-ments with a mixing time of 10 minutes and a settling time of 2 hourstreating sewage plant diluents having a phosphorus content of 3.61to 4.62 mg/1 gave 90.7 percent removal of phosphates.

Deevey, E. S., Jr. 1940.Limno logical Studies in Connecticut. V. A Contribution to Re.

gional Limno logy. American Journal of Science, Vol. 238, pp.717-741.

Examination of 49 lakes in Connecticut and New York provideddata showing a close relationship between the geology of the regionand the quantity of phytoplankton in the lakes. Lakes overlyingsoluble sedimentary rocks, rich in iron, had abundant phytoplanktonand a high phosphorus concentration; those surrounded by meta-morphic rock vi -E,re poor in phytoplankton. In order of importancein the control of phytoplankton growth was phosphorus first, followedby nitrogen.

Lakes of Connecticut resemble those of northeastern Wisconsin withrespect to the amounts of soluble and total phosphorus. The lakes inboth regions "live beyond their means" with regard to their phos-phorus content; under arctic conditionb, the phosphorus oligotypewould result in ol i got rophy.

Domogalla, II P. and E. D. Fred. 1926.Ammonia and Nitrate Studies of Lakes Near Madison, Wisconsin.

Journal of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 18, pp.897-911.

Surface and bottom samples of 2 to 5 liters taken each two weekswere analyzed for organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitro-gen, and phosphate phosphorus.

Of l'ite fire lakes examined, the water of Lake Waubesa (Madison,Wisconsin) showed a consis!ently higher organic nitrogen contentthan did the others and, also, the greatest concentration of phyto-plankton. The renge was 980 mg per cubic meter in June tc 1,4;0 mgper cubic meter in the latter part of August.

In all the lakes. ammonia concentration increased during Marchand April but began to decrease with the increase m planktonconcentration.

22

The nitrate changes followed the same variation as organic nitrogenand ammonia. Concentration of phosphate phosphorus decreasedwith increasing concent ration of plankton.

Analysis of lake water following heavy rains showed a marked in-crease in the concentration of soluble phosphorus and the differentforms of nitrogen.

Domcgalla, B. P., E. B. Fred, and W. 1I. Peterson. 1926a.Seasonal Variation in the Ammonia cnd Nitrate Content of Lake

Waters. Journal American Wain Works Association, Vol. 15,pp. 369-385. [From Putnam and. Olson, 1959]

In Lake Mendota, Wis:onsin, beginning with the fall overturn,there was little change in soluble nitrogen until February and March;by the time the spring overturn occurred in April, there was anincrease of 800 percent in free ammonia and 200 percent in nitratenitrogen in the bottom levels.

In Lake Michigan, at the surface, the concentration of ammoniawas 102 mg per cubic meter; nitrate was 50 mg per cu. m. At72 meters depth, ammonia was 204 mg per cu. m.; nitrate was 79 mgper cu. m.

Domogalla, B. P., C. Juday, and W. II. Peterson. 1925.The Forms of Nitrogen Found in Certain Lake Waters. Journal

of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 63, pp. 269-285. [Prom Putnamand Olson, 1959]

Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, contained more than 9 times as muchsoluble nitrogen as it did total plankton nitrogen. Ammonia nitrogenvaried from 11.9 to 89.2 mg. per cu. tn. during a 1-year period. Mostof the soluble nitrogen was formed at the bottom of the lake, spread-ing upward ...ward the surface. At the spring and fall overturns,the soluble nitrogen content of the lake was uniform. As soon asstratification occurs, the concentration of soluble nitrogen in thehypolimnion exceeds that in the epilimnion.

Donahue, R. L. 1961.Our Soils and Their Management. The Interstate Printers and

Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, 568 pp.

Nitrogen in representative surface soils varies from 0.2 percent inthe sandy soils of Florida and Virginia to approxim itely 0.15 percent

23

S

in a limestone soil in the Lake States. The amount of nitrogen in asoil is proportional to the amount of organic matter. Tho percentageof nit rJgen multiplied by 20 usually equals the percentage of organicmatter. Phosphorus varies from a trace to 0.3 percent in surfacesoils. Nitrogen and phosphate in a productive soil average about0.1 pound per cubic foot each.

Tho pounds of plant nutrients required per acre for good acre yieldswere given as follows:

Is'utilents per sera

Pine trees(annualgrow th)

Can

000 'bushels)

Nttroon (N)PBoron

hos ikta (POO24

4 asb

Allan*

(11 tons)

SOO

0.

As a general rule, 1 ton of livestock, regardless of kind, will voidabout 1 ton per month of excrement based oil an equivalent watercontent of 65 percent. The average composition imi pounds per tonof fresh animal manures was given as follows :

N Moen (N)(pow. o)

Phcephats

(Pound(P/00s)

CattleHones.HogsSheep

10

10Is

to

Sawdust contains 4 lbs N and 2 lbs P,O, per ton of dry material:wheat straw 10 and 8 pounds, respectively; alfalfa hay. 4.8 and 10.

Activated sewage sludgt, contains 5.6 percent nitrogen (N) and 6.7percent Paosphorus (P:04) ; digested sludge, 2.4 ar.4 2.7 percentrespectivr,ly.

The pounds of fertilizer recommt 'oded per acre per year on grass-land varies from 50 in the Pacific and Great Plains regions to 450pounds in the northeast and southeast. The percentage of the recom-mended amount that it, applied varies from 0.8 to 16 percent in theabove named regions.

On the average 3,600 pounds of tree leaves per acre, on the ovendrybasis, fall to the ground each year (Metz, 1954), This compares withapproximately 1,700 pounds from jack pines and red pine stands inMinnesA4a t Alway and Zon, 1930) and between 8,000 and 4,000 poundsfrom New England red pine forests (Lunt, 1948). The nutrients

24

returned annually to the soil by forest tree leaves were cited as follows(Cir. Eller 1041 and 1943)

Pounds per acre returnedannually

Nitrogen P kepborus

ConiferHardwood

216

Metz, L. J., 1964. Forest Fluor of South Carolina Piedmont Stands. SoilScl. Soc. Amer. Proc.

Alway, F. J. and R. Zon, 103). Quantity and Nutrient Content of Pine LeafLitter. bourn. Forestry, Vol. 28, pp. 715-727.

Lunt, 11. A., 1948. The Forest Solis of Connecticut. Connecticut Agr. Exp.Station But. No. 523.

Chandler, R. F., Jr., 1941. TLe Amount and Nutrient Content of FreshlyFallen Leaf Litter in the Hardwood Forests of Central New York. bourn.Amt r. Soc. Agron., Vol. 83.

Chandler, R. F., Jr., 1943. Amount and Mineral Nutrient Content of FreshlyFallen Needle Litter of home Northeastern Conifers. Soil Scl. Soc. Amer.Proc., Vol. 8.

Douglas, J. S. 1959.HydroponicsOxford University Press, Londoa, 144 pp.

The dry fertilizer salts, which are used in hydroponics, go into solu-tion with the water present in the beds of aggregate forming a liquidplant food. A suitable nutrient solution would contain:

Element

rteetenot/Mute

nospecrosw.Wsua

Oaldcsa

400NO103 tto o 200SO to 100110 to 1

300 Is 1000 )

Element

IronManganese.13oroaCopperLine

g./L

1 to 1011.1I logal tog

Variations of these concentrations have been used with success, andmuch depends on locality, climate, and light conditions.

Dugdale, V. A. and R. C. Dugdale. 1962.Nitrogen Metabolism in lakes. II. Role of Nitrogen Fixation in

Sanctuary Lake, Pennsylvania. Llinnllogy and Oceanography,Vol.?, No. '2, pp. 170-177.

A study of the rates of nitrogen fixation using N" as I. tracer wasmade in Sanctuary Lake, Pennsylvania. The rates of fixation in the

23

lake were found to be considerable (at least 1 percent per day of theorganic or "reduced" nitrogen already present at the beginning of theexperiment) during the summer and appeared to be correlated withthe presence of a dense population of A nabaena. Laboratory experi-ments supported the idea that photosynthetic organisms were respon-sible since a strong correlation with light was found.

Dugdale, V. A. and R. C. Dugdale. 1965.Nitrogen Metabolism in Lakes. III. Tracer Studies of the Assimila.

lion of Inorganic Nitrogen Sources. Limno logy and Oceanography, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 53-57.

lie activity of the phytoplankton in Sanctuary Lake, Pennsyl-vania, was found to fell in three clearly defined periods: (1) a springbloom when NII,N, NO, N, and N, N are assimilated stronglyand in that order of importance; (2) a midsummer period when wed eassimilation of N1I, N and N,N, but not NO,N, occurred; and(3) a fall bloom with intense nitrogen fixation and someuptake, but characterized by low NO, N activity. Nitrogen fixationand NifsN uptake appear to proceed concurrently, although am-monia uptake dominates in spring and nitrogen fixation dominatesin fall.

Dugdale, R. C., 3. J. Goering, and 3.11. Ryther. 1961.High Nitrogen Fixation Rates in the Sargasso Sea and the Arabian

Sea. limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 507-510.

Nitrogen fixation rates were measured in the Sargasso Sea and theArabian Sea using the Nu methyl. It was considered a virtual cer-tainty that the large-scale blooms of Trichodemium from tropicaloceanic regions wera nitrogen-fixing blooms analogous to those observed in lakes associated with several species of Atuthaerw. Theability to fix nitrogen was clearly shown to lie with the Trlehode-amiuntcolonies (that is, the alga and any associated bacteria or fungi).

Dugdale, H. C. and J. C. Nees,. 1961.Recent Observations on Nitrogen Fixation in Blue-Green Algae.

Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. Public Health Service, SECTR W61-3, pp. 103-106.

The authors cite necessary conditions for intense nitrogen fixation:(1) the general physical and nutritional characteristics of the body ofwater must be such as to encourage the growth of blue-green algae,

26

I

(2) some :actor(s) must operate to reduce the concentrations of thevarious forms of combined nitrogen to very low levels, (3) an ade-quate supply of phosphorus would appear to be. critical, and (4)certain elements (calcium, boron, and molybdenum) in trace amountsare known to be specifically necessary to permit nitrogen fixation byparticular species of blue-green algae. Dilute sea-water is a reason-ably good medium for nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae, perhaps brcause it contains favorable amounts of truce elements. It seems pos-Ale that some of these elements aro concentrated in sewage, resultingunder certain circumstances in the stimulation of nitroEen rIxationby this material.

Engelbrecht, H. S. and J. J. Morgan. 1959.Studies on the Occurrence and Degradation of Condensed

plate In Surface Waters. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Vol,31, No. 4, pp. 458-478.

Rudolfs (1917) reported an average phosphate concentration inraw sewage of 5.2 mg /i ss P,01. The average concentration ineffluents from biological treatment was 0.5 mg /1 as 13,0%. Itudolfsindicated that per ,Nkpita phosphate contributions from domestic rawsewage were from 8.3 X 104 to 7.5 x 104 lb/day as 1)10,. Sawyer(1952) calculated that the contribution of phosphates used in the de-tergent and water softening industry during 1950 amounted to10x 104 lb/day/cap as 1,05. Estimates by the Association of Amer-ican Soap and Olycerine Producers indicated a synthetic detergentconsumption of 10 lb/cop for the year 1955. This corresponded to Acontrilfation of 12x 104 lb/day/cap as PA to sewage by householdsynthetic detergents Mom . Sawyer (1914) reported total phosphorusland drainage of approximately 1.6 lb/day sq mile, of which approx-imately 75 pexent was organic. Silvey (1953) observed that organicphosphorus in p, t leaves may be oxidised to soluble phosphates.Sudden additions (f Ovate "rrough rainfall could well.' phosphatesto the stream. Diets and liarmeson (058) cone d that the aver-age total phosphate concentration in Illinois surface waters was0.648 mg/1 as PA. Solely on the basis of stream analysis dat, theyestimated that the phosphate contribution from domestic sewage couldrange from 7,07 X 10-' to 87.3 x 10-' lb /day /cap.

Results from 9 samples collected at 8 lake and reservoir sources be-lieved to be relatively free of domestic pollution gave s mean ortho-phosphate concentration of 0.036 mg/1 P,O, and a mean value of ortho-phosphate plus the maximum inorganic condensed (hydrolyzable)P,O, of 0.081 mg/1.

The analytical resilts from 27 samples from streams in the majorIllinois River basin suspeeed to contain significant arnouitts of treated

27

and untreated wastes gave an average orthophosphate concentrationof 0.411 mg,/1 P20, and an average orthophosphate plus maximuminorganic condensed P,O, of 0.657 mg /I.

The mean rAthophospliate concentration among 3 trickling filtersewage treatment plant effluents and 1 activated sludge plant effluentin Illinois in 1956 ranged from 11.6 to 24.2 mg /1 P,O, and the percapita contributions from 9.4 to 24.2x 10-3 pounds per dry. In addi-tion, the maximum inorganic condensed P,O, concentration rangedfrom 0.8 to 2.1 mg/1 and the per capita contribution from 0.7 to 2.25 x10-' pound per day.

Rudolta, W. 1947. Phosphates In Sewage anti Sludge Treatment. I.Quantities of Phosphates. Sewage Works Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 43.

`,sawyer, C. N. 1952. Some New Aspects of Phosphates in Relation to LakeFertilization. Sewage and Industrial Wastes. Vol. 24, No. 6, pp 768-776.

Sawyer, C. N. 1047. Fertilisation of Lakes by Agricultural and UrbanDrainage. Jour. New Engiend Water 1Vorka Assn., Vol. 61, No. 2, pp100 -127.

Bilrey, J. K. 0. 1953. Relation of Irrigation to 'Taste and Odors. Jour-nal American Water Works Assoc.. Vol. 4:F, No. 11, pp. 1170.

Dietz, J. C. ar.d U. II. nartntS0::. 1958. Phosphate Compounds OccurrlogIn Illinois Surface Waters. Proceedings 12th Indiana Waste Conference,Purdue University, Vol. 94, pp. 2Es5.

Engelbrecht, It. S. and J. J. Morgan. 1961.Land Drainage as a Source of Phosphorus In Illinois Surface Waters.

Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. Public Health Service -, SECTR W61-3, pp. 74-79.

Phosphorus carried to surface waters may be in the simple ortho-phosphate form or as a soluble hydrolyzable phosphate, or it may beadsorbed on clay particles. As adsorbed forms of phosphate increasein amount their solubility in water increases rapidly. Results are re-ported for 100 samples from the ICaskaskia River basin that has farmlands containing 40 to 50 pounds of available P,O, per acre, and aredrained by tile drains. High rainfalls and high rates of percolationexist At one station that receives no domestic sewage and receivesrunoff from a cultivated drainage area of 11 square miles ortho plushydrolyzable P,O, ,raged 0.1 pound of P,O, per day per square mileof drainage area. .r the 100 samples, the calculated pounds of PO,per day per square mile varied from 0 to 58 for ortho plus hydrolyzablewith a mean of 1.4. The amount of agricultural phosphate transportedto steams undoubtedly depends upon the: nature and amount of ORA-phites in the soil, mode of drainage, topography, intensity and distri-bution of rainfall, rates of infiltration and percolation, and probablyother factors.

28

1

Fippin, E. 0. 1945.Plant Nutrient Losses in Silt and Water in the Tennessee River Sys-

tem. Soil Science, Vol. 60, pp. 223-239.

The average loss of plant nutrients per acre of row crops in Tenn-essee River System for the year 1939 was: 84.6 pounds of calcium, 97.9pounds of magnesium, 212.2 pounds of potassium, 13.0 pounds ofphosphorus (all expressed as oxides) and 23.8 pounds of nitrogen.

Fitzgerald, G. P. 1965. Personal Communication.

The following data were supplied :

A. Concentration of Salts Used in Algol Media at University of Wisconsin(1Z/1.)

Belt otttort 1 ABU 0 Outset I AUeres 1 Myers' 1

NII(C1N1110,K8Ws.KR 0'0,Kin POIItgC540011,41110Cseli-21h0Fe MitePeas.rwsodNitR108 1011t0Nato°,Cluie addNs dtrsteROTA

124

,2516

1

6193

a

IS

...17.419itIii

.12

7.4

496

29

7$110s

as10

II

1

1, Wu80

230

61326

3

1,2101, 223

2.4430

12

1 25

B. COnCentraturs of Essential Ions in Media (mg./t.)

lona Oarklfs ABM Otebsm's Allen. 7(rere

NPFe51g

K

101. 1.1

4 4

I

14& 1.1

t 1i&

I0

II17

1If0

17145

114

11I)

I

11429621,1

iAn

tree6 Alpe, Self. ad Wwtes, teS-sal1 littres14, 0. P., sea F. sit 21641es ea Ctottakals with Neketirs TotkIty to Blue-

bustered5Sets:riblIsairtih irtylcsa.P). 04111u2.70: rcortl el arystfe aervifeeta rats tit precipitate-tree twlium12 0Y011.

Ruibes, R. O., P. R. Oothas, 1/. A. 7,th mace, Tothaity of a an'Jra sultan of Aticteepti/ seroff20.8,Cm. S. 5134nrobbl., 223-231 (1252),

I &Den, M. R., TN CultintIon 01 5172opbre..se. keb. ItItrcb4o1., it: 14-5,1 (1252).Borieid. 12., Ed., Alfa Claterr nest Loboreterp 1. rid The. Caro& lot. Raab., Pub. Ne. SOO

(10155).

Plain, N. C. and G. W. Iteid. 1951.Effect.' of Nitrogenous Compounds on Stream Conditions. Sewage

and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp. 11V-1151.

In laboratory experiments to determine which forms of nitrogenwere most readily utilized by microorganisms, concentrations up to

29

about 15 mg/I showed no significant difference in the utilization ofthe three inorganic forms (nitrite, nitrate, and ammonia). Phos-phorus was supplied by a s)lution of dibasic potassium phosphate.With higher concentrations of nitrogen, growth of algae was accele-rated and in practice thin would tend to concentrate the organisms ina shorter stretch of the btream.

Gerloff, G. C., G. P. Fitzgerald, and F. Skoog, 1950.The Isolation, Purification, and Nutrient Solution Requirements of

Illuegreen Algae. Symposium on the Culturing of Algae,Charles F. Kettering Foundation, Dayton, Ohio, pp. 27-44.

The composition of basic culture solutions used for mineral nutritionexperiments with Coccochloris Pcnioeygat were given as follows:

Compound Orsmi per PPM of tesentlalelements

NoNO:

KC'Null POI

}. ated:10244160C.C1r2Et_40Pe trie eltoCHM odd

N 510,9101

a. cc: N IL 40002 P 1.5

.0229 Mg I I

.0146 8 . $

.0559 Cs IL

.0O3 F. 8I6

.003

.02

.023

Hoag land's A to Z solution is added to the culture Aution at Ihsthe strength specified for higher plants.

The minimum concentration of each element for the optimumgrowth of Coccochloris Penlocrtia would have the following compo-sition in ppm: nitrogen, 13.0; phosphorus, 0.45; sulfur, 0.83; potas-sium, 2.25; magnesium, 0.13; iron, 0.03; and only traces of calciumderived from the inoculum and from impurities in the nutrients.

Ger !off, G. C. and P. Skoog. 1954.Cell Contcut of Nitrogen and Phosphorus as a Measure of their

Availability for Growth of Microcystis aeruginota. Ecology, Vol.35, No. 3, pp. 348-353.

The estimation of nutrient supplies by analysis of water collectedfrom the area in which the algae are present may be of little valuebecause the total supply of a nutrient element is dependent on thetotal volume as well as th.3 concentration of the bulution from whichit is absorbed. This effective volume will vary with the extent towhich the algae are moved about and come in contact with different

30

volumes of water. The concentration of nutrients in the water mayreflect only the level reached as a result of continuous withdrawal byorganisms and renewal by inflow and release from less available forms,Tn laboratory experiments, maximum algal yields were associated witha cell content of 4.0 percent total N although a maximum cell contentof 7.7 percent N was found when more nitrogen was available in theculture with no yield increase. The increase in nitrogen =tent ofthe cells represents luxury consumption. Likewise, the critical levelfor maximum growth was associated with a phosphorus content in thecell of 0.12 pement P and luxury consumption raised the P value to0.46 percent with no yield increase. The mean total nitrogen (N) andtotal phosphorus (P) contents of seven samples of ilfieroeystie aeru-ginosa collected from heavy algal blooms in three lakes in the vicinityof Madison, Wisconsin, was 6.83 and 0.69 percent, dry weight, respec-tively.

Ger lofirs G. C. and F. Skoog. 1957.Nitrogen as a Limiting Factor for the Growth of Microeystis aerugi-

nosa in Southern Wisconsin Lakes. Ecology, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp.556-561.

Laboratory experiments in which nitrogen, phosphorus or iron wasadded to lake water singly and in combinations and the resultant algalgrowth determined indicated that only nitrogen, phosphorus, andiron need be considered possible limiting elements. Of these, nitrogenis much more critical than either phosphorus or iron. Approximately5 milligrams of nitrogen and 0.08 milligram of phosphorus were neces-sary for each 100 milligrams of algae produced; a N: P ratio of 60:1.

Gerloff, G. C. and F. Skoog. 1957a.Availability of Iron and Manganese in Southern Wisconsin Lakes

for the Growth. of Microcyais aeruginosa. Ecology, Vol. 38, No.4, pp. 551-556.

Comparisons were made of the cell content of iron and manganesein cells of Microcystie aeruginosa collected from blooms in southernWisconsin lakes with critical levels of the elements for maximumgrowth determined in the laboratory. These critical levels in thealgal cells as determined in the laboratory were approximately 100mg/1 iron and 4 mg/I manganese. The cell contents of the elementsin the lakes tested were in all cases so far in excess of these values thatit seems unlikely the availability of either element is a factor in thedevelopment of blooms of this species in lakes.

31

Goering, J. J. and J. C. Neess. 1964.Nitrogen Fixation in Two Wisconsin Lakes. Limn° logy and Ocean-

ography, Vol. 9, No. 4., pp. 530-539.

Rates of biological nitrogen fixation in Lake Wingra and Lake Men-dota, at Madison, Wisconsin, varied with light intensity. In LakeMendota, rates were erratic and did not follow a regular seasonal pat-ter'''. Through the ice-free season, the rate of fixation was normallyzero, but positive rates did occur without obvious relation to theconcentrations of various forms of combined nitrogen. Significantfixation rates were found in Lake Wingra from mid-February to lateOctober. The highest rate observed was 14.85 Lg of nitrogen fixed perliter per 24 hours at a depth of 1 meter on July 26, 1961. Althoughthe rates were significant throughout the ice-free season, they oftenfluctuated widely from date to date. Fixation occurred at times whennitrate and ammonia were present; however, maximum rotes did notdevelop until nitrate and ammonia concentrations were low or un-detectable. Miorocystis and Artabaena were predominant genera pres-ent, and Anabaeua probably was the significant nitrogen fixer.

Gotaas, H. B. 1954.Discussion. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp.

325-326.

Dry weight algal yields of over 2,000 pounds per million gallons ofprimary sewage effluent have been obtained.

Grill, E. V. and F. A. Richards. 1964.Nutrient Regeneration from Phytoplankton Decomposing in Sea

Water. Journal of Marine Research, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 51-69.

A laboratory model of the regeneration of the inorganic nutrientsalts of phosphorus, nitrogen, and silicon from diatom cells decayingin the dark while subject to bacterial attack was studied. The obser-vations extended over a period of more than one year, but the signifi-cant changes appeared to have been restricted to the first five months.

The sudden increase in dissolved organic phosphorus, the decrease inparticulate phosphorus, and the onset of silica re-solution after theeighth day suggest the autolytic release of dissolved organic phos-phorus compounds from a dying diatom population. A rapid bac-terial modification apparently followed and quickly consumed thedissolved organic phosphorus compounds, so that by the seventeenthday they had been completely reassimilated into particulate matter.At the end of the fourth week an abrupt decomposition of particulatephosphorus and an increase in inorganic phosphate began. By this

32

z

time particulate nitrogen bad begun to break down into ammonia anddissolved organic nitrogen compouirds. Particulate phosphorus de-creased until the fifth month but subsequently increased at the expenseof the dissolved organic fraction. At the end of the experiment, 64percent of the phosphorus was dissolved inorganic phosphate, 32 per-cent was particulate, and 4 percent was bound in dissolved organiccompounds.

Particulate nitrogen began to break down into ammonia and dis-solved organic compounds after the second week. Ammonia increasedat a decreasing rate during the next 3 months and reached a maximumafter 104 days. At the end of the experiment about 33 percent of thetotal nitrogen was ammonia, 39 percent was in particulate matter and28 percent was in dissolved organic compounds; 40 percent of the par-ticulate nitrogen present at the time of darkening had been convertedto arnmonk, 10 percent to dissolved organic coinpounds, and 50 per-cent remained in particulate form.

Gut Hard, R. R. L. and V. Cassie. 1963.Minimum Cyanocolalamin Requirements of Some Marine Centric

Diatoms. Limno logy and Oceanography, Vol. ic No. 2, pp.161-165.

Marine planktonic algae often require thiamine, biotin, or vitaminB1, for growth. Based on the measurement of 10 cells randomly takenfrom 7 laboratory flasks each containing a different species of alga,the number of molecules of B1, required to produce one cubic micronof cell varied only from 5 to 18 in the different species irrespective ofhabitat or size, with an average of 10.1.

Harper, H. J. and H. R. Daniel. 1939.Chemical Composition of Certain Aquatic Plants. Botanical Ga.

zette, Vol. 96, p. 186.

Submerged aquatic weeds were found to be 12 percent dry matterand to contain an average of 1.8 percent total nitrogen (dry weight)and 0.18 percent total phosphorus.

Harris, E. and G. A. Riley. 1956.Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954. VIII. Chemical

Composition of the Plankton. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll.,Vol. 15, pp. 315-323.

The authors report that 6.Apercent of the wet weight of marine phy-teplankton is organic matter and that 1 percent of the organic matterof diatoms is phosphorus.

33

Harvey, H. W. 1960.The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters. Cambridge University

Press, American Branch, 32 Fast 57e1, St., New York 22, 240 pp.

Harvey states that although most of the phosphorus is absorbed byphytoplankton as orthophosphate ions, there is reason to believe thatsome may be absorbed as molecules of dissolved organic phosphate.From observations on a few species of phytoplankton, it appearslikely : "(i) that they can absorb phosphate as quickly as they need itfor rapid growth when its concentration in the water exceeds a thresh-old value whose magnitude lies in the region of 16 mg phosphate-Pper m" [.016 mg/1] ; (ii) that they can continue absorption of phos-phate and its conversion into organic phosphorus compounds through-out both day and night; and (iii) that they can build up a reserve ofstorage product which cannot be used directly for further syntheseswithout prior dephosphorylation, and that light sets free or activatesthe phosphorylase concerned.... In nature nearly all the phytoplank-ton is eaten by animals, largely by zooplankton, and part is voidedwithout being digested. Analyses of the faecal pellets of copepodsindicate that most of the phosphorus does not remain in the voided par-ticles of plants but dissolves in sea water. Part of this persists in thesea for a time as dissolved organic phosphorus compounds, and part isdoubtless dept- asphorylated by vegetable phosphorylases while in theanimals' guts or while in faecal pellets. Some of the phytoplanktonis digested and excreted by the animals as orthophosphate, excretedcontinuously whether the animals are well fed or starved. . . .

"All three inorganic nitrogen compounds, ammonium, nitrate andand nitrite, can be absorbed by phytoplankton, or at least by somespecies. There is a very marked preferential absorption of am-monium. . . . When the organisms become nitrogen-deficient, andare supplied with a nitrogen source, they absorb ammonium and ni-trate in the dark converting them into organic compounds in-cluding chlorophyll. Nitrite cannot be utilized in the dark."

The proportion of nitrogen to phosphorus in phytoplankton is nota fixed ratio. The author cites Ketchum (1939a, b) to the effect thatcells can be deficient in either and the ratio varies with the relativeconcentration in the medium. Direct experiment with a mixed cul-ture indicaied that some nine times more nitrogen than phosphoruswas used. Experiments by Ketchum (1939b) with the diatom, Phaeo-dactylum, show a reduction in rate of cell division when phosphatepresent in the medium is less than some 17 mg phosphate-P per m'.One experiment also showed that, with a sufficiency of phosphate,growth with as rapid in a sea water to which 47 mg nitrate-N per m'had been added, as in waters with greater additions. In other experi-ments the rate of nitrate absorption was reduced when the nitrate

34

content of the medium was below 100-150 mg nitrate-N per m°."There is indirect evidence that the growth rate of phytoplankton innature is reduced when the concentration of these nutrients falls be-low the threshold values suggested by the above experiments."

Ketchum, B. II. 1030a. The Absorption of Phosphate and Nitrate by Illumi-nated Cultures of Nitzschia closterium. American Journal of Botany,Vol. 20, p. 399.

Ketchum, B. H. 1930b. The Development and Restoration of Deficienciesin the Phosphorus and Nitrogen Composition of Unicellular Plants.Journ. Cell. Comp. Physiol., Vol. 13, p. 873.

Hasler, A. D. 1947.Eutrophication of Lakes by Domestic Sewage. Ecology, Vol. L8,

No. 4, pp. 383-395.

Eutrophication is defined as the intentional or unintentional enrich-ment of water. Hasler lists 37 lakes throughout the world varyingin size from 9.4 to 1,500,000 hectares that show early eutrophy owingto domestic drainage. The Ziirichsee, Switzerland, is composed oftwo distinct basins. The larger basin, 6,700 hectares, has become"strongly eutrophic" in the past 100 years owing to drainage fromurban effluents. The smaller upper basin, 2,000 hectares, receives nomajor urban drainage and has retained its oligotrophic character-istics. In 1898, O8cillatoria rubescen8 erupted in the lower basin andhas colored the outflowing stream copper-red on occasions since.Water transparency has become reduced as has the percent dissolvedoxygen saturation in the deeper `raters. ageillatoria rubescens alsoocoirred in the Hallwilersee, Switzerland, and in the Rotsee, Switzer-land. In 1938 Mortimer measured the contribution of nitrogen toLake Windermere; Eligland, a lake of 1,482 hectares with a maximumdepth of 67 meters. The total nitrogen income from drainage was326 metric tons (195 pounds per acre), the outflow was 318 metrictons, and 8 metric tons were retained (2.4 percent) in the lake basin."The abnormal acceleration of a process which is regarded se normalhas had diverse effects, some of which are not for the best interestsof man. The problem is especially serious because there is no wayknown at present for reversing the process of eutrophy."

Hasler, A. D. 1957.N- -ural and Artificially (Air-Plowing) Induced Movement of Radio-

active Phosphorus from the Muds of Lakes. International Con-ference on Radioisotopes in Scientific Research, IINESCO/NS/R1C/188 (Paris) 9 Vol. 4, pp. 1-16.

fn an undisturbed mud-water system, the percentage, es well as theamount of phosphorus which is released to the superimposed water

35

is very small. In laboratory experiments, when P" is placed at variousdepths in the mud the diffusion into the overlying non-circulatingwater is negligible if placed greater than 1 centimeter in the mud.Application of lime to the water, or to the mud, reduces the amountof soluble phosphorus available. Acidification of previously alkalizedmud will, upon agitation, increase the amount of phosphorus enteringsolution. In an aquarium experiment, circulation of the water abovephosphorus-rich mud with the aid of air bubbles increases thephosphorus in solution .

Hasler, A. D. and W. G. Einsele. 1948.Fertilization for Increasing Productivity of Natural Inland Waters.

Transactions of the Thirteenth North American Wildlife Confer.ence, pp. 527-555.

On lakes with extensive littoral but small pelagic development, afertilization rate of about 12 kilograms P per hectare (10.7 poundsper acre) is considered adequate if the growth of large aquatics is nottoo extensive and the water is at least medium hard. One applicationin the spring is sufficient. Large-scale :ertilization is not generallyadvised because of the eutrophication inherent in such a plan. Inlakes where a rapid change to eutrophy might be anticipated (i.e.,where the hypolimnion in late summer may drop to 5 to 7 mg/1 oxy-gen), the addition of normal aliquots of P (10.7 pounds per acre)leads, according to experience, to immediate eutrophication. Theauthors state that if the ratio of Fe to P is 2:1 or larger in the oxygen-depleted hypolimnica, the entire P will be bound to the oxidized Feat turnover, thus FePO, ; this is insoluble and goes into the sediment.

Hayes, F. R. and N. R. Beckett, 1956.The Flow of Minerals Through the Thermocline of a Lake. Areal's,

f. Hydrobiologie, Vol. 51, pp. 391-409 (from Putnam and Olson,1960).

If water in a lake is to reach equilibrium following spring mixingand subsequent stratification, the salt concentration of the epilimnionmust become less than the amount of salt at deeper levels because of thethermal gradient that is pre. ent. During summer stagnation, excesssoluble materials from bottom sediments will migrate upward to thesurface layers. If phosphorus or potassium is removed from thesurface layer by plant activity, there will be a movement of salts fromthe bottom upward toward the surface.

Laboratory experiments were conducted in a refrigerated room(3-5° C.). A knife-type heater was set in the cover of a Pyrex battery

36

jar and sampling tubes were arranged with horizontal openings atvarious depths in the jar so water could be remo ve(1 without disturbingthe stratification. Convection currents set up by the heater producedmixing of the epilimnion. The upper portion of the tank was insu-lated, the lower portion being in contact with the cold air of the room,with the result that a marked therraocline was quickly established. Alarge (400 liter) aquarium tank was set up in much the same way as thebattery jar except for the series of sampling tubes. When salts wereadded, they were first mixed with a red dye so their movement couldbe traced. Chemical analysis of lake samples was made on a flamephotometer.

For determination of temperatures of actual lake waters in thefield, a portable conductivity bridge was used from a boat. The ap-paratus has a 75-foot cable to which was fastened the cable from athermirtor-type thermometer. By raising and lowering these cables,several hundred readings were taken in succession.

When sodium chloride was added to the epilimnion, there was adecline in concentration of the salt in the epilimnion at the end of12 hours, accompanied by a corresponding increase in concentrationin the hypolimnion; b3' 60 hours there was approximate equality ofconcentration of the salt throughout the tank. When salts were addedto the hypolimnion, 27 days elapsed before there was an approxi-mately equal distribution throughout the tank.

When conductivity experiments were utilized in four selected lakes,the data indicate that the equal distribution of base proceeded accord-ing to results observed in laboratory experiments, with a maximumat the bottom of the thermocline.

Production of minerals from bottom mud would result, in diffusionof these minerals toward the surface and removal of nutrients byplants at the epilimnion will produce an upward flow of materials.

Hayes, F. R., J. A. McCarter, M. L. Cameron, and D. A. Livingstone.1952.

On the Kinetics of Phosphorus Exchange in Lakes. Journal ofEcology, Vol. 40, pp. 202-216.

One thousand millicuries of radioactive phosphorus were added tothe surface of an unstratified 10-acre lake having a depth of 22 feetover a 5-hour period. At the time of the experiment the lake con-tained 31 parts per billion of total phosphorus (3.7 x 10' grams inlake) ; the added 40 g of KH2P0, contained 9.1' g of phosphorus, in-creasing the quantity in the lake by 0.25 percent. Mixing was prac-tically complete on the first day, except in the deep hole where it took 3days. After 8 days, the bottom water had more P" than the rest of

771-090--66--_5 37

the lake. The loss of P" for the lake as a uhole was rapid at firstreaching a pleateau after a month. The phosphorus turnover timewas calculated at 5.4 and 39 days, respectively, for the water and solids.The gain by the bottom mud was greatest, during the first 10 daysleveling off in a month. It wan calculated that a layer of mud about 2centimeters thick participated in the phospho, as exchange.

Hoagland, D. R. 1944,Lectures on the Inorganic Nutrition of Plante. Chrontea BotanIca

Company, Waltham, Massachusetts, 226 pp.

Data from laboratory experiments provided evidence that withrespect to the ions studied (K, Ca, Mg, 112, PO4, NO,) their intakeby young barley plants over a i2 -hour interval was nearly the sameduring a dark period, with relatively small water absorption by theplants, as during a period of illumination, with relatively largeabsorption of water. It was not the movement of water that chieflydetermined the amount of salt absorbed, but rather the metabolicactivity of the plant.

Nitrate ions can be stored in plant cells, sometimes in large quan-tities, but normally their ultimate fate is to be reduced. In nutrientsolution investigations the ammonium ion ordinarily can be completelysubstituted for the nitrate ion. Nitrate is utilized by plants onlyfollowing its reduction, apparently through the stages of nitrite endammonia. Light is not essential as a direct factor in its reduction.Excised oarley roots tt-1,k ,arious other plant tissues can readily reducenitrate in darkness.

Hoffman, D. A. and 1. R. Olive. 1961.The Use of Radiophosphorus in Determining Food Chain Relation-

ships in the Aquatic Environment. U.S. Atom. Energ. Comm.,TID-13108, 46 pp; Water Pollution Abstracts, Vol. 35, No. 2,Abs. No. 270.

Experiments were carried out on the accumulation and concentra-tion of phosphorus-32 by a simple food chain consisting of green algae,Tnierocrustacea, Daphnia, and green sunfish. The concentrationfactors were found to be more than 25 at 10° C. 'The algae appearedto increase the amount of phosphorus for Daphnia during the first 24hours and to decrease it after longer periods. The amount of phos-phorus-32 accumulated by Daphnia was found to be proportiomil tothe amount of surface area available for abso:ption of phosphorus.

38

A.

Holden, A. V. 1961.The Removal of Dissolved Phosphate from Lake Water by Bottom

Deposits.Verb. int. Ver. Limnol. 1959, Vol. 14, pp. 247-251; Water Po liu

tion Abstracts, Vol. 35, No. 5, Abs. No. 889.

Experiments on the fertilization of Scottish locks and laboratoryexperiments on the loss of dissolved phosphate from water overlyingmud deposits sho'- ed that erobic bottom deposits can take up largeamounts of phosphate although The rate of absorption is slow. Whenphosphate is added as a fertilizer, the rate of removal by the depositsmay be slower than the uptake by macrophytie and attached flora.Most of tin phosphate absorbed remains in the upper aerobic zone ofthe mud and most of it is converted to organic forms so that only asmall proportion is available for release during periods of temporaryanaerobic conditions in the mud. When the concentration of dissolvedphosphate is high, there is some evidence of deeper penetration belowthe aerobic zone even in the absence of bottom fauna, nIthough theburrowing organisms probably assist penetration. In unfertilizedlakes, the quantity o: phosphorus in the mud surface is very high com-pared with the equilibrium concentration in the overlying water. Inshallow fertilized lakes, where the upper 15 cm of the bottom depositmay be involved in phosphate uptake, very large quqntities can beremoved from solution and much of that removed may be converted toforms which are unavailable for subsequent release to the water.

Hooper, F. F. and R. C. Ball. 1964.Responses of a Marl Lake to Fertilization. Transactions of the

American Fisheries Society, Vol. 93, No. 2, pp. 164-173.

A shallow marl lake was fertilized during three consecutive yearswith 10-10-10 or 12-12-12 at a rate of approximately 50 pounds peracre. Application was made in midsummer and evaluation of itseffect was made by comparing data gathered in a pretreatment and aposttreatment period each year. Fertilization brought an immediateincrease in suspended solids and a decrease in transparency. Thesechanges appeared to be caused by a coalescence of suspended marlrather than by chemical precipitation or by an increase in phytoplank-ton. The maximum concentration of phosphorus recorded after fer-tilization was approximately the same value in all three years (45 to47 parts per billion). This concentration represented approximately52 percent of the phosphorus added in each of the years. In 1954 themaximum concentration of nitrogen after fertilization was 65 percentof the amount added to the water. In 1955 a maximum of only 37percent of the added nitrogen appeared in samples. Fertilization did

4

39

not substantially increase photoplankton but brought about a wellmarked increase in the production of periphytcn algae in all threeyears.

Hooper, F. F. and ." . M. Elliott. 1953.Release of Inorgah.; Phosphorus from Extracts of Luke Mud by

Protozoa. Trans. Amer. Microscopical Society, Vol. 72, No. 3,pp. 376 -281.

Laboratory experiments suggest that certain benthic ciliates arecapable of splitting inorganic phosphorus from the rather dilute solu-tions of organic phosphates that occur in lake and pond sediments.Authors cite Cooper (1941) who indicated that bacterial decomposi-tion of plankton brings about rapid liberation of inorganic phosphorusin sea water; Renn (1937) who observed the release of phosphat fromautolyzing bacterial cells in sea water; Stevenson (1949) who observedan increase in the phosphate content of sea water when agitated withbottom mud and attributed this to the breakdown of bacterial cells;Hutchinson (1941) who stated that regeneration of phosphate takesplace to a large extent at the surface of the bottom mud in fresh-waterlakes and involves the action of bacteria (Solimorskaja-Rodins,1940) ; and Moore (1939) who reported an abundance of ciliates inthis microcosm indicating that this group also contributes heavilyto the decomposition processes taking place by metabolizing bacte-rial cells and particulate plankton detritus. Tlie Hooper and Elliottexperiments suggest that ciliates may also carry on a direct transfor-mat' on of the dissolved organic phosphorus present in this habitatthat is independent of bacterial activity.Cooper, L. H. N. 1941. The Rate of Liberation of Phosphates in Sea Water by

Breakdown of Plankton Organisms. Jour. Marine Biological Assoc. UnitedKingdom, Vol. 20, pp. 107-220.

Hutchinson, G. E. 1941, Limnological Studies in Connecticut. VI. Mechanismof Intermediary Metabolism in Stratified Lakes. Ecological Monographs, Vol.11, pp. 21-60.

Moore, G. M. 1939. A Limnological Tuvestigation of the Microscopic BenthicFauna of Douglae Lake, Michigan. Ecological Monographs, Vol. 9, pp. 637 -

582.Renn, C. E. 1937. Bacteria and Phosphorus Cycle in the Sea. Biological Bul-

letin, Vol. 72, pp. 190-195.Soltmorskaja- Rodfns, A. C. 1940. The Mobilization of Phosphates in Water

Reservoirs. Mikrobiologlia, Vol. 9, pp. 471-479.Stevenson, W. 1949. Certain Effects of Agitation upon the Release of Phos-

phate from Mud. Jour. Marine Biological Assoc. United Kingdom, Vol. 28,PP. 871-380.

40

Hutchinson, G. E. 1957.A Treatise on Limnology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1015

pp.

Phosphorus is cited as the element most important to the ecologist,since it is more likely to be deficient, and therefore to limit the biologi-cal productivity of any region of the earth's surface, than arethe other major biological elements. The total phosphate in naturalwaters varies from less than 1 milligram per cubic meter (0.001 mg/1..)to immense quantities in a very few closed saline lakes. The totalquantity depends largely on geochemical considerations, usually beinggreater in waters derived from sedimentary rock in lowland regionsthan in waters draining the crystalline rocks of mountain ranges.Most relatively uncontaminated lake districts have surface waters con-taining 10 to 30 mg P per me, but in some waters that are not obviouslygrossly polluted, higher values appear to be normal. The solublephosphate usually is of the order of 10 percent of the total. At theheight of summer there may be a great increase in total phosphorusin the surface waters at times of algal blooms, though soluble phos-phate is undetectable. One condition for the maximum developmentof such blooms may well be rapid decomposition and consequent liber-ation of phosphate in the littoral sediments during very warm weather.The phosphate would be taken up so fast by the growing algae thatit never would be detectable. When massive amounts of soluble phos-phate are added to a lake, it is rapidly taken up by the phytoplanktonand then sedimented. The productivity of a lake is increased, butonly for a time. The chemical relations of phosphorus in mud andwater evidently constitute a self-regulating system.

The phosphorus cycle exhibited during extreme summer stratifica-tion is considered to involve the following processes:

1. Liberatiou of phosphorus into the epilimnion from the littoral,hugely from the decay of littoral vegetation.

2. Uptake of phosphorus from water by littoral vegetation.8. Uptake of the liberated phosphorus by phytoplankton.4. Loss of phosphorus as a soluble compound, less assimilable than

ionic phosphate, fturn the phytoplankton, probably followedby slow regeneration of ionic phosphate.

5. Sedimentation of phytoplankton t.nd other phosphorus-con-taining seston, perhaps largely faecal pellets, into the hypolim-

8. Liberation of phosphorus from the sedimenting seston in theItypolimr ion or when it arrives at the mud-water interface.

7. Diffusion of phosphorus from the sediments into the water atthose depths at which the superficial layer of the mud lacks anoxidized micro-zone.

41

The mean ammonia-nitrogen content of rain falling in temperateregions, omitting large industrial towns is 0.64 mg per liter; the meannitrate nitrogen content of the same samples is 0.106 mg per liter.

lgnatieff, V. and 11. J. Page (Editors). 1958.Efficient Use of Fertilizers. Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations, No. 43, 355 pp.

Between 1040 and 1058 the annual world consumption of fertilizersincreased from 11.5 to 20.2 million tons.

The weights of plant nutrient elements in kilograms contained ingood yields of common crop plants were given as follows:

CropYkld perhectare In

metric tons

Kilograms Percent

N P N P

Cotton 1.1 73 28 $0 2.21 0 24 SS 1.1 .2=mixed)3.6 106 39 2.1 1.0

Potatoes 20.2 HO 34 09 .2Forotrenso 1.1 140 45 & t 4. 0

1.1 90 22 1 2 1.2Wbest 1 0 66 22 2.9 1.1

On the average, fresh horse and cattle manures contain 20 to 25percent dry matter, 0.30 to 0.0 permit nitrogen, 0.20 to 0.85 phos-phoric acid (1),0s) and 0.15 to 0.70 percent potash (K,O). Comparedwith commercial fertilizers on a unit-weight basis, animal manure islow in plant nutrients: especially in phosphorus. Thus, it is cus-tomarily applied at relatively much higher rates than fertilizers-probably 50 to 100 times higher.

Approximate composition of natural organic fertilizer materialswas given as follows:

Maters Parent totalnitrogen (N)

Percent totalpheapbcens

ti (aside(PtOs)

Fish Scrap et meal, dried 9.5 7. 0Onion, hat 1 11 & 0Manure, vitt*, dried 2.0 1.SKan^ goat, drie9 1.2 1.6Manilet, WM, dried 2.0 1.Manure, poul.s, dried 1 0 191seureollee dried Ito 1.2Fesirted, atStorage (dodge,

drrdried 1 0 2. 0

Soybean meal 1.0 1. 1Tankage, mats 9.0 .5Wool waste 15 .9

42

In the United States, the usual dressings of N, and available PAin kilograms per hectare were given as follows:

CropKilograms per hectare

N PtO,

CottonMatteSu tuboetsSWIltrarbe

25 to 100100at) to 20040 to 11020 to 60..

60.26 to 100.

40 to 100.$0 to 45.20 to 60.

Johannes, R. E. I964a.Phosphorus Excretion and Body Size In Marine Animals, Micro-

zooplankton and Nutrient Regeneration. Science, Vol. 146, pp.923-924.

Animal excretions are a major source of plant nutrients in the sea.In marine animals the rate of excretion of dissolved phosphorus perunit weight increases as body weight decreases. As a consequencemicrozooplankton may play a major role in planktonic nutrient regen-eration. A 12-gram lamellibranch released an amount, of phosphorusequal to its total phosphorus content every 438 days, the body-equiv-alent excretion time of 0.0-mg amphipod Ivo s 31 hours; and that of an0.4 x10-' ?kg ciliate was 14 minutes. An animal weighing 1 lig releasesapproximately 50 trues as -nuch phosphorus per unit weight as a100-mg animal, while the smaller animal consumes only 5 to 8 timesas much oxygen per unit weight.

Johannes, R. E. 1964b.Uptake and Release of Dissolved Organic Phosphorus by Repre

sentatives of a Coastal Marine Ecosystem. Linmology andOceanography, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 224-234.

A. benthic diatom, a benthic amphipod, and mixed species of marinebacteria were used in studies of the uptake and release of dissolve'.organic phosphorus using the radionuclide P". Over one-third of thesoluble phosphorus released by the amphipod was in organic form(0.79 pg -at. dissolved organic phosphorus per gram of animal perhour). Marine bacteria utilized 80 percent of this. Thirty percentwas hydrolixed in sterile media, possibly by alkaline phosphatase re-leased by the amphipods. Bacteria-free diatoms released little dis-solved organic phosphorus during growth, but released 20 percent oftheir total phosphorus as dissolved organic phosphorus after growthhad ceased. Growing diatoms could reabsorb 40 percent. )f that re-leased by senescent cells. Marine bacteria were able to absorb 92 per-cent, No regeneration of dissolved inorganic phosphate from dis-

43

solved organic phosphate in the presence of bacteria was observed.Marine bacteria, living or dead, released very little dissolved organicphosphate.

Johannes, R. E. 1964c.Uptake and Release of Phosphorus by a Benthic Marine Amphipod.

Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 235-242.

Lembos intermedius released phosphorus fractions into the waterat the following rates: dissolved inorganic phosphate, 1.4 pg-atig ofanimal (wet wgt.) per hr; dissolved organic phosphorus, 0.79 µg -atigper hr; particulate phosphate, 7.9 pg -at. /g per hr. Both metabolicwaste phosphorus and phosphorus that had not been assimilated buthad simply passed through the gut are present in all three fractions.The total phosphorus release rate drops by more than 50 percent in 2hours when the animals are deprived of food. The r hysiological turn-over time, the time it takes an amount of phosphorus equal to that inthe tissues of the animal to pass Virough these tissues was 41 hours.The ecological turnover time, the time it takes an amount of phos-ohorus equal to that in the tissues to pass through the animal whetheror not it is assimilated was 6.0 hours.

Juday, C. and E. A. Dirge. 1931.A Second Report on the Phosphorus Content of Wisconsin Lake

Waters. Trans. Wis. Aced. of Sel., Arts and Letters, Vol. 26, pp.353-382.

The mean quantity of soluble phosphorus in the surface watersof 479 lakes in northeastern Wisconsin was 0.003 mg/1; the rangewas from none in 9 lakes to a maximum of 0.015 mg/1 in one. Themean quanity of organic phosphorus in the surface waters of theselakes was C.020 mg/1; the range was from 0.005 mg to 0.103 mg/1.

The soil and subsoil of the lake district as well as the underlyingstrata through which the underground water passes are the chiefsources of lascustrine phosphorus. Nineteen wells located on theshores of 13 widely distributed different lakes gave total phosphorusvalues of 0.002 mg/1 to 0.197 mg/I with a mean of 0.029 mg/1.

Juday, C., E. A. Dirge, GA Kemmerer, and R. J. Robinson. 1927.Phosphorus Content of Lake Waters of Northeastern Wisconsin.

TransactInts of the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, andLetters, Vol. 23, pp. 233-248.

The quantity of soluble phosphorus in surface waters of 88 lakesvaried from none to 0.015 mg per liter. It was uniformly distributed

44

1

from top to bottom during the spring circulation of the lakes butduring summer stratification there was an increase in concentration ofsoluble phosphorus in the lower strata because of decomposition oforganic mc, terial; two to tea times the an.ount was found in the lowerlevels than was present in surface waters.

Organic phosphorus varied from 0.007 mg per liter in the surfacewater of one lake to a maximum of 0.12 mg in a sample from the 15-meter level of another. In general, the amount of organic phosphoruswas two to ten times greater than the amount of soluble phosphorus.

Juday, C., E. A. Dirge and V. W. Me !oche. 1941.Chemical Analyses of the Bottom Deposits of Wisconsin Lakes.

Second Report. Trans. Wis. Acad. &I., Arts and Letters, Vol.33, pp. 99-114.

Chemical analyses of the bottom deposits of 21 Wisconsin lakesexpressed in percentage of the dry weight of the samples gave P,O,values ranging from 0.05 to 0.61 percent; organic carbon, 6.62 to 40.6percent; organic nitrogen, 0.55 to 2.94 percent; and organic carbonto organic nitrogen ratios from 7.5 to 14.4.

Kevern, N. R. and R. C. Ball. 1965.Primary Productivity and Energy Relationships in Artificial

Streams. Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp.74-87.

The mean percentage and standard deviation of organic phosphorusin periphyton based on 118 samples collected on substrata in artificialstreams was 0.21±0.11. The nitrogen content of the periphyton wasestimated from the analysis of 62 samples, giving a mean percentageand standard deviation of 8.29±1.63. The ratio of the nitrogen con-tent to the phosphorus content was calculated at 15.9 for the overallstudy.

The concentration of nutrients in mg/I added to the streams wasas follows:

IIv.. DS I Wry 1003 7011,1000 J Ociobet OKI

Vile0

45

Knight, A. and R. C. Ball. 1962.Some Estimates of Primary Production Rates in Michigan Ponds.

Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, Vol. 47, pp.219-233.

Primary production rates were obtained from four ponds located onthe Michigan State University experimental farm. The methylorange alkalinity of then ponds varied between 46 and 96 ppm andthe p11 varied from 8.1 to 9.8. A comparison of primary productivityestimates for various ecosystems was presented as follows:

PRODUCTION RATE

Louttion !Zetbod

Grams of organicmatter per square

meter per day

? Iscropb yin(dry weight)

Souibe

phyto-plankton

Peri-pt7ton

()ramsper

squaremeter

per day

Poundspeeten

PoundA

Pood BPond 0foodBlind Lake, kticiaBereats Sea.Ncetb Sea (annual

Sourtb 2t.lantio.Red Cedar River, Mkb.

80ret Sprints, Pia.-Sargasso SeeSeeweed Beds, Nova

Scotia.Bleat (world *retoo)_

Oran Lake, WisLake Mendota, Wis.....

C34C14

C14Periphyton

accrual.Organic weight

Organ k weight,ManeBarrett

BarestBarrett

O 30.48.44.64

1.20. 56

. 2)4 SO

1.00-& 00

.26

0.23.30.44.88

.56

1.43& 47a S3& 00. .....

7.40

1.00

2.10

1,0472,8602,0424, r29

.....

1,6901,101

Sebelsite, 1960.Corlett, 1957, ISteel, 1257.4

Stamen, 1984.Ganda, 1900.

II. T. Odom,1967.

RIley, 1937.Tesnlya, Rt7.

Wortinsky &Worttosky,Ikki

Rickett, 1924.Rkkett, 1921.

4 Quoted by Strickland, 1900.

46

a

Corlett, J. 1957. Measurement of Primary Production in the WesternBarents Sea. Paper presentbl at a Symposium of the InternationalCouncil for the Eiploratton of the Sea. Bergen, 1957, Preprint C/no. 8.

Ortehda, A. R., and Morris I.. Brehmer. 1900. A Quantitative Method forthe Collection and Measurement of Stream Periphyton. Limnol. Oceanog.,5:191 -194.

Odum, 11. T. 195T. Trophic Structure and Productivity of Silver Springs,Florida. 13col. Mono., 27: 55-112.

Ilitl.ett, II. W. 1922 A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquit. Plantsof fake Mendota. Trans. Wks. Acad. Set, 23: 501-527.

Rickett, 11. W. 1951. A Quantitative Study t4 the Larger Aquatic Plantsof Green Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Set, 21:881-414.

Riley, Gordon A. 1257. Phytoplankton of the North Central Sargasso Sea.Limnot. Oceanog, 2: 252-270.

Scbelske, O. L. 1900. The Availability of Iron as a Factor UmitingPrimary Productivity in a Marl Lake. Doctoral dissertation, Univ. Mich.

Steel, J. II. 1957. A Comparison of Plant Production Estimates Using Cuand Phosphate Data. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. United Kingdom, 36:233.

Steeman, N. E. 1954. On Organic Production In the Oceans. J. Cons. Int.Explor. Mer., 19(3) : 309.

Strickland, J. 1). H. 1900. Measuring the Production of Marine Phyto-plankton. J. Fish. nes. Boards of C'nada, Bull. No. 12?, 172 pp.

Tamiya, Hiroshi. 1957, Mass Cultur of Algae. Ann. Her. Plant Physiol,8: 809-334.

Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woyt:nsky. 1953. World Population and Pro-duction. The Twentieth Centnry Fund, New York.

Krata, W. A. and J. Myers. 1955.Nutrition and Growth of Several Blue-green Algae. American

Journal of Botany, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 282-287.

Media and methods have been developed for the quantitative studyof growth of three blue-green algae, Anabaena variabilia, Aruievetlanidulana, and a strain of Nostoo muaeorunt. Temperature optima forthe growth of all three species lie above 30° C. Anaeyetia nidulanaat 41° O. has the highest growth rate yet reported for an alga, ageneration time of about two hours. Both sodium and potassiumare required for maintenance of maximum growth rate of all threwspecies. Both ammonia and nitrate will serve as nitrogen sourcesfor all three species. Urea is used by two species, free nitrogen onlyby one, Noatoe museorum. All three species appear to be obligatephototrophs.

Krauss, R. W. 1958.Physiology of the Freshwater Algae. Annual Review of Plant

Physiology, Vol. 9, pp. 207-244.

Phosphorus assimilation by P-deficient cells of Chlorella was meas-ured by Al Kholy (1956) who found that growth continued until theP content dropped to 1 x 10-' rg per cell. Mackereth (1953) deter-mined that Aaterionella can take up and store P from a concentrationof less than 1 ppm. The limiting requiremen: is 0.06 pg P per 10° cells,so 1pg P can produce 16 x 10' cells before limitation sets ilt. Itarvey(1953) has demonstrated that inositolhexaphosphate ared glycero-phosphate are absorbed by Nitteellia dosterium in both light and dark-ness, but Rice (1958) showed that little conversion of inorganic P toorganic compounds occurred in the dark

Nitrogen fixation demonstrated among the algae only in the Natio-(swede, Ofreillo:on'aceae, Seytonernataccae, Stigonernataome, and

47

Rivulariaceae (Fogg, 1951; Wielding, 1941) has been studied fromeconomic as well as scientific points of view. Watanabe (1950) showedthat, in four years after innoculation with Tolypothrix tenuis, fieldsof rice yielded 128 percent more than uninnoculated controls. Theplants in the innoculated paddies contained 7.5 pounds more N peracre than the controls (Watanabe, 1951). De and Mandal (1956)also were able to obtain from 13 to 44 pounds of fixed nitrogen peracre from unfertilized, waterlogged rice-soils. Fogg (1951) foundthat Mastigocladfut luminous can fix 12.88 mg N per liter in 20 days.Atmospheric nitrogen, however, is not generally as efficient as a sourcefor growth as NIP or nitrate. Kratz and Myers (1955) showed thatN fixation in Nostoo supported only 75 percent of the growth obtainedon nitrate.

Al Kholy, A. A., 19'50. Physiol. Plantarum, Vol. 9, pp. 137-143.De, P. K. aid Handal, 1950. Soil Sci , Vol. 81, pp. 453-459.Fogg, 0. ?, 1951. 3. Exptl. Botany, Vol. 2, pp. 117-120.Harvey, If. W., 1953. J. Marine Blot. Assoc., U. K., Vol. 31, pp. 475-416.Kraft, W. A. and J. Myers, 1955. Am. J. Botany, Vol. 42, pp. 282-=Nfackereth, F. J., 1953. J. Exptl. Botany, Vol. 4, pp. 206 -333.flee, T. It., 1953. Fishery Bull. of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Vol. 54,

pp. n-so.Watanabe, A., 1951. Arch. Biochem. Iliophys., Vol. 84, pp. 50-55.Watanabe, A., 1950. Bolan. Nfag. (Tokyo), Vol. 69, pp. 820 -n1.Wielding, S., 1941. Botan. Notiser, pp. 315-392.

Kuenzler, E. 3. 1961.Phosphorus Budget of a Mussel Population. Limnology and

Oceanography, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 400-415.

The phosphorus budget of a Modiolus dem idsKs Dillwyn populationin a Georgia intertidal salt marsh was studied. Percentage phosphorusin mussel bodies decreased from 1 percent of the dry weight in smallindividuals to 0.6 percent in adults. The standing crop of phosphorusin the population was 87.2 mg P per m', the body fraction comprising67 percent, the shell 80 percent, and the liquor 8 percent. Proratedlames and elimination rates (Fg P /m'day) of the population were:mortality 21; gametes 11; dissolved organic 23; phosphate 260; andfeces 460. Quantities of phosphorus present. in natural marsh water(mg P/m wore: paiculate 14; phosphate 19; and dissolved organic6. The mussel population removed 5.4 mg P/mt of particulate phos-phorus and 0.07 mg/P/m1 of phosphate daily, of which 0.78 mgP/m' was required as food and 4.7 mg IVO was deposited as pseudo -feces. The turnover time of phosphorus in the population was 115days.

48

Lackey, J. 13. 1945.Plankton Productivity of Certain Southeastern Wisconsin Lakes as

Related to Fertilization. II. Productivity. Sewage Works Jour-nal, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 795-802.

There is no definite criterion as to what actually constitutes a plank-ton bloom; however, when an organism reached or exceeded 500 per mlof raw water, it was termed a bloom. For very small organisms, asChlorella, this might not be noticeable in the water, but for organismssuch as Ceratium hirundinella or Pandorino, morurn. vivid discolora-tions of the water are evident. Four of the 17 lakes studied had acollective total of 55 blooms during the 13.month study, whereas, 6of the lakes did not have a single genus that showed 500 individualsper ml in the samples examined.

Lackey, J. B. 1949.Plankton as Related to Nuisance Conditions in Surface Water. Lint-

nologIcal Aspects of Water Supply and Waste Disposal. Anteri-can Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington,De CS 11 pp. 56-63.

A bloom is an unusually large number of plankters, usually one ora few species, per unit of the first few centimeters of surface water.An arbitrary definition has set 500 individuals per ml as constitutinga bloom. In 16 southeastern Wisconsin lakes and three rivers in1942-43, organism groups reached bloom proportions a total of 509times.

Lackey, J. 13. 1958.Effects of Fertilization on Receiving Waters. Sewage and Indus-

trial Wastes, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 1411-1416.

Author lists ". . benefits, at least from sewage, due to algalgrowths." The 't include (a) reoxygenation, (b) mineralization, and(c) production of a food chain. Three well recognized ills are: (a)algal toxicity, (b) aesthetic harm, and (c) buildup of biochemicaloxygen demand. Green algae (.1f ieract ;num) growing in sewage inan experimental lagoon at the University of Florida had a 1301) of17.8 mg/1 in five days. These( algae, harvested from 500 ml of water,produced a dry weight of 0.0848 gram representing protoplasm, cellu-lose, and starch. Author cites Lackey et al., (1919) to the effect thatafter the oyster industry was well established in Great South Banthe Long Island duck industry located around the Ray. The duckexcreta at once began to fertilize the Bay. A heavy algal bloom re-sulted but the algae were not suitable food, or they produced externalmetabolites that adversely affected the oysters; thus, an annual four

49

million dollar industry was destroyed. Letts and Adeney (1008) werecited as reporting on the pollution of estuaries and tidal waters bysewage and trade wastes in Ireland and Great Britain and relatingthe destruction of salmon and sea trout fisheries to the growth ofvast beds of macroscopic green alga, Viva, and its subsequent decay.That decay produced intolerable odors, blackened paint and silver inhomes, and generally was damaging to real estate values.

Lackey, J. B., G. Vanderborgb, Jr. and J. B. Glancy. 1919. I'lankton ofWaters Overlying Shellfish Producing Grounds. Proc. National ShellfishAssn.

Letts, E. A. and W. E. Adeney. 1008. "ollution of Estuarief. and TidalWaters. Appendix VI, Fifth Report, Royal C,onitntssion on Sewage Dis-posal. II. aI. S. Stationery Office, London.

Lackey, J. B. and C. N. Sawyer. 1945.Plankton Productivity. of Certain Southeastern Wisconsin Lakes as

Related to Fertilization. I. Surveys. Sewage Works Journal,Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 573-585.

A review of the investigative work on the Madison, Wisconsin,lakes problem is presented. Data are graphically plotted to show therelationship of biological activity and inorganic nitrogen concentra-tions in the water. As the biological activity 's reduced during thecold winter months, the concentration of inorganic nitrogen in thesurface water increases, and visa versa. The lakes below Madison,Wisconsin, were receiving 73 to 422 pounds per acre per year of inor-ganic nitrogen and 6.6 to 62.2 pounds per acre per year of inorganicphosphorus. They were being fertilized from 2.5 to 15 times as licavilyRS ordinary farm land. It was reported that, ". . . A normal appli-cation of nitrogen and phosphorus to farm lands seldom exceedsand 12 lbs. per acre, respectively, and such applications are not usuallymade more than once every 3 or 4 years."

Lea, W. L., G. A. Rohlich, and W. J. Katz. 1954.Removal of Phosphates from Treated Sewage. Sewage and Indus-

trial Wastes, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 261-275.

Laboratory studies show it is possible to remove approximately 06to 99 'went of the soluble phosphates from the effluent of a sewagetreatment plant in a coagulation process employing aluminum sulfate,

50

I

ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, or copper sulfate. The residual phos-phate concentration of the effluent following coagulation with 200mg/1 of alum was 0.00 mg/1 expressed as P. The aluminum hydrox-ide floc resulting from the hydrolysis of alum may be recovered, puri-fied by removing the adsorbed phosphates in the form of tricalciumphosphate, and re-used for further phosphorus removal in the form ofsodium aluminato. This recovery and purification reduces by 80 per-cent the cost of chemicals required to remo-le phosphates from sewagetreatment plant effluent. Pilot plant studies show that with the useof the alum recovery process, from 77 to 89 percent of the solublephosphates can be, removed. Filtering of the effluent showed that from93 to 97 percent of the soluble phosphate can be removed. Concen-trations of 0.578 to 0.80 mg,/1 1' would be expected to remain in theunfiltered effluent and 0.022 t) 0.088 mg/1 P in the filtered effluent.As shown from pilot plant, data, the cost of the chemicals per year, withchemical recovery, for a plant designed to treat 14.4 mgd would be$78,350 ($15 per 1 mg.).

Love, R. M., J. A. Loverr., and N. R. Jones. 1959.The Chemical Composition of Fish Tissues. Dept. of Scientific

and Industrial Research Special Report No. 69, Her Majesty'sStat'..3nery Office, London, 62 pp.

Fishes in general contnin SO to 85 percent. .rater. There is about 1percent of ash in the muscle. The amount of phosphorus (P) in fishmuscle from 49 specimens was reported to range from 68 to 550 mg %and average 190 milligratns percent [19 parts per million, wet weight).

Low, J. II. and F. C. Bellrose, Jr. 1944.The Seed and Vegetative Yield of Waterfowl Food Plants in the

Illinois River Valley. Jour. Wildlife Management, Vol. 8, No. 1,p. 7.

Coontall growths in the Illinois River valley approached 2,500pounds per acre (dry weight), Sag ) pon Iweed 1,700 pounds per acre,and duckweed 244 pounds per acre. The authors found that the seedproduction of wild rice approached 32 bushels per acre; of pondweed,Potantogeton ameriewnto, 20 bushels per acre; of Sago pondweed, 1.5bushels per acre; and of coontail, 0.8 bushel per acre.

51

Ludwig, H. F., E. Kazmlerezak, and R. C. Carter. 1964.Waste Disposal and the Future at Lake Tahoe. Journal of the

Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE, Vul. 90, No. SA3, Proc.Paper .1947, pp. 27-51 (June).

The extraordinary clarity of 192-Pquare-mile I At Tahoe is threat-ened by the buildup of nitrogen and other nutrients reaching the lakefrom community wastcs produced in the Tahoe Basin. Lake Tahoehas a maximum depth of 1,645 ft., and a volume of 122 million acre ft.Complete overturn of the water has not been observed but could possi-bly occur during unusually severe winters. Maximum transparencyJoserved by Secehi disc was 136 feet, the minimum 49 feet. Primaryproductivity (late of photosynthetic carbon fixation) of Lake Tahoewas 39 g C per sq. m. per yr. or an average of 99 mg C per sq. m. perday. Oligochttota was found to be the dominant class of benthio or-ganism ranging from a concentration of less than 1 per liter of sedi-ment to 77 per liter of sod' %lent. The nutrient balance for Lake Tahoeindicates that 706,200 pounds of chloride, 255,200 pounds of 'Nitrogen,and 46,200 pounds of phosphorus enter the lake each year; and that719,400 pounds of chloride, 28,600 pounds of nitrogen, and 8,300pounds of phosphorus leave the lake. (Retention within the lakebasin is 89 percent for nitrogen and 93 percent for phosphorus. Thenitrogen loading to the lake is 2 lbs. per acre per yr.]

Mackenthun, K. M. 1962.A Review of Algae, Lake Weeds, and Nutrients. Journal Water

Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 31, No. 10, pp. 1077-1085.

Paper summarizes nutrient information from several sources. Datafor several fertile Wisconsin streams are presented :

nowe.L2

Criwfish Kim st mouth:Norma SO) 450 ,121 SKIHoreb IMO 4,290 1,400 210

Rock Rivet below }teem:Noma. 1,400 470 K9 NOMeth. 6, OM 4, 160 kV* SOO

ltstes Rine:Nomad 62 441 162 Os

Meth. 41 k MO ell KObow end:

Naafi II I,!13300Meth_ , 00 11,130 211

bullish Cotot: Norm! 21 4,616 1110

Nuttkot Motto. Ob./yr/Us.)

lutist& N Total P Sokbh P

52

A

Nutrient loadings and retentions (annual averages) for eutrophic algalproducing Wisconsin lakes and oxidation ponds are presented:

Nutrient loading and retention (annual average)

Site Date

Inorganic nitrogen Soluble phosphorus

Loading 1 Retention(lb./yr./acre) (Percent)

Loading Retention(lb./yr./acre) (Percent)

(a) LAKES

Mendota 20 0.6Monona 1942-43 73 48 7 64

1943-44 DO 70 9 &I

Waubesa . 1942-43 422 50 62 -261943-44 448 64 64 21

Iregonsa 1942-43 188 44 84 -211943-44 156 61 88 12

/Cosh k onong 1959-60 90 80 40 80-7C

(b) OXIDATION PONDS

Yet. City

New Auburn

Spooner

19571959AprilAugustDecemberAugust

2,4273,7604, 0004,6003,6143,430

97856

986593

4028,690

7671,3501,1681,680

64SC

C

se(

66

Mackenthun, Kenneth M. Unpublished Data.

Pentavalent arsenic will appear as phosphorus in the standard phos-phorus determination. False soluble phosphorus determinations pro-duced by known concentrations of pentavalent arsenic in distilledwater as demonstrated in the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygienewere as follows:

As (rag./1.) Apparent P(/41.)

As (mg./1.) Apparent P(m14.)

As (mg./I.) Apparent P(mg ft.)

0 0 0.183 .08 0.7 .840.018 .01 0.2 .11 1.0 .430.033 .02 0.326 .16 1.3 .540.05 .03 0.4 .20 2.0 .780.0650.1

.03

.080.50.65

.21

.333.0 1.08

Aquaria tests indicate that a 5 -mg/1 concentration of trivalentarsenic will produce the same pseudo phosphorus reading as a 5-mg/1pentavalent arsenic concentration in 15 days in full sunlight at roomtemperature. This transition may take 40 days in the dark under coolertemperatures. In a vessel filled with lake water to which only sodiumarsenite was added, the arsenic content remained relatively constantthroughout the forty-day period. On the other hand, when lake waterwas superimposed upon 3 inches of lake bottom mud, arsenic andpseudo phosphorus concentrations diminished rapidly, especially after

171-0913--435---0 53

10 days. A small amount of arsenic remained in solution in theaquaria at the end of 40 days, but much had been absorbed by thelayer of mud on the bottom.

Lakes that have received sodium arsenite for the control of aquaticvegetation may contain sufficient ursenic in solution to interfere withphosphorus determinations.

Mackenthun, K. M., W. M. Ingram, and R. Porges. 1964.Limno logical Aspects of Recreational Lakes. U.S. Public Health

Service Publication No. 1167, 176 pp.

Moyle (1961) quotes a number of investigators converting their dataon bottom fauna standing crop to pounds per acre (wet weight). Sometypical values include 248 pounds per acre from a Minnesota pond(Dineen, 1953) ; 67 to 82 pounds per acre in an unfertilized Michiganpond, and 101 to 127 pounds per acre in a fertilized Michigan pond(Ball, 1949) ; 124 pounds per acre in Lizard Lake, Iowa (Tebo, 1955) ;398 pounds per acre in the Mississippi River system with no weeds,and 1,143 pounds per acre in the Mississippi River system in weeds(Moyle, 1940) ; and as much as 3,553 pounds per acre in a Ohara bedin a slow stream in New York (Needham, 1938). Borutsky (1939)working on the deepwater benthos of a lake in Russia, concluded thatthroughout the year 6 percent of the biological productivity was lostas emerged insects that perished outside the lake basin, 14 percent waseaten by fish, 55 percent was returned to the lake as dead larvae, castskins, etc., and 25 percent remained to assure the continuation of thespecies the following year.

Basic sources of nutrients to lakes and reservoirs are (a) tributarystreams carrying land runoff and waste discharges (b) the interchangeof bottom sediments, and (c) precipitation from the atmosphere.Studies of Wisconsin waste stabilization ponds indicate annual percapita contributions of 4.1 pounds of inorganic nitrogen and 1.1 poundsof soluble phosphorus (Meckenthum and McNabb, 1961). The Nine-Springs Sewage Treatment Plant provides primary and secondarytreatment for all wastes from Madison, Wis., metropolitan area of 85square miles with a population of about 135,000. The effluent from thesecondary processesone-fourth settled sewage from trickling filtersand three-fourths from activated sludgehas an annual per capitacontribution of 8.5 pounds of inorganic nitrogen and 3.5 pounds ofsoluble phosphorus.

Land runoff may often be the major contributor of nutrients to thetributary stream. The annual loss of nitrogen and phosphorus peracre from a planting of corn on a 20 percent slope of Miami silt loamwas found to be 38 and 1.8 pounds, respectively ; on an 8 percent slope,

54

this was reduced to 18 pounds of nitrogen and 0.5 pound of phos-phorus (Eck et al. 1957). In a study of the lower Madison lakes,Sawyer et al. (1945) found that the annual contribution of inorganicnitrogen per acre of drainage area tributary to Lake Monona was 4.4pounds, Lake Waubesa, 4.0 pounds, and Lake Kegonsa, 6.4 pounds.

Sawyer et al., (1945) found the nitrogen and phosphorus contentof the bottom muds in the Madison lakes to be 7,000 to 9,000 peg dryweight and 1,000 to 1,200 p.g/g dry weight, respectively.

As fixed nitrogen enters the reservoir, it is incorporated in the bio-mass as an element of protein. Upon death or excretion, nitrogen isliberated for reuse. During this process some is lost: (a) in the lakeeffluents (as much as 40 percent), (b) by diffusion of volatile nitrogencompounds from surface water, (c) by denitrification in the lake, and(d) in the formation of permanent sediments.

Likewise, phosphorus, taken up in the web of life, is liberated forreuse upon death of the organism (Cooper, 1941). Some may settleinto the hyoolimnion with the sedimentation of seston (all living andnonliving floating or swimming plants or animals) or in fecal pellets.and some may be released at the mud-water interface (Hooper andElliott, 1953).

The Madison Lakes problem at Madison, Wisconsin, has been a sub-ject of nationwide discussion, intensive investigation, and legislativeand legal action for many years. The series of Yahara River lakesat Madison, Wisconsin, includes Lake Mendota, Lake Monona, LakeWaubesa, and Lake Kegonsa, respectively. Madison, Wisconsin, islocated between Lake Mendota and Lake Monona. In the early his-tory of the city, Lake Monona received raw sewage and later treatedsewage effluent from the City of Madison. In 1926, the Nine-SpringsSewage Treatment Plant was placed in operation and the effluentfrom this installation was tarried via Nine-Springs Creek to the Ya-hara River above Lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa. The enrichment ofthese lower Madison Lakes by the highly nutritious effluent producednuisance algal growths, offensive odors, and periodic fish kills. Theseconditions led to innumerable complaints, much debate, and even-tually, in December 1958, legislative and legal action forced the di-version of the effluent from the Madison Metropolitan SewerageDistrict's Nine-Springs Treatment Plant around the lower MadisonLakes.

The 1912-43 report to the Governor's Committee on a study of theMadison Lakes (Sawyer et al., 1945) contained results of over 15,000chemical determinations mostly on nitrogen and phosphorus, alongwith appropriate flow data. Algal counts were also made and cor-related with nutrients found. Major conclusions reached were that(1) the biological productivity of the local lakes is a function of theloading of inorganic nitrogen on each lake, (2) the soluble phosphorus

55

content of the water may be a factor in limiting the rate of biologicalactivity and in determining the nature of the growths when its con-centration drops below 0.01 mg/l, (3) drainage from improved marshland is approximately two to three times as rich in inorganic nitrogenas drainage from ordinary farm land, and (4) high biological pro-ductivity r.nd nuisance conditions do not always occur simultaneously.

The 1943-1944 report, which gives the results of over 21 000 chem-ical determinations and complementary biological studies, ".strengthen the conviction that inorganic forms of nitrogen and phos-phorus are the main factors in providing fertilizing elements for algalblooms."

The nutrients' stimulation of algal production can lead to the for-mation of a mass of organic matter greater than that of the originalwaste source (Renn, 1954). In an enriched environment, algae re-spond so well to incoming nutrients that the oxygen required for therespiration of the resultant algal mass alone surpasses the biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD) of the incoming food material. Lake Win-nebago, Wisconsin (area 213 square miles), produces heavy algalpopulations. In July, when the lower Fox River carried a heavyalgal load from Lake Winnebago, the ultimate BOD in the river abovethe sources of industrial and municipal wastes ranged to 660,000pounds of oxygen demand each day (Scott et al., 1956).

Ball, R. 0., 1949. Experimental Use of Fertilizer in the Production of Fish-Food Organisms and Fish. Michigan State College Agricultural Experi-ment Station, East Lansing, Tec. Bull. 210,28 pp.

Bush, A. F. and S. F. Mulford, 1954. Studies of Waste Water Reclamationand Utilization. California State Water Pollution Control Board, Sacra-mento, Publication No.9, 82 pp.

Cooper, L. H. N., 1941. The Rate of Liberation of Phosphates in Sea Waterby Break-down of Plankton Organisms. Jour. Marine Biological Asso-ciation, United Kingdom, 20 : 197-220.

Dineen, O. F., 1953. An Ecological Study of a Minnesota Pond. Am. Midi.Nat., 60 (2) : 349-356.

Eck, P., M. L. Jackson, 0. E. Hayes and 0. B. Bay, 1957. Runoff Analysis asa Measure of Erosion Losses and Potential Discharge of Minerals andOrganic Matter into Lakes and Streams. Summary Report, Lakes Inves-tigations, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 13 pp. (mimeo).

Hooper, F. F. and A. M. Elliott, 1953. Release of Inorganic Phosphorusfrom Extracts of Lake Mud by Protozoa. Trans. Am. Mier. Soc., 72(3) :276-281.

Mackenthun, K. 3L, L. A. Lueschow and C. D. McNabb, 1960. A Study of theEffects of Diverting the Effluent from Sewage Treatment upon the Receiv-ing Stream. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 49: 51-72.

Mackenthun, K. M. and 0. D. McNabb, 1961. Stabilization Pond Studies inWisconsin. Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 33(12) :1234 -1251

Metzler, D. F., et al., 1958. Emergency Use of Reclaimed Water for PotableSupply at Chanute, Kans., Jour. Am. Water Works Association, 50(8) :1021-1060.

56

Moyle, J. B., 1940. A Biological Survey of the Upper Mississippi RiverSystem (in Minnesota). Minn. Dept. Cons. Fish. inv. Rept. No. 10,69 pp.

Moyle, J. B., 1961. Aquatic Invertebrates as Related to Larger WaterPlants and Waterfowl. Minn. Dept. Cons. Inv. Rept. No. 233, pp. 1-24(mimeo.).

Needham, P. R., 1938. Trout Streams. Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca,N.Y., 233 pp.

Sawyer, O. N., J. B. Lackey and R. T. Lenz, 1945. An Investigation of theOdor Nuisances Occurring in the Madison Lakes, Particularly Monona,Waubesa and Kegonsa from July 1942-July 1944. Report of Governor'sCommittee, Madison, Wisconsin, 2 Vols. (rdmeo.),

Scott, R. It, B. P. Lueck, T. P. Wisniewski and A. J. Wiley, 1956. Evalua-tion of Stream Loading and Purification Capacity. Committee on WaterPollution, Madison, Wis., Bull. No. 101 (mimeo.).

Tebo, 1/. B., 1955. Bottom Fauna of a Shallow Eutrophic Lake, Lizard Lake,Pocahontas County, Iowa. Am. Midi. Nat., 54 (1) : 89-103.

Mackenthun, K. M., L. A. Lueschow, and C. D. McNabb. 1960.A Study of the Effects of Diverting the Effluent from Sewage Treat.

ment upon the Receiving Stream. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci.,Arts, Letters, Vol. 49, pp. 51-72.

Samples from a 26 bi-weekly period from the receiving streams wereanalyzed both before and after diversion of 20 million gallons per dayof primary and secondary treated sewage from Madison, Wisconsin,from a population of about 135,000. The first receiving stream, Bad-fish Creek, is approximately 16% miles long and has an average slopeof about six feet per mile. Biological and chemical data for a pointabout mid-way down Badfish Creek before (1956) and after (1959)diversion were summarized as follows:

Pounds per day

Range Mean

1956 1959 1956 1959

Phytoplankton 58-791 247-1, 435 259 829Organic) N 13-71 206-147 30 286Inorganic N 89-143 2,171 -4,248 110 3,153Soluble P 7-12 998 -1,701 8 1,351Biochemical oxygen demand 39-153 755 -2,333 75 1,602Dissolved oxygen 386-638 413-1,749 475 904Plow (cIL) 8-10 40-4 8 9 4,3

Mowing diversion, long streamers of filamentous green algae(Stigeoclonium and Rhizoclonium), some of which were estimated tobe 50 feet in length, were attached to bottom materials at numerouslocations in Badfish Creek. Oecilktoria covered the bottom in theupper area. Severe stream degradation following diversion was indi-cated by the community of stream biota.

57

MacPherson, L. B., N. R. Sinclair, and F. R. Hayes. 1958.Lake Water and Sediment. III. The Effect of pH on the Partition

of Inorganic Phosphate Between Water and Oxidized Mud or itsAsh. Liznnology and Oceanography, Vol. 3, pp. 318-326; WaterPollution Abstracts, Vol. 32, No. 4, Abs. No. 622.

Dried and reconstituted mud from primitive, medium, productive,and acid bog lakes was shaken with water to achieve phosphorusequilibrium. Minimal phosphorus was released from the mud at pH5.5 to 6.5, and the concentration varied from scarcely detectable up to0.2 mg/I in productive lakes. Greater acidity caused a slight increaseof phosphorus in the water, up to 0.3 mg/1, and alkalinity a largerincrease, up to 0.5 mg/1. At all pH values the amount of phosphorusreleased increased in the order of lake type from primitive to acidbog. When 1 mg /1 phosphorus was added to the water before shak-ing, it was not taken up by muds from acid bog and productive lakes,while unproductive lake muds removed most of the added phosphomsunder acid conditions, but not at pH values of 7.0 or more.

Malhotra, S. K., G. F. Lee, and G. A. Rohlich. 1964.Nutrient Removal from Secondary Effluent by Alum Flocculation

and Lime Precipitation. International Journal of Air and WaterPollution, Vol. 8, Nos. 8 and 9, pp. 487-500.

The removal of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds from bio-chemically treated wastewater effluents by alum flocculation and limeprecipitation was investigated. Samples of secondary effluent wereflocculated or precipitated in accord with conventional jar test pro-cedures. The phosphorus removal was found to be highly pH-dependent with an optimum pH of 5.57-±0.25. At this pH an alumdose of 250 mg/I removed 95% of total phosphorus, 55% of the chemi-cal oxygen demand, 60% of the organic nitrogen, 25% of the NO,-Nand NO,-N, 17% of the apparent ABS, and none of the ammonia-N.

A. dose of 600 mg/1 Ca (OH)2 raised the pH of the sample to 11.0

and removed 99% of the total phosphorus.The estimated chemical costs for removal of 95% of the phosphorus

by lime and alum were $32 and $73 per million gallons, respectively.

Matheson, D. H. 1951.Inorganic Nitrogen in Precipitation and Atmospheric Sediments.

Canadian Journal of Technology, Vol. 29, pp. 406-412.

In an investigation covering 18 months, daily determinations weremade of the inorganic nitrogen contained in precipitation and atmos-

58

pheric sediments collected at Hamilton, Ontario. The nitrogen fallfor the whole period averaged 5.8 lb. N per acre per year. Sixty-onepercent of the total nitrogen was collected on 25 percent of the dayswhen precipitation occurred. The balance, occurring on days withoutprecipitation, is attributable solely to the sedimentation of dust.Ammonia nitrogen averaged 50 percent of the total.

McGauhey, P. H., R. El lessen, G. Rohlich, H. F. Ludwig, and E. A.Pearson. 1963.

Comprehensive Study on Protection of Water Resources of LakeTahoe Basin Through Controlled Waste Disposal. Prepared forthe Board of Directors, Lake Tahoe Area Council, Al Tahoe,California, 157 pp.

The amount of nitrogen from pollen may be as high as 2 to 5 kgnitrogen per hectare per year in a forested area. The pollen containschloride and phosphate in addition to nitrogen, but as a significantamount of pollen was seen to be intact in the sediments it cannot beassumed that these materials are released to the lake water.

The nitrogen and phosphorus content in trout is about 3 percentN and 0.2 percent P by weight, giving a maximum amount of 300 kgN and 20 kg P taken out of Tahoe Lake annually as fish.

Results of 14 samples of the upper 10 cm of Lake Tahoe sedimentsindicate a moisture content ranging from 17.5 to 84.5 percent, Kjeldahinitrogen from 0.06 to 16.6 mg /g dry weight, total carbon 0.06 to 198.0mg/g dry weight, and carbon nitrogen ratios from 3.7 to 28.4.

It was assumed that the average per capita refuse produced in thewatershed (originating from food and other materials imported intothe watershed) is 2 pounds per day of which 1.0 percent is nitrogen(as N) and 0.5 percent is phosphorus (as P).

Unit design factors suggested for domestic wastes were as follows :Average sewage flow, gallons per capita per day :

Residential and commercial areas 90Recreational areas 30B OD, mg/I 250Phosphate, mg/I P 8Total Nitrogen, mg/1 N 45

Passage of water to the ground by infiltration from ponds has littleor no effect on nutrient concentrations, and subsequent flow throughthe ground effects only partial removal of nutrients. Nitrate appearsto be transported by ground waters without significant reduction byearth materials. Percolation of water through the ground does notmaterially reduce the concentrations of various chemical constituentsintroduced.

59

Consideration was given to tertiary waste treatment methods. Theknown methods which might be feasible may be classified as follows:

1. PrebloomIng using algae ponds.2. Physical-chemical methods: These Include nitrogen removal by air

stripping of ammonia and/or by ion exchange; phosphate removal by pre-cipitation with lime, alum, ferric iron, or other precipitating agents; andcomplete distillation.

8. Controlled biological methods.

Tertimy Treatment by Preblooming

"Nutrient removal by preblooming in ponds involves conversion ofwaste nutrient materials present to algal cell material through photo-synthesis followed by the removal of the algal cells from the pondeffluent. Removal of cells from the waste effluent may be accomplishedby centrifuging, filtering, or coagulation. Coagulation may have anadded advantage in obtaining a higher degree of removal of residualphosphates.

"Nutrient removal in such processes is a function of the size of thealgae crop. Factors affecting production of algae are nutrient con-centrations, sunlight, and other environmental characteristics suchas depth and temperature. Climate may place severe restrictions onthe size of the algae crop and hence reduce nutrient removal efficiency.Investigations by Fitzgerald show clearly that in favorable summerconditions high decreases in inorganic nitrogen occurred (13-6). Forthe most of the year however, nitrogen removal was less than 50percent and even negative values were recorded in the winter-time.There were only 33 days in 1956 and 76 days in 1957 when nitrogenremovals were greater than 50 percent. The nitrogen removalsaveraged about 30 percent for the year. Phosphate reductions werehigh during periods of high algae productivity, coinciding with highpH values, indicating phosphate precipitation. This was borne outby the fact that winter effluent phosphate concentrations frequentlysurpassed inflluent levels, a phenomenon probably due to the dissolu-tion of the phosphate previously precipitated. The data presented byFitzgerald were confirmed by the observations of Parker (13-7) whosestudy involved a series of eight ponds used in series. The decreasein nitrogen content was only about 51 percent during le summer(average temperature 70° F) and 12 percent during the winter (aver-age temperature 48° F). Experimental studies conducted by Oswaldet al (13-8) on the use of "high-rate" ponds for the commercial pro-duction of algae showed about 70 percent nitrogen removal and 50percent phosphate removal due to algal action alone, and near-completeremoval of phosphate was possible through harvesting by means ofcoagulation with alum. These results, however, were obtained undervery favorable climatic conditions.

60

"Considering the climatic conditions within the Tahoe Basin, it isobvious that the degree of nutrient removal which could be anticipatedduring the winter months would be negligible, and reasonably success-ful operation could only take place during the summer months (Junethrough August). As in land disposal by cropping, therefore, winterstorage facilities would be needed, and the entire yearly flow wouldhave to be treated in a three-month period. Using the most efficienttype of high-rate ponds, the area requirement is approximately 10acres per mgd of waste effluent. The ponds would be about 8 to 12inches deep completely lined and equipped with low head pumps forrecirculation. The estimated cost of such ponds is $20,000 per acreincluding land. Based on the ultimate average flow estimated forEl Dorado County (11 mgd) and assuming an operational period ofthree months (not including the two week start-up period normallyrequired), approximately 440 acres of ponds would be required. Thecost of the ponds alone (including land) would be about $8,800,000.In addition to the ponds and storage facilities, the complete systemwould require pretreatment facilities, and algae removal system con-sisting of coagulation and sedimentation basins, and a system for de-watering and drying the algae cells.

PhysicalChemkal Methods

"Physical-chemical tertiary treatment methods meriting considera-tion include nitrogen removal by ion exchange, air stripping of am-monia, phosphate removal by using the Foyn Cell or by coagulation,and complete demineralization through distillation.

"Nitrogen Removal Using lon Exchangers: Studies carried out byNesse lson (13-9) at the University of Wisconsin indicate that stronglybasic anion exchangers perform satisfactorily for the removal of ni-trate nitrogen, and that removal of ammonia may be accomplishedusing a cation exchange resin. The ion exchange process may be usedto remove these nutrients from the effluents of conventional secondarytreatment plants (activated sludge or trickling filters). Inasmuchas almost 60 percent of the nitrogen in raw sewage is in the form ofammonia, and because this percentage can be increased through con-trolled operation of conventional biological processes (through con-versioa of organic nitrogen to ammonia), use of a cation exchangerin series with the conventional plant may remove a major fraction ofthe nitrogen.

"Nesselson indicates that Nalcite HCR has an exchange capacityof 16 to 22 kilograms per cu ft (as Ca CO,) when used for the removalof ammonia nitrogen from activated sludge effluents. The exchangeroperates with an efficiency of 1.4 to 2.5 lbs of salt (NaCI) per kilogramof cations removed. Amber lito IR-120 has corresponding values of13 to 17 kg per cu ft and 1.3 to 2.6 lbs NaCl per kg of cations removed.

61

A minimum volume of 6 percent of the influent feed was required forregeneration. This quantity of water (60,000 gallons per mg of watertreated) must be disposed of somehow, preferably by evaporation.This problem, plus the fact that the process has never been developedbeyond the laboratory stage, and moreover would be more costly thancompetitive biological processes not employing resins, rules out theuse of ion exchangers at Tahoe.

"Nitrogen Removal by Air Stripping of Ammonia: Becauseammonia nitrogen represents the greater portion of nitrogen presentin sewage and sewage effluents, air stripping of this component as anitrogen removal method has been considered. Kuhn (13-10), inlaboratory studies at the University of 'Wisconsin on air stripping inpacked towers, found that about 92 percent removal of ammonianitrogen could be obtained in a percolation tower seven feet high withair to liquid loadings of about 520 to 550 cu ft per gallon of flow. Inan activated sludge plant, normal air requirements vary from about0.2 to 2.5 cu ft per gallon of sewage treated. These figures show thatalthough the process is technically sound it is economically prohibitive.

"Phosphate Removal Using the Foyn Cell: Dr. Ernst Foyn at Oslo,Norway, has developed a process referred to as 'electrolytic' sewagepurification (13-11). A divided container is equipped with electrodesconnected to the negative and positive poles of a battery. One portionof the chamber contains sea water, the other a mixture of sewage with10 to 15 percent sea water. Chlorine is developed at the graphiteanode and hydrogen and alkali in the chamber containing the ironcathode, thus creating chemical conditions necessary for the precipita-tion of phosphate. The phosphate is adsorbed on the magnesiumhydroxide floc or precipitated and floated to the surface by the hydro-gen bubbles. Pilot plant investigations showed that a detention periodof about 1..i his resulted in phosphate removal of 60 to 80 percent anda reduction in Kjeldahl nitrogen of about 60 percent. It is apparentthat because or the sea water requirement (115 percent of the volumeof sewage treated) the Foyn Cell is scarcely feasible for use at Tahoe.

"Removal of Phosphate by Precipitation: A series of laboratoryand pilot plant studies were conducted by the University of Wisconsin,both in the laboratory and at the Nine Springs Treatment Plant inMadison, 'Wisconsin, on phosphate removal by precipitation usingferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, cupric sulfate, diatomaceous earth, andaluminum sulfate as coagulation agents (13-11). As a result of thesestudies the following conclusions were made :

(1) Under laboratory conditions it is possible to remove 96 to 99percent of the soluble phosphates from sewage treatment planteffluents. This removal can be accomplished in a precipitationor coagulation process employing any of a number of coagulants(alum, ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, or copper sulfate).

62

(2) Alum appears to be the most suitable coagulant for the follow-ing reasons: (a) The residual phosphate concentration of theeffluent following coagulation with 200 ppm of alum is, on theaverage, 0.06 ppm (expressed as 1?) ; (b) the optimum pHrange for the removal of phosphates through coagulation withalum is 7.1 to 7.7; and (c) the aluminum hydroxide floc result-ing from the hydrolysis of alum may be recovered, purified byremoving the absorbed phosphates in the form of tricalciumphosphate, and re-used for further phosphorus removal in theform of sodium aluminate. This recovery and purification re-duces the overall cost of chemicals by 80 percent.

(3) Pilot plant studies show that with the alum recovery process,from '17 to 89 percent of the soluble phosphates can be removed.By filtering the effluent up to 93 to 97 percent can be removed.Improved settling facilities should give intermediate levels ofremoval.

"In experiments conducted by Wuhrmann (13-12) at Zurich it wasshown that lime was the most economical precipitating agent, espe-cially with the extra addition of a small amount of ferric iron as acoagulant aid. Also, the lime precipitate showed superior settlingrates and produced a slurry much easier to dewater than sludge fromalum or iron coagulation. Although the alkalinity of the water usedin the Zurich experiments (200 mg/1) was much higher than at Tahoe,it appears that lime precipitation might prove to be advantageousto alum or iron for use at Tahoe. Owen (13-13) has also reported onthe use of lime for removing phosphorus from sewage.

"Pitcon Proem: A tertiary process which includes this type of phos-phate removal, known as the "Pawn" process, has recently undergonea series of pilot scale tests at the South Tahoe Public Utility District(13-14). The pilot scale tests were carried out by Cornell, Howland,Hayes, and Merryfield in cooperation with Clair A. Hill and Asso-ciates, for the purpose of developing design criteria and cost data.The tertiary plant tested at STPUD included two basic processes, thefirst being phosphate removal by alum coagulation (with the aid ofpolyelectrolytes) followed by filtration through a series of activatedcarbon columns to remove ABS (alkyl benzene sulfonates).

"In November 1962 a special test run of the pilot facility was ar-ranged by Cornell, Howland, Hayes, and Merryfield, during whichmembers of the Board of Consultants and of the staff of Engineering-Science, Inc., were present as observers. At this time compositedsamples (comprising several grab samples) were taken of the processinfluent (activated sludge effluent) and process effluent. These wereanalyzed by Engineering-Science, Inc., with results as shown in Table13-11. These data indicate the process accomplished a removal ofabout 96 percent of both total and soluble phosphates, within the

63

expected range. With respect to total nitrogen, the process effectedlittle if any removal, the principal effect being conversion of organicnitrogen to ammonia. The total nitrogen was 28.9 mg/1 (as N) in theinfluent and 28.8 mg/1 in the effluent.

"Distillation: Distillation, although very expensive, does presentlypossess one major advantage over all other tertiary treatment methods,namely its ability to completely demineralize the waste thus producingan effluent practically devoid of all nutrients such as nitrogen, phos-phorous, vitamins, micronutrients, iron, etc., all or any of which mightinfluence algae production.

"Although considerable cost data are available for the distillation ofsea water, there has been little experience in the distillation of wasteson which reliable cost estimates may be based. Preliminary estimateshave been made by the Advanced Waste Treatment Program of theU.S. Public Health Service (13-15), based on comparisons with seawater. These studies indicate waste distillation costs would be ...p-proximately one-third lower than for sea water. 'Waste distillationcosts (including amortization and operation and maintenance) wereestimated at approximately $1.00/1,000 gallons for flow's less than 1mgd, and about $0.75/1,000 gallons for flows greater than 10 mgd.The residual total solids would be in the range of 3 to 5 mg/I.

Table 13-ILRESULTS OF SAMPLES FOR EVALUATING PITC ON PR OCESS (November 1982)

Location

Totalphos.phata

MI I.

Solublephos-phate

Ines gIl I.

Nitratenitrogen

83111(.6

N

NitritenitrogenMOas N.

Am-monis

nitrogen

a smV.

Organicnitrogen

muChloride

mg/1ABSEag4

InfluentEffluent

9.8O. 4

7.20.3

1.3 0.21.9

4.028.6

23.4O. 4

33.6683.66

8.90a 01

Biological Methods cf Nitrogen Removal

"In the two most common biological treatment methods, the trick-ling filter and the activated sludge processes, two different reactionsare responsible for the decrease in total nitrogen concentration. Theseare conversion of nitrogen into organic cell material and microbial de-nitrification. Of the two processes, microbial denitrification is themore important and is largely responsible for the decreases in nitrogenconcentration observed in many biological treatment plants (13-15).

"Denitrification refers to that stage of the nitrogen cycle in whichnitrates are reduced to gaseous nitrogen. The essential condition forthis reaction is anaerobiosis. The first step involves the extension ofoxidation in a conventional biological process to the point at whichdissolved nitrogen compounds are transformed to nitrite or nitrate.Experience demonstrates that it is relatively easy to operate an acti-vated sludge plant to obtain 96 percent conversion to nitrates. For

64

the second step, denitrification, all necessary conditions are present innormal activated sludges and when such sludges are subjected to an-aerobiosis such reduction occurs.

"Wuhrmann (13-16) has performed field experiments on pilot plantscale to investigate the limitations of the process and to establish de-sign criteria. The test units in his investigations were large enough topermit extrapolation to full-size plants. In all experiments sewage ofthe city of Zurich was used after primary treatment, This sewagewas primarily of domestic origin and following primary clarificationhad a BOD of from 110 to 130 ppm, total nitrogen 25 to 30 ppm,and total phosphorus 4 to 7 ppm. Between the aeration tank andsecondary clarifier of a conventional activated sludge plant, an addi-tional basin was placed in which tho mixed liquor from the aeratorwas stored for a short time, In this tank the activated sludge was keptin suspension by a submerged paddle wheel. The detention time wasmade sufficient to bring the oxygen-containing effluent of the aerationtank to anaerobic conditions and to allow for full denitrification ofthe nitrates present in the mixed liquor. Anaerobiosis was reachedautomatically by the respiration of the activated sludge.

"An additional experiment compared the nitrogen elimination in aconventional complete treatment plant with the mulls accomplishedusing an identical system with an additional unit for the al aerobictreatment phase. The conventional plant gave an amount of nitrogenelimination in full agreement with experience, i.e., the effluent con-tained a total nitrogen concentration of 12 to 15 ppm, representingan elimination of 40 to 50 percent (based on settled sewage nitrogencontent). The effluent of the denitrification plant showed a very con-stant low level of nitrogen compounds; there were nitrate ions whichhad escaped denitrification, and some organic nitrogen in the micro-organisms suspended in the final effluent. The BOD values of bothplant effluents were almost the same and varied between 6 and 12ppm.

"In the experiments cited above an additional unit was used for re-moving phosphorus by precipitation. The final effluent of the deni.trificstion plant was submitted to this treatment. In removing nearlyall of the remaining suspended organic solids from the final effluentof the denitrification unit by this precipitation proem, the nitrogenconcentration was again lowered by 1 to 2 ppm, and consequently aneffluent with only about 2 ppm of total nitrogen resulted after phos-phate precipitation."

(13-8) Pitmen ld, 0. P., "Stripping Effluents of Nutrients by BiologicalMean" Transactions 1900 Seminar, Taft Sanitary EngineeringCenter, Technical Rep. W 61 -3,130 -139.

65

(i8-7) Parker, 0. D., "Microbiological Aspects of Lagoon Treatment,"Journal Water Pollution Control Fed., 84, 149-181 (1982).

(13-8) Oswald, W. J., (lolneke, 0. 0., Cooper, R. 0., Cree, II. K., andBrenson, J. 0., "Water Reclamation, Algal Production and MethaneFermentation In Waste Ponds," Manuser. No. 25, Int. Cont. WaterPollution Res., London (1962).

(13-9) Neeselson, E. J., "Removal of Inorganic Nitrogen from SewageEffluents," PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin (unpublished)(1954).

(18-10) Kuhn, P. A., "Removal of Ammonia Nitrogen from Sewage Ef-fluent," M. S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin (unpublished)(1956).

(13-11) Rohlich, 0. A., "Chemical Methods for the Removal of Nitrogenand Phosphorus from Sewage Plant Effluents," Transactions 1040Seminar, Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Technical Rep. W81-8,180 -185.

(13-12) Wubrmann, Karl, private communication to IL Ludwig (6 May1963).

(13-18) Owen, R., "Removal of Phosphorus from Sewage Effluent withLime," Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25, 5, 548 (May 1953).

(13-14) Cornell, Howland, Hayes and Merry/41d, "Preliminary Report ona Tertiary Waste Treatment Plant," 1 repared for the South TahoePublic Utility District (Jan. 1903).

(18-15) Weinberger, Leon, private eommunication (1 April 1963).(13-16) Wuhrmann, K., "Nitroge.1 tic novel in Sewage Treatment Process,"

XVth Congress of Ilmnolog), Madison, Wisconsin (Aug. 1902).

McIntire-, C. D. and C. E. Bond. 1962.Effects of Artificial Fertilization on Plankton and Benthos Abut*

dance in Four Experimental Ponds. Transactions of the Amer!.can Fisheries Society, Vol. 91, No. 3, pp. 303-312.

The effects of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers on the abundanceof fish food organisms were investigated in four newly excavatedponds. Before fertilization the ponds were characterized by low nitro-gen and phosphorus concentrations, pit values near neutrality, lowtotal alkalinities, and dissolved oxygen concentrations near satura-tion. After fertilizers were added to three ponds, chemical and physi-cal conditions were altered considerably by the production of largequantities of plankton organisms. Establishment of plankton popula-tions was followed by development of benthie communities, especiallyin the two ponds receiving both nitrogen and phosphorus. The benthiccommunity developed most rapidly, and the biomass became greatest inthe poid receiving the heaviest applications of nitrogen and phos-phorus. In ponds which received no phosphorus, benthic productionwas low.

66

McKee, H. S. 1962.Nitrogen Metabolism in Plants. Clarendon Press, Oxford, Eng-

land, 728 pp.

Bineau (1865) showed that fresh-water algae used ammonium andnitrate. Chu (1942) found that many planktonic algae includingOeeillatoria rubescens and several diatoms used both nitrate and ammo-nium. The only species showing a definite preference for either formof nitrogen was Botryococcul braunii, which grew better with nitrate.Most species grew equally well with either nitrate or ammonium atoptimum levels of supply, but better with nitrate when the nitrogensupply was restricted. Ohlorella is reported by Cramer and Meyers(1948) to use ammonium exclusively when nitrate is also available.Absorption of phosphate by the marine diatom Nittschia closteriumincreased with the nitrate content of the medium, but nitrate absorp-tion was independent of phosphate level (Ketchum, 1939).

Nitrate reduction, being endothermic, must be directly or indirectlycoupled with respiration in tissues where this is the only source ofenergy. Warburg and Negelein (1920) formulated the reduction ofnitrate by Ohlorella pyreneddosa as follows:

-1-2C00- 162,000 cal,

the carbon being at the oxidation level of carbohydrate.Nitrogen-fixing species occur in the genera Anabatna, Anahaenopaih,

Aulosina, Calothrix, Cylindrospermum-, Alastigocladus, Noatoc,latoria, and Tolypothrix (Fogg and Wolfe, 1954). Some blue-greenalgae are incapable of fixation. Most species utilize varied nitrogensources, including ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, amino-acids, and protein.Most species use inorganic sources, but Synechocoem cedrorum ap-pears to require organic nitrogen (Allen, 1952). Molybdenum isessential for nitrogen fixation in Anabaena and Nostoo.

Ilausteen (1899) found that the aquatic angiosperm Lemna usedurea, asparagine, or ammonia, but not nitrate, for protein synthesisin the dark.

The total atmospheric nitrogen reaching the soil per unit area tendsto increase with the annual rainfall. The amount of nitrogen reachingthe soil as nitrate and ammonium lies usually betwen 2 and 10kg/ha/year in Europe, Several observers have found appreciableamounts of organically combined nitrogen (usually cited as albumi-nnid N) in rain. Much of the organic nitrogen of the atmosphereis in small particles such as pollen, spores, bacteriA, and dust carriedfrom the earth's surface by ascending currents.

Addition of superphosphate to a small fresh-water lake (Einsele,1941) led to a substantial increase in its total nitrogen content, pre-sumably through the increased activity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria

67

or blue-green algae. The effect appears analogous to that occurringon land when legume-containing pastures are fertilized withsuperphosphate.

Bineau, A. 1856. Observations sur Pabsorption de l'ammonlaque et desasotates par les vfgetations cryptogamiques. Ann. Claim. Phys. 8 Sr.,Vol. 40, p. 60.

Chu, 8. P. 1942. The influence of the mineral composition of the mediumon the growth of planktonic algae. Part 3. Methods and culture media.Journal of Ecology, Vol. 30, p. 324.

Cramer, M. and J. Meyers. 1948. Nitrate reduction and assimilation inOhlorelia. J. Gen. Phytiol., Vol. 32, p. 93.

Ketchum, B. II. 1939. The Absorption of Phosphate and Nitrate by Illumi-nated Cultures of Nitrchici cloaks:gum Amer. J. lot., Vol. 26, p. 99Q.

Warburg, 0. and E. Negeleln. 1920. tlber die Reduktlon der SalpetersAurein grtinen Zelien. Blochem, Z., Vol. 110, p. 66.

Fogg, G. E. and M. Wolfe. 1954. The Nitrogen Metabolism of the Blue-Green Algae (Myxopbyceae). In: Autotrophic micro-organisms. Cam-

bridge.Allen, M. B. 1952. The Cultivation of Myxophyceae. Arch. Mikrobiol.,

Vol.17, p. 84.Ilausteen, B. 1899. fiber Eireissaynthese in grtinr.,n Phanerogamen. 3b.

Wigs. lot., Vol. 83, p.417.Elesele, W. 1941. Die Umsetsung on ZugefOhrtem, anorganischen Phoa-

pbat im entropben See ut d Bite Ruckirirkung auf seinen Gesamthaushalt.Z. Fisch., Vol. 39, p. 407.

IqcVicker, M. G. L. Bridger, and L. B. Nelson. 1963.Fertilizer Technology and Usage. Soil Science Society of America,

Madison 11, Wisconsin, 464 pp.

Nitrogen consumption as fertilizer in the United States in 1850was 3,000 tons. In 1950, it was about 1 million tons; in 1960, 8 milliontons. Projected figures for 1970 are about 5 million tons. Phosphateconsumption in fertilizer has increased steadily from about 890,000tons of P in 1940 to 1.8 million tons of P in 1960.

Menzel, D. W. and J. P. Spaeth. 1962.Occurrence of Vitamin Bit In the Sargasso Sea. Limnology and

Oceanography, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 151-154.

The concentration of vitamin 13,1 occurring in Sargasso Sea surfacewaters during 1960 ranged from undetectable amounts to 0.10 p,g/I.Authors suggest that it does not appear likely that B,, itself everdirectly limits primary production in the Sargasso Sea, but it is quiteprobable that the concentration of this growth factor exerts a signifi-cant and perhaps controlling influence upon the species composition ofthe phytoplaniton.

68

Meyer, J. and E. Pampfer. 1959.Nitrogen Content of Rain Water Collected in the Humid Central

Congo Basin. Nature, Vol. 184, p. 717.

During April 1958-March 1959, rain water in Yangambi, BelgianCongo, was examined to determine content of inorganic N. Total Nbrought down by rain was very small; and, contrary to previousassumptions, it appeared to be of doubtful significance for agricultureand for balance of N in arable soil. About 59 percent of total inorganicN in rainfall was ammoniacal N, and nitrous N did not exceed 3percent of the nitric N. In examination of individual downpours, itwas found that the smaller the downpour, the higher the concentrationof N, especially of ammoniacal N; and that during ',wavy downpoursconcentration of ammonia decreased.

Mikkelsen, D. 5., B. A. Krantz, M. D. Miller, and W. E. Martin.1962.

Cereal Fertilization. California Agricultural Experiment StationExtension Service, University of California Leaflet No. 147.

Results of a series of 221 field tests conducted over 5 years in 38counties indicate that nitrogen and phosphorus are the nutrients mostlikely to give response in commercial grain fields. In this group oftests, 32 percent gave significant yield increases from nitrogen alone,15 percent from phosphorus alone, and 26 percent from a combinationof nitrogen phosphorus treatments. Regrouping these results, 58percent of these grainland soils were deficient in nitrogen and 42 per-cent were deficient in phosphorus. Only 25 percent of the tests showedno benefit from fertilization. In a number of areas, experimentsindicate that sulfur may also be deficient.

ORNERAL GUIDE TO CEREAL FERTILIZATION

Cropping gialterns Rainfall

rcriniur

NI men Phosphorus)(F)

NotArrietted Oran:Annually cropped

After Mow

irricottewind bowuntFolios-Int krone or heavily tertflised cropPent and most Sons

tselesBeiow ItAboBeiortw It

IL

Atmore 10

Peelots pe en t0 to 20

oae10 to 20

44 to 100.0 to SO0 to 10

Psi iswmV to Up,

a

twitPlot.2 to IS.

5 to SS.I to IS.IP!,011.

Where pboepborus needy ate determined by Poll testa kid esperlex.e.10n acutely &detest Irrigated sons, higher rates may peoce optimal

69

Millar, C. E. 1955.Soil Fertility. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 436 pp.

The statement that later gave rise to the law of the minimum wasissued by Liebig (1849), "by the deficiency or absence of one necessaryconstituent, all the others being present, the soil is rendered barrenfor all those crops to the life of which that one constituent is indis-pensable."

Arnork and Hoagland (In: Soil Sci., 50: 463, 1940) found that to-mato plants growing in unaerated culture solutions absorbed smallerquantit6s of all nutrients than plants in aerated solutions. The limit-ing influence on nutrient absorption of a low oxygen supply or of ahigh carbon dioxide content in the growth has been demonstrated byseveral in% .stigators, and it is established that different plant speciesvary in their response to given concentrations of the two gases.

The nitrogen content of various plants in percentage of dry matterwas given as follows:

Percent N((kr weleat)

Alfalfa:PrebudIn lore

/Cent ucty Muearam:Cut fret, weeks.Cut ',ben% Mourn

Rye:10-14 Inches MOMature plant

5.41ON

2. ii

1.1424

Nitrogen in the soil varies with texture, In black clay foams, thenitropn in the upper 6% inches of soil was 7230 pounds per acre;brown silt foams, 5,035; brown foams, 4,720; brown sandy foams, 3,070;yellow fine sandy loams, 2,170 ; and sand plains and dunes, 1,440.

The nitrogen, phosp'..1rus, and potassium contents of average yieldsof a number of crops including corn, oats, barley, rye, wheat, and pota-toes ranges from 18- to 78-N, 3- to 12-P, and 10- to 100-K pounds peracre, respectively.

The highest, lowest, and average number of pounds of nitrogenfound in a ton of mixed manure are reported by Var Slyke (1932) tobe 16, 8, and 10, respectively. Of the animal manures, that frompoultry is the highest in nitrogen content rith 2.0 to 1.5 percent;sheep manure contains about 0.9 to 1.0 percent.

The total quantity of nitrogen brought to the eArth in precipitationvaries from around 2 to ',bout 20 pounds per acre per year. Theaverage for localities; not very close to cities or industrial sites has beenfound to be around 4 to 6 pounds.

The phosphorus content of the surface 6% inches of 11 sandy foams,19 bonus, 21 silt foams, and 19 silty clay looms in Iowa was 861, 1,205,1,288, and 3,089 pounds per acre, respectively.

70

The pounds of fertilizer recommended for different crops in variousgeographical regions were given as follows:

RegionPounds per sae of

Grassland Corn Whent Cot 101

Northeast 130 450 264 450 300Cornbelt . 1 14 150 180 175 250 300A ppalachlan 1 63 300 1 285 600 400 600Southeast 1 73 450 1 290 500 400 400Delta 1 ta 275 118 130u 475Southern plains 18 60 138 173 70 175Northern plains. 1.4 60 1 8 50 30Mountain. 1 1.3 60 I II 100 70 100Peelbe 16.1 60 r36 75 60 100

I Used, 1930.

The quantities of manure excreted by 1,000 pounds of lire weightof different animals and the nutrient content of the manure were givenas follows:

Pounds Dry mat ter Pounds PoundsAnimal esere ted

per yearpounds yet

tealnitrogen phosphorus

Hone 13,000 3,960 125 19Cow 27,000 3,280 154 ITSwine. 30,000 3,973 150 45Sheep 12,000 4,032 119 43Poultry... 3,000 3,870 83 ca

Average farm manure as applied to the field contains approximately10 pounds of nitrogen, and 2.2 pounds of phosphorus per ton.

Liebig, J. 1849. Chemistry and its Relation to Agriculture and Physiology.John Wiley and Bons, New York.

Van 81yke, RM. Fertilizers and Crop Production. Orange JuddPublishing Co., New York.

Miller, R. II. 1961.The Chemical Composition of Rain Water at Taira, New Zealand,

1956-58. New Zealand Journal of Science, Vol. 4, p. 844.

Rain water was collected monthly for 3 years at Tait a ExperimentalStation of New Zealand Soil Bureau near Wellington, and analyzedfor main elements present. The salt found, excluding bicarbonate,was about 190 pounds per acre per year, of which nearly 80 percentwas sodium chloride; significant amounts of sulfate and magnesiumwere also present, and phosphate was very low (less than 1 poundper acre per year). Total nitrogen was measured in some of thesamples and was found to be about double the concentration of in-organic and albuminoid nitrogen; contributions from rain water tonitrogen in soil would probably be not less than 3 pounds per acre per

71

S

year. Ionic ratios showed that in periods of southerly storms salttended to approach composition of sea water, and at other timescalcium and potassium (and to lesser degree magnesium and sulfate)reached high proportions.

Moore, IL B. 1958.Marine Ecology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 493 pp.

Phosphorus may be present in the form of either organic or in-organic compounds, and both in particulate form and in solution.Within living tissues it is present mainly in organic compounds, andit is released back into the water by their excretions and decay in eitherparticulate or soluble form. There is evidence that some organicphosphorus wmpounds can be utilized by algae, but most of it isbroken down to phosphate by bacterial action, and then utilized as suchby the algae. Riley et al. (1049) are cited as assuming the criticallevel for phosphate to be at a concentration of 0.55 mg.-atoms ofphosphorus per cubic meter in the productivity of plankton popula-tions. Rohde (1048) found that tha optimal concentration of phos-phate for growth varied in different species of algae and that a givenconcentration might be optimal for one, sub-optimal for another, andsvpraopt i m al for yet another.

Alice et al. (1949) are cited as giving the amount fixed by the actionof lightening and falling as nitrate on one sq. km. of ocean surface as175 kg. per year.

Allee, W. 0., A. E. Emerson, 0. Park, T. Park, and K. P. Schmitt. 1919.Principles of Animal Ecology, Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 1-83T.

Riley, 0. A., II. Stomme', and D. F. Bumpus. 1949.Quantitative Ecology of t1 s Plankton of the Western North Atlantic. BulL

Bingham Oeeanog. Coll., Vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 1-109.

Rohde, W. 1918.Euvironmentai Requirements of Fresh-water Plankton Algae. Symbols*

Botan. Upsalinenves, Vol. 10, pp. 1-149.

Moyle, J. B. 1956.Relationships between the Chemistry of Minnesota Surface Waters

and Wildlife Management. Jour. Wildlife Management, Vol. 20,No. 3, pp. 302-320.

The author reasons that the size of population of mixed fish is relatedto the water batility and conditions associated with it and that thestructure of a fish population adjusts itself until it consists of thosespecies that can best utilize a specific degree of fertility and conditionsassociated with it, A relationship was found between the total phos-phorus concentration and the standing crop of fishes in Minnesota sur-

72

face waters. On the basis of surveys it was estimated that Mississippiheadwater lakes support about 90 pounds of fish per acre; the summersurface waters of these lakes have a mean total phosphorus content afabout 0.034 mg/l. In central Minnesota the mean total phosphoruscontent of fish lakes is 0.058 mg/1, and the average fish productioncapacity is estimated at 160 pounds per acre. In southern Minne-sota, the total phosphorus content is 0.126 mg /1; seining in 40 fish la ketshowed an average standing crop of 280 pounds of rough fish per acreplus about 90 pounds of other fishes, a total of 370 pounds per acre.

Willer, W. 1953.Nitrogen Content and Pollution of Streams. Gesundheitsing, Vol.

74, p. 256; Water Pollution Abstracts, Vol. 28, No. 2, Abs. No.4S4.

The author concludes that excessive growths of plants and algaein polluted waters can be avoided if the concentration of nitrate nitro-gen is kept below about 0.3 mg/1 and the concentration of total nitro-gen is not allowed to rise much above 0.6 mg/1.

New, J. C. 1949.Development and Status of Pond Fertilization in Central Europe.

Transactions American Fisheries Society, Vol. 76 (1946), pp.335-358.

Phosphorus is undoubtedly the most important single fertilizer.It has frequently appeared to assume the role of limiting factor.Phosphorus may be removed from solution by a number of mechanismswhich do not act independently of one another. In alk:.lins waterswhere there is an excess of calcium, phosphorus may precipitate astricalcium phosphate [CM PO,)2]. This salt is converted to themore soluble di- and mono-calcium phosphates as the p11 of the wateris reduced. In the presence of iron, insoluble ferric phosphate may beformed. In addition, it may be adsorbed directly on organic soilcolloids (humus) whose nature is not clearly understood. tinder thesecircumstances, phosphorus will tend to accumulate in the bottom ininsoluble forms where it is not available to tho phytoplankton in gen-era!, although some algae may be able to use adsorbed phosphorus moreor less directly. Bacteria can use particulate phosphorus in a micro-zone surrounding the cell and thus the element may be passed onthrough food chains. Increased solubility of strongly basic phos-phates may be the result of local acidity from base-exchange. Be-neath the surface of the soil where oxidation-reduction potentials arelowered, collidal complexes of ferric iron are made soluble by reduc-tion and phosphorus adsorbed on item is released.

73

I

Neil, J. II. 1957.Problems and Control of Unnatural Fertilization of Lake Waters.

Engineering Bulletin, Proceedings of the Twelfth IndustrialWaste Conference, Purdue University, pp. 301-316.

In one of the first plant-scale experiments in the removal of phos-phorus from a primary sewage treatment plant by chemical precipi-tation using a combination of alum and activated silica, solublephosphorus was reduced by about 98 percent and combined phos-phorus by 81 percent, That which was lost was contained as finesof the floc or particulate matter which did not settle. In addition tothe improvements noted for phosphorus, a 35 percent reduction inKjeldahl nitrogen was noted.

The averagu sewage flow was 1.27 mgd and contained 166 poundsof phosphorus per million gallons. The average concenti talons ofalum and silica applied were 94.0 mg /1 and 3.4 mg /I, respectively.The cost of alum, silica, soda, and trucking per million gallons ofsewage was $25.75.

In the two years before chemical precipitation was begun, the aver-age soluble phosphate content in the river one-half mile downstreamfrom the disposal plant was 0.6 mg/I. During the period that con-tinuous precipitation was applied, the average soluble phosphateconcentration dropped to 0.05 mg/l.

Odum, E. P. In collaboration with II. T. Odum. 1959.Fundamentals of Ecology. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadel

phis, 546 pp.

Turnover rate is a friction of the total amount of a substance in acomponent which is released (or which enters) in a given length oftime. Turnover time is the reciprocal of this, the time required toreplace a quantity of substances equal to the amount in the com-ponent. For example, if 1,000 units are present in the component and10 go out or enter each hour, the turnover rate is 10/1,000 or 0.01 perhour. Turnover time would then be 1,000/10 or 100 hours.

Basic) or primary productivity of an ecological system is definedas the rate at which energy is stored by photosynthetic and chemo-synthetic activity of producer organisms (chiefly green plants) in theform of organic substances which can be used as food materials.Gross primary productivity is the total rate of photosynthesis includ-ing the organic matter used up in respiration during the measurementperiod. Net primary productivity is the rate of storage of organicmatter in plant tissue in excess of the respiratory utilization by theplants during the period of measurement. Gross primary produc-tivity, net primary, and secondary productivity of various ecosystemsare recorded by Odum in the following tables:

74

Values obtained for short favorable Periods:

systems In statureGross primary prcductivity of various ecosystems as determined by pas ezehange

Sneer Storing& Florida, MayTurbid liver, suspended clay, N.C., eummer

Silver Sprints, FloridaCoral reefs, average three Pact& reefs 9

Pond with untreated wastes, South Dakota, summer

Polluted stream, Indiana, summer II

Clear, deep (ollgotrophk) lake, WLsoonsin

Leke Erie, winter

Fertilized pond, N.C. In MayPond with treated sewage wastes, Denmark, July

Intertlie open ocean, Sartal0 EftShallow, Mahal waters, Long Island Sound; year averageTerri estuaries, Laguna Madre

Shallow (eutrophk) lake, la

Lake Erie, summer'

Bog lake, C.4dar Bog Leta, Minnesota (phytoplanktcn only)

lion gmellydayRate of produo-

27

57

17. 318. 2

& 01.0

1.7

CO

0. 83. 24. 4

2.1

1.0

.7

Estuaries, Tessa 23Marine turtle-grass eats, Florida. AugustMass algae culture, estra CO, added 9 43

Roes (1957). a Riley 0953). It. T. Odum (unpublished). Jude). (1940). 4 Itogetsu andIchlmura (1934). Ltndeman (1942). I N'irduln (1936). If. T. Odum (1931). 14 Kohn andHelfrich (113. to Hoskin, 1957 (unpublished). Steemaa-Nielsen (1933). 11 Bar Lech and Allure(1637). 911. T. Odum (1137a). Tamly. (1937).

Annual net primary productivity of various cultivated and natural ecosystemsas determined by vie of harvest methods

Ecosystem

Net Winery troductloograms Mt Squire meter

Ter year Fee day

Cultivated moWWheat, weldWheat, average In UPI 01 highest yields ( Netherlands)Oats, world as

1u area or highest yields (De.ainark)Corn, yam average_Corn, average to area of highest yields (Canada)Mee, world aeragellice, average In

varra or highest yields (Its'y and /spin)

Ilay, U.S. avenge.PHay, aftrafe In area or highest yields (Cablornia)

otatoes worldaveragePotatoet, average in area of highest yields (Netherlands) ...Sugarless, world &WV!.

SElI worlaffebet/A. attld

aveif

rage.e In arm of highest yields (Netherlands)

garcane,Sugarcane, average Hawaiiftpgarcana, madman Hawaii under Intensive culture6716. algse culture, best )kids under Intensive culture outdoors,

Tokyo I,NotecultInted ecosystems:

Went tweed, kerns botteenland, OklahomaTall Stettin* salt towel, 're( enst41pan6 Plsetstom, average during years of most rapid growth

o4d), England sFort, deciduous plantation, England, comparable to the above pine

plantation rTail yen prairie', Oklahoma and NettastaShod grass cashed, 13 rainfall; Wyoming'Desert, I Inches rainll.Seemed beds, Noes

faScotia n

Neved

111,43 18844 14

3.9230

8.061 . 2.4

136 114 6.411 1.13 2.1

2

30 116 4.4497 1.7

1,440 3.9363 12.0

420 1.13 2.3940 2.36 8 2153

11.10 311

6643 31114 2.10 4.8

1,470 4.03 & 21 :13 4.73 4.78. 530 8. 40 li. 4C:03 1133 11.4

&MO 114 (lk 4)

1,440 8.13 (9.1)1,300 II. 0 ( 1.0)

$1130 II ( 8. 0)

1.860 & 0 &448 1.12 3.000 .11 .33 .11 .2

3.4 1.1S 1.0

'Woes he pweathesls are rates For growing reason only, which Is erten 11.6 than a rat.i V

Greetedlot obtained Dorn Woytinsty (11133) and Dorn 1137 t' S. Government ' totatDtical Abet:acts"

and corrected to dry weight ((unharvested gene of plant and to eirlude wale tn caw broom suchIs &Mask , ete which are harvested nerd." All averages are 10/ revers, POd'Irlet years.

/ rased ea art, t al. 6137) who gives dry weight data on an etreptionaly lane tit*. 4 Twit,. s(HIM. 4 Puska 0$36). P. P. Oduna & Smalley 09541. 4 Ovingion (DM). Ovington &Narita (336). round 0638) and Weame 0934). Long A Berne* (1142). P E. P. Odes(leapobed) Il IbeFarkne OMIT

75

Secondary productivity as measured in fish production

Ecosystem and trophic level

Man's harvest

Gms per M' per year Pounds per acre peryear

1. UNTIRMUED NATURAL WATERS

Herbivore-carnivore onnposition:North BeaWald marine fishery (average) IGreat Lakes IAfrican lakes IU.S. small lakes (sports fishery) 4

Stocked carnivores: U.S. fish ponds (s is fishery)Stocked herbivores: German fish ponds (carp) "

FEETTLIZED WATERS

Stocked carnivores: U.S. fish ponds (sports fishery) I IStocked herbivores:

Philippine marine pondsGerman fish ponds (carp)

PERTtt ILE D WATERS AND OUTSIDE COO, ADDED

Carnivores: 3-acre pond, United States IHerbivores:

Hongkong ISouth China I

Malaya I

1.880.050.09 to 0.820.14 to 25.20.21 to 18.14.5 to 16.811.2 to 89.0

22.4 to 58.0

50.4 to 101.099.1 to 157.0

227.0

224.0 to 445.0112.0 to 1,540.0

392

1S.0.45.0.80 to 7.3.1.40 to 225.1.90 to 18140 to 150.103 to 348.

200 to SOO.

450 to 000.890 to 1,403.

2,027.

2,000 to 4,003.1,000 to 13,500 (average

U60.

I likkling (1018). I Cutting (1952). r Rawson (1952). I Rounsekll (1946). s Swingle and Smith(1947). 4 %loans (1935).

Bartsch, A. F. and Allum, M. 0. 1957. Biological factors in the treatmentof raw sewage In artificial ponds. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 2:7744.

I3urr, G. 0., Hartt, II. E., Brodie, II. W., Tanimoto, T., Kortschak, IL P.Takahashi, D., Ashton, F. M., and Coleman, R. E. 1957. The sugar caneplant. Arm. Rev. Plant. Physiol., 8: 275-308.

Cutting, O. L., 1952. Economic aspects of utilisation of fish. Btochem.Soc. Symposium No. 0. Biochemical Society. Cambridge, England.

ilickling, C. F., 1948. Fish farming in the Middle and Far East. Natuee,161: 748-751.

Ilogetsu, K., and Ichimura, S. 1954. Studies on the biological productionof Lake Suwa. The ecological studies on the production of phyto-plankton. Japanese .1. Dot., 14: 280-303.

Juday, Chancey. 1940. The annual energy budget of an inlay,: lake. Ecol.,21: 438 -450.

Kohn, A. J., and Helfrich, P. 1957. Primary organic productivity of aHawaiian Coral Reef. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 2: 241-251.

Lang, R., and Barnes, 0. K. 1912. Range forage production in relation totime and frequency of harvesting. Wyo. Agr. Esp. Sta. Bull. No. 253.

Lindeman, R. L. 1941, Seasonal food-cycle dynamics In a senescent lake.Am. Midi. Nat., 26: 336473.

MacFarlane, Constance. 1952. A survey of certain seaweeds of com-mercial importance in southwest Nova Scotia. Canadian J. Dot.,80:78-97.

Odum, E. P. and Smalley, A. E. 1957. Trophic structure and productivityof a salt marsh ecosystem. Progress report to Nat. Sc. Foundation(mimeo).

Odum, H. T. 1957. Treble structure and productivity of Wilier Springs,Florida. Ecol. Monogr., 27: 55-112.

Odum, li. T. 1957a. Primary prtAluctieu me.onrement in eleven Florida

76

springs and a marine turtle-grass community. Limnol. and Oceanogr.,2: 85-97.

Ovington, J. D., and Pearsall, W. H. 1956. Production Ecology. II. Esti-mates of average production by trees. Oikos, 7: 202-205.

Ovington, 3. D. 1957. Dry matter production by Pinus sylvestris. AnnalsBot. n.s., 21: 287-314.

Penfound, W. T. 1956. Primary production of vascular aquatic plants.Limnol. and Oceanogr., 1 : 92-101.

Rawson, D. B. 1952. Mean depth and the fish production of large lakes.Ecol., 33: 513-521.

Riley, G. A. 1956. Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-54. IX.Production and utilization of organic matter. Bull. Bingham Oceanog-raphic Coll., 15-324-344.

Riley, G. A. 1957. Phytoplankton of the north central Sargasso Sea.Limnol. and Oceanogr., 2 : 252-270.

Rounsefell, G. A. 1946. Fish production in lakes as a guide for estimatingproduction in proposed reservoirs. Copela, 1946: 29-40.

SteemannNielson, E. 1955. The production of organic matter by phyto-plankton in a Danish lake receiving extraordinary amounts of nutrientsalts. Hydrobiologia, 7: 68-74.

Swingle, H. S., and Smith, E. V. 1947. Management of farm fish ponds(Rev. Ed.). Alabama Polytechnic Inst. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 254.

Tamiya, Hiroshi. 1957. Mass culture of algae. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol.,8: 80i, SU.

Verduin, Jacob. 1956. Primary production in lakes. Limnol. and Oceanogr.,1: 85-91.

Viosca, Percy, Jr. 1935. Statistics on the productivity of inland waters,the master key tt. better fish culture. Tr. Am. Fish Soc., 05: 350-358.

Weaver, J. E. 1954. North American Prairie. Johnsen Publ. Co., Lincoln,Nebraska.

Woythasky, W. S., and Woytinsky, B. S. 1953. World Population and Pro,duction. The Twentieth Century Fund, New York.

Ohie, W. 1953.Phosphorus as the Initial Factor in the Development of Eutrophic

Waters.Vom Wasser, Vol. 20, pp. 11-23; Water Pollution Abstracts, Vol.

28, No. 4, Abs. No. 893.

When oxygen is present at the surface of the sediment in a lake,iron phosphate and iron hydroxide are formed and dissolved phos-phate is absorbed. The pH value of the sludge is generally between6 and 7, at which value absorption of phosphate by ferric hydroxideis active. Experiments showed that maximum absorption takesplace at pH 5.9 and there is a decrease above and below this value.

Sewage treatment by sedimentation and percolating filters wasfound to have little effect on the total phosphorus concentratiton.

It appears that the nitrogen demand of both oligotrophic andeutrophic waters can be satisfied under natural conditions but the nat-ural supply of phosphate is small and the optimum amount for vigor-

77

ous algal growth is only reached by addition of wastes. Phosphatemust thus be regarded as the initial factor in the development ofeutrophic conditions.

Overbeck, J. 1961.The Phosphatase of Scenedesmus quadricauda and their Ecological

Importance.Verb. Int. Ver. Limnol. 1959, Vol. 14, pp. 226-231; Water Pollu-

tion Abstracts, Vol. 35, No. 8, Abs. No. 1497.

Determinations of inorganic and total dissolved phosphorus in thewater of an artificial pond, which was refilled at regular intervalswith water from the river Havel, showed a concentration of over 5mg/1 phosphorus, mainly present in the combined form. Experiments,using Scenedesmus quadricauda, were made to determine to whatextent the combined phosphorus could be utilized by algae. Phos-phorus was taken up immediately from potassium phosphate, to asmall extent from sodium pyrophosphate, and not at all from sodiumglycerophosphate, calcium phyate, and sodium nucleinate. By addi-tion of a bacterial suspension, phosphate was enzymatically releasedfrom sodium glycerophosphate and made available to the alga. Itwas concluded that the strain of Scenedesmus quadricauda used couldutilize combined phosphorus only through the intervention of waterbacteria.

Owen, R. 1953.Removal of Phosphorus from Sewage Plant Effluent with Lime.

Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 548-556.

Analysis of samples of domestic sewage from communities in Min-nesota, with populations varying from 1,200 to 940,000, showed thatthe raw sewage of these communities contained 1.5 to 3.7 grams, witha median of 2.3 grams of phosphorus per capita per day (1.9 poundspe: year). The amount of phosphorus removed by sewage treatmentvaried from 2 to 46 percent with an average of 23 percent. Laboratoryand pilot plant studies showed that phosphorus could be "almost com-pletely" removed by adding lime in controlled dosages to an effluentafter mixing and allowing the resulting precipitate to settle underquiescent conditions. Removals of phosphorus from 6 ppm to 0.015ppm were obtained under laboratory conditions and from 7.4 ppmto 1.7 ppm under plant-scale tests. Cost would approximate $7,600per year for 0.5 mgd of sewage treated with unslaked lime.

78

Paloumpis, A. A. and W. C. Starrett. 1960.An Ecological Study of Benthic Organisms in Three Illinois River

Flood Plain Lakes. American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 64, No.2, pp. 406-435.

The authors consider wild duck nutrient contributions to 3,500-acreLake Chautauqua in Illinois. Since domestic ducks are fed largequantities of prepared feeds by man, their wastes would bo expectedto be higher in nutrients than those of wild ducks. Therefore, a factorof 0.5 was used to determine that the annual nutrient, contributionto Lake Chautauqua resulting from the wild duck population was 12.8pounds of total nitrogen (N), 5.6 pounds of total phosphorus (P), and2.6 pounds of soluble phosphorus per acre of water.

Parker, C. D. 1962.Microbiological Aspects of Lagoon Treatment. Journal Water

Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 149-161.

High algal populations are uniformly present in unicell aerobicstabilization ponds, but are much more variable and are at a lowerlevel in multicell ponds. By the use of multicell ponds in series it ispossible to obtain relatively clear effluents free from objectionablealgal turbidity. In the multicell aerobic ponds there was a steadyreduction in count from pond to pond irrespective of the number ofalgae present. There appears to be no evidence to support the viewthat the release of bactericidal substances from algal material is re-sponsible for the reduction in count.

In aerobic unicellular ponds with detention times ranging from 10to 37 days the algal counts ranged from 2.2 X10' to 8.36 X 10', respec-tively. In aerobic multicell stabilization ponds (8 cells in series), un-der summer conditions the following nutrient and algal conditionswere noted :

RawSewage

Ponds

1 2 3 4 a 6 7 8

NY1/2-N reg/1NOINAlgae ( 0./m1.)

26.332.4

Nil

12.546.40

7X10'

14.552.5

7.1X1 10'

11.24& 7

.a2.4X10'

13.74.5. 0

.51.4X107

18.442.5

.21.2X101

8.940.0

.57.2xko

8. 128 1

.22.9X101

7.518.9

.88.5X101

No mention is made of the length of time that the ponds have beenin operation.

79

Phinney, IL K. and C. A. Peek. 1961.Klamath Lake, an Instance of Natural Enrichment. Algae and

Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. Public Health Service, SEC TR W61-3,pp. 22-27.

For at least 60 years the algal populations of Upper Klamath Lakehave been sufficiently large to cause comment and speculation as to thecause and effects of the growth. The prime offender in the summerbloom has been Aphanizomenon. Partial analysis of freshly driedalgae showed 61.1 percent crude protein, 5.73 percent ash, and 0.60percent phosphorus. ". . . there are no inorganic chemical constitu-ents that could be singled out as being responsible for this condition"[algal production]. It was the authors' belief that the action of thehumates as chelating and buffering agents was primarily responsiblefor the observed stimulation.

Pomeroy, L. R., IL M. Mathews and H. S. Min. 1963.Excretion of Phosphate and Soluble Organic Phosphorus Com-

pounds of Zooplankton. Limnolagy and Oceanography, Vol. 8,p. 55.

The amount of phosphorus excreted daily by marine zooplanktonhas been found to be nearly equal to its total phosphorus content,slightly more than half excreted phosphorus was phosphate and re-mainder was soluble organic phosphorus. It was suggested thatphosphorus excreted by zooplankton may constitute a significantfraction of that required by phytoplankton for photosynthesis.

Porges, R. and K. M. Mackenthun. 1963.Waste Stabilization Ponds: Use, Function, and Biota. Biotechnol-

ogy and Bioengineering, Vol. 5, pp. 255-273.

Photosynthesis and its dependence upon the algal mass, suitabletemperature, incident light penetration, nutrient supply, and inducedvertical mixing by wind are of prime importance in the stabilizationmechanism. Odors are associated with prolonged anaerobic condi-tions, and these may persist up to 4 weeks following extended ice coverin cold climates, if BOD loadings are 25 lbs. per acre per day orgreater. Nitrogen and carbon may be limiting factors in the develop-ment of an algal mass. A striking similarity exists generally amongthe algal speciation in stabilization ponds, regardless of geographiclocation. The algal mass is, however, dependent upon unique pondconditions and location, and may vary upwards to nearly 5 million

80

algal cells per milliliter, 34,000 ppm by volume, or 30-35 tons peracre per year.

Nutrients, because of their potent ;11 for creating biological nuisancegrowths, are becoming increasingly important as factors to be con-sidered in the discharge of wastes or treated effluents. Under climaticconditions found in Wisconsin, organic nitrogen formed the bulkof the total nitrogen in the stabilization pond, with the exception ofhigh (30 mg. per liter) wintertime concentrations under ice when theammonia nitrogen increased until it made up nearly 80 percent of thetotal nitrogen. Removals were as low as 6 percent in winter and 80-90percent in summer. Phosphorus concentrations were lowest in sum-mer and fall and highest in late winter. There was no phosphorusreduction through the stabilization pond in winter. Summertimereductions ranged from 58 to 80 percent or higher, dependent uponloading. At the Fayette, Missouri, installation nitrogen reductionwas found to be 94-58 percent and phosphorus reduction, 83-92 percent(Neel et al., 1961).

Neel, J. K., J. H. McDermott, and C. A. Monday, Jr., 1961. ExperimentalLagooning of Raw Sewage at Fayette, Missouri. Journal Water PollutionControl Federation, Vol. P3, No. 6, pp. 603-641.

Pratt, D. M. 1950.Experimental Study of the Phosphorus Cycle in Fertilized Salt

Water. Sears Foundation; Journal of Marine Research, Vol. 9,No. 1, pp. 29-54.

The rates at which phosphorus is (1) assimilated by phytoplankton,(2) released into solution from dead cells, and (3) regenerated toinorganic state, were measured in outdoor concrete tanks containingsea water fertilized with inorganic phosphate and nitrate. Bottleswrapped in black cloth and bottles exposed to the light NI. ere filled withthe tank water and suspended in the tanks; the three rates in the Pcycle were calculated from the observed changes in the concentrationsof inorganic and particulate P in the bottles. The maximum recordedrates were: assimilation= 0.36 pg-at. P/1 of sea water in the tanks/day; solution= 0.38 pg-at./1/day; regeneration=0.13 pg-at./1/day.In 18 series of measurements, during which phytoplankton increasespredominated over decreases, the following relations were observedbetween the rates of phosphorus transformations and the size andabsolute change of size of the phytoplankton populations: (1) Therate of phosphorus assimilation was significantly correlated with thesize of the phytoplankton standing crop and showed an even strongerdependence upon the increment of growth. (2)The rate at which par-ticulate organic phosphorus was released into solution was intimately

81

related to the size of the standing crop and was independent of thechange in population size (which in most cases was an increase). (3)The regeneration of dissolved inorganic phosphate from dissolvedorganic phosphorus depended upon the phytoplankton standing cropand showed no relation to the change in populat'or: size. If attachedalgae were allowed to grow oil the sides and boi tom of the tanks, inless than one month they removed three- fourths of the added phos-phate from the water-phytoplankton system. Where attached algaewere largely prevented from growing, four-fifths of the phosphorusoriginally present was detected in the water at the end of four weeks.

Prescott, q. W. 1960.Biological Disturbances Resulting from Algal Populations in Stand-

ing Waters. The Ecology of Algae, Spec. Pub. No. 2, PymatuningLaboratory of Field Biology, University of Pittsburgh, pp. 22-37(1959).

Of all the nutritive elements and dissolved substances known to beused by algae, those which are most often critical are phosphorus andnitrogen. When these nutrients are present in unusual quantities, alake can support tremendous populations of algae that recur year afteryear. Algal distrubances occur in relatively shallow lakes where it ispossible for nitrates and phosphates to be recirculated from bottom de-composition. Excessive and troublesome growths can occur only inlakes which are amply supplied with CO2 or with bicarbonates fromwhich carbon dioxide necessary for photosynthesis can be extracted.

Most likely the response of some species by producing bloom popula-tions, and no such response from other species, is related in part tothe high reproductive rate possessed by particular plants. The repro-ductive rate is usually paralleled by the speed with which nutrientsare absorbed.

The protoplasm of most blue-green algal species is highly proteina-ceous. Crude protein analyses (dry weight) show that Mieroeystisaeruginosa is 55.58 percent protein; Anobaena flos -aquae is 60.56 per-cent and Aphanizomenon flos -aquae is 62.8 percent. Hence their re-quirement for nitrates for the elaboration of proteins is much greaterthan that of green algae such as Spirogyra, for example, which is23.82 percent protein, or Cladophora, 23.56 percent. Nitrogen alonein Aphanizomenon amounts to 10.05 percent (dry weight) as comparedwith 3.81 percent in Spirogyra.

It has been demonstrated in laboratory cultures and inferred fromnumerous water and plankton analyses that phosphorus is morecritical than nitrogen in determining phytoplankton production.Atkins (1923) found that 1.12 mg of P2O5 was used to produce 1 X 10'

82

diatoms during the first phase of growth. One gram of P,O, sufficesfor 9 X 10" diatoms. Atkins (1923, 1925) found that in the sea oneliter of water can produce 26.8 million diatoms for each 0.03 mg. of Pconsumed.

Plankton populations in eutrophic lakes where electrolytes areabundant are characteristically greater than in oligotrophic lakeswhere electrolytes and CO, content are low. Rawson (1953) meas-ured 10 to 14 Kg of plankton per hectare in Canadian oligotrophiclakes as compared with 100 Kg per hectare in eutrophic lakes. IIerefers to Lake Mendota (Wisconsin) in which Birge and Judaymeasured 177 Kg of plankton per hectare.

Atkins, W. 11. G. 1923. Phosphate Content of Water in Relationship toGrowth of Algal Plankton. Journal Marine Biological Association, U. K.Vol. 13, pp. 110-150.

Atkins, W. R. G. 1025. Seasonal Changes in the Phosphate Content ofSea Water in Relation to the Growth of Algal Plankton during 1923 and1924. Journal Marine Biological Association, U. K., Vol. 13, pp. 700-720.

Prow. 3oli, L. 1961.Micronutrients and Heterotrophy as Possible Factors in Bloom Pro-

duction in Natural Waters. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S.Public Health Service, SEC TR W61-3, pp. 48-56.

Of 154 algal species, 56 require no vitamins and 98 species requirevitamin 1312, thiamin and biotin, alone or in various comtinations.Those blue-green algae not requiring B. employ it readily as a cobaltsource; since cobalt is generally scarce in water, even organisms notrequiring 1312 may compete for it. A great part of the vitamins infresh-waters and in the littoral zone of the sea can be assumed to comefrom any soil run-off especially during the spring floods. Muds areanother source of vitamins. A third source is t'.6 vitamins present assolutes in water, Fungi and many bacteria also produce 1312

Provasoli, L. 1963.Organic Regulation of Phytoplankton Fertility. In: The Sea, Vol. 2,

The Composition of Sea-Water, Comparative and DescriptiveOceanography, M. N. Hill, General Editor, Interscience Publish-ers, N.Y., pp. 165-219.

Birge and Juday (1934), in grouping the data from several hundredlakes according to total organic carbon, found a C/N ratio of 12.2 forlakes containing 1.0 to 1.9 mg C/1. In the North Atlantic deep watersof similar C content a C/N ratio from 2.5 to 6.5 with a mean of 2.7has been found.

83

Extra-cellular nitrogenous products have been noted frequently incultures of bacteria op blue-green algae fixing nitrogen. As much as50 percent of the total nitrogen taken up by Anabaeva oylindrica wasexcreted during the early logarithmic growth; 10 to 20 percent at halfgrowth; and moribund material liberates large quantities of solubleorganic nitrogen (Fogg, 1052). The extra-cellular nitrogenous sub-stances may or may not serve as nutrients to other organisms.

The important nutritional characteristics of the environment forphytoplankton include nitrogen, phosphorus, vitamins and tracemetals. It seems probable that in inshore waters Bi, is rarely limit-ing and not a constraint on fertility. But when the quantities of B.-like cobalamins are far lower, as in the open sea, the specificity of thevarious algae toward the different cobalamins may be decisive.

Dirge, E. A. and C. Juday, 1934. Particulate and Dissolved Organic Matterin Inland Lakes. Ecological Monographs, Vol. 4, pp. 440-474.

Fogg, G. B. 1952. The Production of Extracellular Nitrogenous Substancesby a Blue-green alga. Proceedings Royal Society of London, B 139,pp. 872 -397.

Provasoli, L. and I. J. Pintner. 1960.Artificial Media for Fresh-water Algae: Problems and Suggestions.

The Ecology of Algae, Spec. Pub. No. 2, Pymatuning Laboratoryof Field Biology, University of Pittsburgh, pp. 84-96 (1959).

Most algae utilize nitrates except the euglenoids which, so far as isknown, prefer ammonia or amino acids. Ten to 20 mg. percent nitratesare in general well tolerated. Ammonia tends to become toxic above3 to 5 mg. % in alkaline media (-wept for eurybionts living in pollutedwater. ...lineral phosphates should be avoided because they causeprecipitates, especially in alkaline media. Glycerophosphates havebeen found adequate in concentrations of 0.5 to 3 mg.%.

Provost, M. W. 1958.Chironomids and Lake Nutrients in Florida. Sewage and Indus-

trial Wastes, Vol. 30, No. 11, pp. 1417-1419.

Florida has experienced an increasing problem with "blind mos-quitoes" (Glyptotendipes paripes). Preliminary investigation showedthat the heaviest midge producing lakes were those likely to receivethe most inorganic nutrients, providing that the right kind of bottomwas present. A larval control method using water-wettable BHCapplied in the wake of a motorboat was developed; however, the midgelarvae developed sufficient tolerance to BHC to make lake treatmentineffective. Results of further study revealed EPN to be a good

84

larvacide, but this was effective only a year and a half during whichthe midge larvae developed a resistance. No control concentrationswere stated.

Putnam, H. D. and T. A. Olson. 1959.A Preliminary Investigation of Nutrients in Western Lake Superior

1958-1959. School of Public Health, University of Minnesota,32 pp. (Mimeo.)

Analyses of surface and subsurface samples from Lake Superiorshowed that ammonia nitrogen was present in trace amounts only,usually less than 0.1 mg/1. Low concentrations of organic nitrogenwere present in Lake Superior throughout the year but persisted ata higher level in the epilimnion than in deeper layers. The range wasfrom 0.08 mg/1 in the hypolimnion to 0.28 mg/1 at the surface. Thebulk of the nitrogen in the lake existed in the form of nitrate andranged from 0.93 mg/1 at the surface to 1.15 mg/1 in the hypolimnion.Nitrite was practically undetectable.

Seventy to 100 percent of the phosphorus in Lake Superior appearsto be present in the organic form. Values ranged from 0.18 to 0.46microgram atoms of total phosphorus per liter.

The water that enters Lake Superior from its tributary streamscontains very little free ammonia. The highest value, 0.1 mg /1, wasobtained on August 12 in the Amnicon River. Nitrate concentrationsin the rivers were lower than that observed in the lake and varied from0.16 mg/1 to 0.47 mg/l. Nitrite was absent or present only in traceamounts.

Total phosphorus levels in the streams were higher than thoseobserved in the lake. In August the concentration of phosphorusalong the north shore varied from 1.0 in the Poplar River to 1.46microgram atoms per liter in the Baptism River. On the south shorethe Brule River contained 1.70 microgram atoms which was the maxi-mum for August.

Putnam, H. D. and T. A. Olson. 1960.An Investigation of Nutrients in Western Lake Superior. School

of Public Health, University of Minnesota, 24 pp. (mimeo.)

In more than two-thirds of the samples from Lake Superior it wasfound that the nitrate nitrogen concentrations were directly relatedto the der 1 of the sample and in no case was the concer.tration lowerin the deeper water layers than near the surface. Concentrations ofNO, -N varied from 0.28 to 0.36 mg/1 at the surface and from 0.32 to0.47 mg/1 below the thermocline. Only traces of ammonia and nitrite

7 71-098-65--8 85

were found in the lake water during the 1958 investigation and werenot included in the 1959 study.

The nitrate nitrogen in all streams, except one, was considerablylower than that observed in the lake. In August, the range was 0.01to 0.44 mg/l. The overall mean total phosphorus concentration fornorth shore streams was 0.72 microgram atom per liter while that forthe south shore tributaries was 1.36 microgram atoms per liter. In-organic phosphorus constituted 38.5 percent of the total value (1.56pg at/l) in the St. Louis River, and 67.0 percent of the total phos-phorus concentration in the Black River (3.0 tig at/1).

Rainwater from selected points within the Duluth area containedsignificant levels of nitrogen but only traces of other nutrient ma-terials. The ammonia concentration ranged from 0.24 to 0.59 mg /I.Reduction of the ammonia level from 0.59 to 0.20 mg/I in samplesfrom two consecutive days suggested that nitrogen was washed fromthe atmosphere rather quickly. Organic nitrogen ranged from 0.26to 0.60 mg/1; 0.22 mg/1 nitrate was found in one sample.

Redfield, A. C., B. H. Ketchum and F. A. Richards. 1963.The Influence of Organisms on the Composition of SeaWater. In:

The Sea, Vol. 2, The Composition of Sea-Water, Comparative andDescriptive Oceanography, M. N. Hill, General Editor, Inter-science Publishers, N.Y., pp. 26-77.

The proportions in which the elements of sea-water enter into thebiochemical cycle is determined by the elementary composition of thebiomass. Atomic ratios of the principal elements present in planktonare as follows :

Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus

Zooplank tonPhytoplanktonAverage

103106106

16.515.516

111

It has been demonstrated repeatedly in culture experiments that theelementary composition of unicellular algae can be varied by chang-ing the composition of the medium in which they grow. If one ele-ment is markedly deficient in the medium, relative to its need by theorganism, cell growths and cell division can proceed for a limited pe-riod of time. The cells produced under these conditions contain lessof the deficient element than do normal cells. When an element isprovided in excess in the medium, luxury consumption can increase itscontent in the cells. Experimental variation of the C: N: P ratios (by

86

atoms) in culture of the freshwater alga OMorella pyrenoidosa (afterdata of Ketchum and Redfield, 1949) were given as follows:

Condition C N P

Normal ails 47 5.6 1

Phosphorus deficient cells 231 30.9 1

Nitrogen deficient cells 75 2.9 1

Liebig's law of the minimum implies that in a growth of a crop ofplants, when other factors such as light and temperature are favorable,the nutrient available in the smallest quantity relative to the require-ment of the plant will limit the crop. Nitrogen and phosphorusappear to occur in sea-water in just the proportions in which they areutilized by the plankton, a fact first noted by Harvey (1926).

Availability In"average" sea-water

Utilizationby plankton

mg A/mt ratio ratio

Phosphorus 2.3 1 1

Nitrogen 34.5 15 16Carbon 2,340 1,017 106

Ryther (1960) has estimated that the plankton of oceans as a wholecontains 3 g/m2 carbon. Assuming this to be concentrated in the upper100 m, the wet weight of plankton in the water would be equivalentto about 1 part in 3 million.

Harvey, H. W. 1020. Nitrate in the Sea. J. Mar. Bio. Assoc. U. K., n. s.,Vol. 14, pp. 7148.

Ketchum, B. H. and A. C. Redfield. 1049. Some Physical and ChemicalCharacteristics of Algae Grown in Mass Culture. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol.,Vol. 33, pp. 281-300.

Ryther, J. H. 1000. Organic Production by Planktonic Algae and itsEnvironmental Control. The Pymatuning Symposium in Ecology.Pymatuning Laboratory of Field Biology, University of Pittsburgh, SpecialPub. No. 2, pp. 72-83.

Rice, T. R. 1953.Phosphorus Exchange in Marine Phytoplankton.Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Bulletin #80, pp. 77-89.

The author cites Ketchum (1939a) as showing that Nitzschia cellsabsorb more phosphorus when grown in medium containing highphosphorus concentrations. Since the amount of phosphorus enteringthe cells is proportional to the concentration in the medium, it neces-sarily follows that any phosphorus entering the cell in excess of thatwhich the cell can convert into the organic state, will remain in the

87

inorganic state. Ketchum (1939b) has shown that phosphate-deficientcells contain only a small fraction of the phosphorus found in non-deficient cells, and that more phosphorus is absorbed by deficient cellswhen again placed in medium containing phosphorus. Rice showedthat phosphate-deficient cells grown in low concentrations of phos-phorus absorbed more phosphorus than nondeficient cells grown ina similar concentration of phosphorus. It was assumed that themetabolic rate of the phosphate-deficient cells was higher than thatof the nondeficient cells. Cells grown in the high concentration ofphosphorus absorbed more phosphorus than those grown in the lowconcentration. The high concentration contained 1,137.5 pg At P/1and the low concentration contained 4N.5 ttg At P/t Ketchum (1939b)has shown that nondeficient cells will not absoi: phosphorus frommedium in the dark and phosphate-deficient cells placed in the darkwill continue to absorb phosphate only for about 10 hours. In experi-ments performed by Rice, cells kept in the dark converted very littleintracellular inorganic phosphorus into the organic state.

Two ways in which phosphorus may enter a cell are discussed byKamen and Spiegelman (1948). One method is believed to be dif-fusion through the cell membrane of phosphorus as inorganic ortho-phosphate to combine with the intracellular orthophosphate. In-organic orthophosphate is assumed to be the source of phosphorus forthe various organic phosphates in the cell. The other method is theentry of phosphorus into the cell through esterification at the cellularinterface. Intracellular inorganic orthophosphate would then ariseprimarily from the breakdown of organic phosphate. From theirexperimental data with yeast these investigators concluded that theprimary mechanism of the entrance of phosphate is by esterification.

Kamen, M. D. and S. Spiegelman. 1948Studies on the Phosphate Metabolism of Some Unicellular Organisms. Cold

Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, Vol. 13, pp. 161-183.Ketchum, B. H. 1939a.The Absorption of Phosphate and Nitrate by Illuminated Cultures of

Nitz8chia closterium. Amer. Journ. Bot., Vol. 26, pp. 399-407.

Ketchum, B. H. 1939b.The Development and Restoration of Deficiencies in the Phosphorus au 3

Nitrogen Composition of Unicellular Plants.Jour. Cell, and Comp. Phystol., Vol. 13, pp. 373 -381.

Rickett, H. W. 1922.A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Lake Mendota.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters, Vol. 20, pp. 501-522.

In Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, the 0- to 1-meter zone contained 1,000pounds of submerged plants per acre on a dry weight basis; the 1- to3-meter zone, 2,400 pounds; and the 3- to 7-meter zone, 1,300 pounds.

88

Rickets, H. W. 1924.A Quantitative Study of the Larger Aquatic Plants of Green Lake,

Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Set., Arts, Letters, Vol. 21,pp. 381-414.

Plants were collected at the time of flowering from a y2 meter squareiron frame with the aid of a diving hood. The average yield fromGreen Lake was as follows:

DepthPounds per sere

Wet Dry

0-1 meter 1,550 6001-3 meter 15,440 1.9003-3 meter 14,380 1, MOAll depths. 13, 540 1,690

The downward limit of plant growth appeared to be controlled by thetransmission of 1 percent of the surface incident light.

Bigler, F. II. 1956.A Tracer Study of the Phosphorus Cycle in Lake Water. Ecology,

Vol. 37, pp. 550-562; Water Pollution Abstracts, Vol. 29, No. 11,Abs. No. 1850.

Using radioactive phosphorus a study was made of the phosphoruscycle in a small acid bog in Ontario. Of the total concentration ofphorphorus-32 added to the surface of the water, 77 percent was lost,from the water to plankton in 4 weeks, but only 2 percent was lostthrough the outlet from the lake and only 8 percent to the bottom mud.It was concluded that there was a turn-over of "mobile" phosphorusof the epilimnion with the phosphorus of the littoral organisms, thisexchange taking 8.5 days. Several days after the addition of phos-phorus-32 to a lake, 50 percent had passed into the fraction of planktonrecovered by a Foerst etntrifuge. When complete removal of plank-ton was achieved by filtering water through a Millipore filter, it wasfound that over 95 percent of the added phosphorus-32 was taken upby plankton within 20 minutes. The turn-over period of inorganicphosphate in the surface water of the lake was approximately 5 min-utes. Under natural conditions, the turn-over of phosphate appearedto be caused primarily by bacteria, and it was concluded that aquaticbacteria might compete with algae for inorganic phosphate.

89

Rig ler, F. 11. 1964.The Phosphorus Fractions and the Turnover Time of Inorganic

Phosphorus in Different Types of Lakes. Limnoiogy and Ocean-ography, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 511-518.

Soluble phosphorus in the trophogenic zone of lakes occurs in theinorganic form as orthophosphate and in a soluble organic phosphorusform. That inorganic phosphorus is readily used is beyond dispute.The orthophosphate in the trophogenic zone of lakes is continuallytaken up and released by plankton, the turnover time of this fractionbeing as short as 3.6 minutes (Rigler, 1956).

Using a Millipore filter with pore diameter of 0.45 ix to separateseston from the water, the mean percentage of the total phosphorus ofepilimnetic water for 8 Ontario lakes was 5.9 percent for the inorganicfraction, 28.7 percent for the soluble organic fraction, and 65.4 per-cent for the seston fraction. This compares to 9.5, 28.5, and 62 percent,respectively, found by Hutchinson (1057) for Linsley Pond, Connecti-cut, The average turnover time of dissolved inorganic P ranged from1,9 to 7.5 minutes in summer and from 7 to 10,000 minutes in winterfor the 8 Ontario lakes. The Ontario lakes ranged in area from 0.5 to2180 hectares, and in depth from 6 to 53 meters. The fraction of thetotal phosphorus that can accurately be described as soluble organic Pis still unknown. Half of the phosphorus described as soluble organicmay be neither soluble nor colloidal, but associated with particlesbetween 0.1 la and 0.45 p diameter.

Hutchinson, a. E. 1057. A Treatise on Limn° logy, Volume I, 1015 pp.Rig ler, P. IL HiCAL A Tracer Study of the Phosphorus Cycle In Lake Water.

Ecology, Vol. 87, pp. 550-502.

Rode le, J. I. (Editor), 1960.The Complete Book of Composting. Rodale Books, Inc., Emmons,

Pa., 1007 pp.

Tho percentage nitrogen and phosphoric acid composition of variousmaterials was given as follows:

MaterielPercentage

PON

Apple karts, freshApple shins, ashCantaloups rinds, ashCattail reed and wake any stemsCattle manure. freshDuet manure. freshttla Kest* beetsrotate tubers. freshPotato stins, raw (ass)Seaweed (Atlantic City)&wage slude, fresh

attleated, best treakdRate; potato fib* boiled (ash)

1.03

IL 02

1..2912

R 00

:u

11& 000 0

S.*0.15

5. .n51

.1/1.NI 13

$0.15.115 5

a IS1.2 11

90

S

Dried manures contain amounts up to 5 times higher in nitrogen andphosphoric acid.

The chemical composition of certain sewage sludges was givenas follows: (Analyses were on a moisture-free basis)

Activated sludges

Percentages

Nitrogen (NI) PhosphoricTotal acid (Ps01)

total

Chicago, IllChicago, IllHouston, TeeMcKeesport, PaMilwaukee, 9111

lelA 005.77

AD. 65

96

& &O& 973.987.653.96

Rohlich, G. A. 1961.Chemical Methods for the Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus

from Sewage Plant Effluents. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes,U.S. Public Health Service, SEC TR W61-3, pp. 130-135.

Laboratory studies show it possible to remove approximately 96to 99 percent of the soluble phosphates from the effluent of a sewagetreatment plant, This removal can be accomplished in a coagulationprocess employing any of the following coagulants: (a) aluminumsulfate, (b) ferrous sulfate, (c) ferric sulfate, or (d) copper sulfate.

Filter alum appears to be the most suitable coagulant because: (a)The residual phosphate concentration of the effluent following coagu-lation with 200 ppm of alum is, on the average, 0.06 ppm, expressedas P. (b)The optimum p11 range for the retnoval of phosphatesthrough coagulation with alum is 7.1 to 7.7. (c) The concentrationof aluminum hydroxide in the effluent of the coagulation process isapproximately 1.0 to 1.5 ppm and represents a loss of only 0.75 percentof the coagulant. (d) The aluminum hydroxide floc resulting fromthe hydrolysis of alum may be recovered, purified by removing theabsorbed phosphates in the form of tricalcium phosphate, and re-usedfor further phosphorus removal in the form of sodium aluminate.This recovery and purification reduces by 80 percent the cost ofchemicals required to remove phosphates from sewage treatment planteffluent,

Pilot plant studies show that with the use of the alum recoveryproce&q, from 77 to 89 percent of the soluble phosphates can be re-moved. Filtering of the effluent showed that from 93 to 97 percentof the soluble phosphate can be removed. Improved sM ding facilitiesshould give phosphorus removals that lie between the unfiltered andfiltered values obtained in the pilot plant study.

91

Much less attention has been given to the removal of nitrogen fromsewage and sewage effluent by chemical means obviously because solublenitrogen compounds are least affected by precipitation processes.

Rudolfs, W. 1947.Phosphates in Sewage and Sludge Treatment. Sewage Works Jour-

nal, Vol. 19, No. 1, p. 43.

An average phosphate concentration in raw sewage of 2.3 mg/1 as Pwas reported. The range was 1.7 to 4.0 mg/1 as P. The average con-centration in effluents from biological treatment was 0.22 mg/1 as P.The indicated per capita phosphateP contributions from domesticraw sewage were 0.53 to 1.20 pounds per year. Settling removed 50to 60 percent; filtration, 75 to 80 percent; and activated sludge, 80 to90 percent,.

Ryther, J. II. 1963.Geographic Variations in Productivity. In: The Sea, Vol. 2, The

Composition of Sea-water, Comparative and Descriptive Oceanog.raphy, M. N. Hill, General Editor, Interscience Publishers, N. Y.,pp. 347-380.

Rich fertile soil contains about 5 percent organic humus and asmuch as 0.5 percent nitrogen. This and the accompanying nutrientsin a cubic meter of rich soil, together with atmospherically suppliedcarbon, hydrogen and oxygen, can support a crop of some 50 kg ofdry organic matter, an amount equivalent to more than 200 tons peracre of soil 3 feet deep. Under optimal conditions plants are capableof converting the solar energy falling on a square meter of surface toan organic yield of the order of 10 g/day in excess of their ownmetabolic requirements. If terrestrial plants can sink their rootsinto 3 feet of rich soil, they have access, then, to enough nutrients togrow at their maximum potential rate for periods of several to manyyears.

The richest ocean water, exclusive of local polluted areas, containsabout 60 pg atoms /1, or 0.00005 percent nitrogen. A cubic meter ofthis sea-water could support a crop of no more than about 5 g of dryorganic matter.

According to Riley, 1951, a 100meter euphotic tone containsnitrogen at a concentration of about 15 pg atoms per liter and repre-sents a reservoir of 21 g of nitrogen in a 1-ms column. Thus, therelationships between chlorophyll, standing crop of organic matter,

92

transparency, organic production and nitrogen availability and re-quirements were given as follows :

Chi. a g/1Standing

crop mg/msdzr wt.

Deptheupbotiotone, in

Cale. atProd., gdry wt.triliday

N In! tleX yavailable

in euph °ticzone, mg

N requiredto produceediting

Populationmg

N require-ment,

mg/day

o0.10.61.01.05.010.020.0

o1060

100200600

1, 0002,800

130earos24161063. 6

00. 200.100. 751.001.401.802.20

24 30313, 9307,5004 000A 1009.1001.200,

735

o66

150240300600600700

020so75

100140180230

By the time a phytoplankton crop of 2 g/m' has developed, theeuphotic zone is limited to 8.5 m and the nitrogen in the water isexhausted.

Riley, 0. A. 1031. Oxygen phosphate, and nitrate in the Atlantic Ocean.Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll., Vol. 13, pp. 1-126.

Sanderson, W. W. 1953.Studies of the Character and Treatment of Wastes from Duck

Farms. Proc. 8th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Ext. Ser., Vol.83, pp. 170-176.

The raw wastes produced daily by 1,000 domestic ducks containedan average of 5.7 pounds of total nitrogen (N), 7.6 pounds of totalphosphate (PO4), and 3.6 pounds of soluble phosphate. Each do-mestic duck annually contributes 2.1 pounds of total nitrogen (N),0.9 pound of total phosphorus (P), and 0.4 pound of solublephosphorus.

Sattelrnacher, P. G. 1962.Methemoglobinemia from Nitrates in Drinking Water. Sehriften.

rethe des Vereins fur Warier--Bodenund Lufthygiene, No. 20,85 pp.

After considering 249 references, it is the author's opinion thatthe limiting value in drinking water for nitrate (N0s) should be80 mg/I.

Saunby, T. 1953.Soilless Culture, Transatlantic Arts Inc., New York, 104 pp.

For many years soilless culture has been employed in the study ofplant physiology, but during recent years this method of growing

93

a

plants has been adopted by commercial and amateur growers as ameans of producing crops of high yields and quality cheaply andcleanly. The basic nutrient solution for soilless culture contains 130mg/1 N, 120 mg/I 1(20, 100 mg/1 1)20,, 40 mg/I MgO, and 3 mg/1 Fe.When the solution is compounded from sodium nitrate, potassiumsulfate, superphosphate 16% P,01, magnesium sulfate and ferroussulfate, the following quantities are required:

Sodium nitrate. 1316 ounces. Magnesium sulfate 4 ounces.Potassium sulfate 4 ounces. Ferrous sulfate )4 ounce.Superphosphate le percent P.0, .. 10 MIMES. Water la 100 gallons.

Sawyer, C. N. 1947.Fertilization of Lakes by Agricultural and Urban Drainage. Journ.

New England Water Works Assn., Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 109-127.

Ammonia nitrogen is the most important nitrogen stimulant to ex-plosive algal growths (compared with nitrate nitrogen) and maybe a facto' in determining the type of bloom produced. All the evi-dence obtained in the Madison a rvey !olds support to the belief thatphosphorus is a key element in determining the biological activity ina body of water. ". . . Nuisance [algal] conditions can be expectedwhen the concentration of inorganic phosphorus exceeds or equals0.01 ppm." A critical level of 0.30 mg/1 of inorganic nitrogen wasindicated.

Agricultural drainage in the Madison, Wisconsin, area was foundto contribute approximately 4,600 pounds of nitrogen and 222 poundsof phosphorus per square mile of drainage area per year. Biologi-cally treated sewage was found to supply approximately 6.0 poundsof nitrogen and 1.2 pounds of phosphorus per capita per year. Thelakes at Madison downstream from the city were found to be fer-tilized by nitrogen in amounts ranging from 127 to 588 pounds peracre per yeat and by phosphorus in amounts ranging from 19.0 to88.0 pounds per acre per year. The lakes retained 30.4 to 60.5 per-cent of the nitrogen they received. These lakes were rich producersof nuisance blue-green algal blooms.

Sawyer, C. N. 1952.Some New Aspects of Pltosphates in Relation to Lake Fertilization.

Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 768-776.

In analyzing data from 17 lakes in .southern Wisconsin with respectto biological behavior, the conclusion is reached that concentrationsin excess of 0.01 mg/I of inorganic phosphorus and 0.30 mg/1 ofinorganic nit roger, at the time of spring overturn could be expected

94

to produce algal blooms of such density as to cause nuisance. Labora-tory experiments were performed with one source of natural water:

Mixture with lake Irate: Period(dabs)

Total nitrogen (mg/1)

Start Finish Gain

Control10 percent sewage effluent added10 percent effluent minus N and P10 percent effluent minus N

167181170188

0.512.67

.67

.67

2.61

4.3011.85

2.101. 7`!.

6011.81

"From the fact that a heavy growth of blue-green algae did occur inthe presence of a plentiful supply of phosphorus and a deficiency ofnitrogen and that nitrogen was simultaneously fixed from the atmos-phere, it may be concluded that phosphorus is a key element in thefertilization of natural bodies of water and that any deficiency of nitro-gen can be obtained from the atmosphere." Author quotes Rudolfs(1947) who reported on the removal of phosphates from sewage bycoagulation with lime and found that the total soluble phosphoruscontent. could be reduced to about 0.6 mg/1 by lime treatment. Ferricsalts and aluminum sulfate have been proposed for coagulation ofphosphates from sewage (Sawyer, 1944) ; both coagulants are highlyeffective but the coagulant requirements are markedly increased bythe amount of phosphate present. Alum has been proposed by Leaand Rohlich (1950) as the most suitable coagulant because the alu-minum can be recovered from the sludge by treatment with causticto form sodium aluminate which is re-usable.

Ordinarily domestic sewages contain from 15 to 35 mg/1 of nitro-gen an'? from 2 to 4 mg/1 of phosphorus. A large percentage of thesefertilizing elements exist in a readily available condition or become soduring biological treatment or while undergoing stabilization bymicroorganisms in the receiving body of water.

Rudolf+, W. 1917. Phosphates in Sewage and Sludge Treatment. 1. Qin n.titles of Phosphates. Sewage Works Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 43-47.

Sawyer, C. N. 1914. 131ological Engineering in Sewage Treatment. Sew-age Works Journal, Vol. 16, 'No. 5, pp. 925-935.

Lea, W. L and 0. A. RoblIch, 1950. Phosphate Removal by Coarulstion.Paper read before Div. of Water, Sewage, and Sanitation Chem., ACSDetroit Meeting.

Sawyer, C. N. 1954.Factors Involved In Disposal of Sewage Effluents to Lakes. Sewage

and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 317-325.

When the "cash in the bank" assets of inorganic nitrogen and phos-phorus exceed 0.30 and 0.01 mg/1 respectively, at the start of the activegrowing sev n, a season with nuisance blooms may be anticipated.

95

a

Several factors affecting lake biological productivity are cited. Lakearea becomes a critical factor because of the tendency of blue-greenodor-produing nuisance algae to float, thus large lakes often have abad history even with relatively light inflows of nutrients. The shapeof the lake determines in some degree the amount of fertilizing matterit can safely assimilate. A round lake with minimum dimensionswould provide the least opportunity for the collection of floating algae,whereas one with a long wind sweep would provide greater oi.por-tunity for accumulation. Prevailing winds and wind intensity areimportant factors as is the depth-area-volume relationship.

Sawyer, C. N. and A. F. Ferullo. 1961.Nitrogen Fixation in Natural Waters under Controlled Laboratory

Conditions. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. Public HealthService, SEC TR W61-3, pp. 100-103.

In the laboratory studies, no attempt was made to ascertain whethernitrogen fixation was due to algal or bacterial action. It gems im-portant to note, however, that whenever unusual amounts of nitrogenwere fixed, blue-green algae were found in the test specimets. Thedominant genus noted was Aplumizomenon. It was concluded that:(1) phosphorus is a key element in nitrogen fixation, (2) fertilizationof aquatic areas by domestic wastes stimulates biological productivity,(3) sewage plant effluents contain phosphorus in excessive amounts,(4) the excess phosphorus can stimulate extensive blooms of nitrogenfixing blue-green algae, and (5) the productivity of most aquatic areasis probably related to their phosphorus budgets.

Sawyer, C. N., J. B. Lackey, and R. T. Lenz. 1945.An Investigation of the Odor Nuisances Occurring in the Madison

Lakes, Particularly Monona, Waubesa and Kegonsa from July1942July 1944. Report of Governor's Committee, Madison,Wisconsin, 2 Vols. (Mimeo.)

The average annual concentration of inorganic nitrogen in the efflu-ent of 17 southeastern Wiscqntan lakes ranged from 0.10 mg/1 inoligotrophic Rock and Geneva lakes to 0.79 mg/1 in highly eutrophicWaithesa Lake that was receiving the treated sewage effluent fromMadi on, Wisconsin. Highest inorganic nitrogen concentrations inthe latter lxKly of water occurred in February and March (1.15 and124 me, respectively). The average annual inorganic phosphorusconcentration in the same lakes ranged from <0.01 mg/1 in S of thelakes to 0.88 in Lake Waubesa.

96

Schuette, H. A. 1918.A Biochemical Study of the Plankton of Lake Mendota. Trans.

Wisconsin Acad., Sci., Arts, Letters, Vol. 19, pp. 594-613.

Analyses were made of composite plankton samples obtained bypumping up water from different levels of the lake altd straining itthrough a plankton net. In 7 samples, total nitrogen ranged from4.51 to 9.94 percent dry weight with an average of 7.55 percent whilethe available protein nitrogen ranged from 2,82 to 8.67 percent andaveraged 4.55 percent. Forty to 87 percent of the total nitrogenwas in the available form. Total phosphorus ranged from 0.92 to1.57 percent and averaged 1.26 percent.

Schuette, H. A. and II. Alder. 1928.Notes on the Chemical Composition of Some of the Larger Aquatic

Plants of Lake Mendota. H Vallisneria and Potamogeton.Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters, Vol. 23, pp. 249-254.

Plants were hand-picked, air-dried, and desiccated at 60° C.

Band-fres beds

VslIkmerts Potamotetoo

AsbTotal Utopia NTotal pbospbccu(s

)(P)

ere"!28 19I. 88

. 23

Pftce011.42I..'A13

Schuette, II. A. and II. Alder. I929a.Notes on the Chemical Composition of Some of the Larger Aquatic

Plante of Lake Mendota. III Culotta odorata and Najas flextlis.Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters, Vol. 24, pp. 135-139.

Ash'"ots1 sd awes (N)

ots1 ~otos (P)

Pruitt11.11i»

Schuette, 11. A. and H. Alder. 1929b.A Note on the Chemical Composition of Charm from Green Lake,

Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters, Vol. 24,pp. 141-145.

Ash,41.22 percent ; total nitrogen, 0.72 percent to 4.50 percent; totalphosphorus, 0.06 percent. (Sandfree basis.)

9'1

Stumm, W. and J. J. Morgan. 1962.Stream Pollution by Algal Nutrients. Twelfth Annual Conference

on Sanitary Engineering, University of Kansas, pp. 16-26.(Harvard University Sanitary Engineering Reprint No. 45.)

Presit day aerobic biological treatment mineralizes substantialfractions of bacterially oxidizable organic substances but is not capableof eliminating more than 20 to 50 percent of nitrogenous and phos-phatic constituents.

The P-content of domestic sewage is about 3 to 4 times what it wasbefore the advent of synthetic detergents, and it is not unlikely thatthe P-content of sewage may continue to rise. Since the ability toassimilate elementary nitrogen by certain blue-green algae has beendemonstrated to be of importance in fresh water, phosphorus is a keyelement in the fertilization of natural bodies of water. If phosphorus(as P) is the predominant limiting factor, 1 mg of phosphate (as P)released to the surface water in one single pass of the phosphorus cycleis capable of accompanying the production of about 75 mg of organicmaterial.

Assuming a sustained annual net algal production of 5 gm /m' /dayin a stabilization pond, the required pond area for the autotrophicstripping of 7 mg P/1 in a sewage flow of 1 mgd (corresponding toroughly 10,000 inhabitants) would be 100 acres. Harvesting of thealgal crop would be necessary for efficient nutrient removal.

Swingle, If. S. and E. V. Smith. 1939.Fertilizers for Increasing the Natural Food for Fish in Ponds.

Trans. American Fisheries Soc., Vol. 68, pp. 126-135.

In pond waters a 4: 2:1: 8 ratio of N-P-K-CaCO, (mixture of com-mercial fertilizer) gave a fish production of 578 pounds per acrecompared to 134 pounds per acre in the unfertilized control. Theamounts of commercial fertilizers used per acre per application were:40 pounds sulfate of ammonia, 60 pounds superphosphate (10 per-cent), 5 pounds muriate of potash, and 80 pounds basic slag (or 15pounds CaCO3).

Sylvester, R. 0. 1961.Nutrient Content of Drainage Water from Forested, Urban and

Agricultural Areas. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes, U.S. PublicHealth Service, SEC TR W614, pp. 80-87.

Nutrient data are presented from major highways, arterial andresidential streets anywhere from 80 minutes to several hours after

98

S

a rainstorm had commenced;* from three streams containing largereservoirs, roads and some logging but no human habitation as theyemerge from forested areas: from the Yakima River Basin irriga-tion return flow drains,"* and from Green Lake**** in Washington.

Tfeo,e nutrient co nee Orations (ppb)

Totalphosphorus

(P)

Solublephosphorus

(P)

N I lr a tea(N)

Total k )eld ab 1nitrogen (N)

Urban street dralrtateUrban street drainage (r, -dian)'Streams from treated arms"auteurface irrigation drains'',Surface Irrigatioa drabs*Green Lakes"'

208164ea

216361

76

7622

7164162

16

627433130

2, eoo1, 260

64

9, 010410

74I 79205340

"Nuisance algal blooms were observed to commence in Seattle's GreenLake (a very soft-water lake) when nitrate nitrogen levels weregenerally above 200 ppb and soluble phosphorus was greater than10 ppb."

Sylvester, R. 0. and G. C. Anderson. 1964.A Lake's Response to its Environment. Journal of the Sanitary

Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. SA1, pp. 1-22 (Feb-ruary).

Two-hundred-fifty-six acre Green Lake in Seattle, Washington, hasan unusually wide diversification of recreational use that has beenretarded by seasonal algal blooms, littoral vegetation, ancl outbreaksof swimmer's itch. Samples of fresh and aged wild fowl excrementwere found to average 1.43 milligrams of nitrates, 10.3 milligrams oforganic nitrogen, and 0.91 milligram total phosphorus. Bottom sedi-ments were analyzed; decomposition of organic matter is broughtabout by bacterial action, but a significant fraction remains and, asthe sedimeuts are built up yearly, the underlying fraction is sealedoff and further degradation ceases. The uppermcst 1 yer of bottommud was found to contain 1.07 milligrams total phi (P) pergram (parts per billion) of dry solids, 7.0 milligra s total nitrogen(N) per gram of dry solids, 8.94 percent solids of wet weight, and27.6 percent volatile solids (dry weight). C. It. N 'rt imer was creditedwith finding that in aerated tank water or in lake, well suppliedwith dissolved oxygen, the exchange of solut and nutrients betweenmud and water was slight. As oxygen dep etion continued in wateroverlying mud, reducing conditInns b:o in the mud, and soluteswere released in increasing quantities the overlying water. "Ayearly catch of 100,001 trout, each eraging about 0.3 lb, would

99

contain about 292 mg P per 100 g of fish for a total of 88 lb per yearof P removed in the fish catch." The total P input was 4.8 poundsper surface acre and 65 percent annually was retained in the lake.

Sylvester, R. 0. and R. W. Seabloom. 1963.Quality and Significance of Irrigation Return Flow. Journal of the

Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, Vol. 89, No. IRS, Proc.Paper 3624, pp. 1-27 (September).

A study was made of irrigation return flow in the Yakima, RiverBasin, Washington, for an irrigated area of 376,280 acres during anirrigation season whose principal months extend from April throughSeptember. Average water diversion WEIS 6.6 acre-feet per acre peryear of which approximately 4.25 acre-feet per acre was applied toland, the rewainder being lost in canal seepage, canal evaporation,and wastage. The evapc-transpiration loss in itself would result ina salt concentration increase of 1.7 times in the irrigation return water.Chemical constituent increases occurring in the subsurface drainagewater because of evapo-transpiration, leaching and ion exchange, ex-pressed as number of times greater than in the applied water were asfollows: bicarbonate alkalinity, 4.8; chlorides, 12; nitrate, 10; andsoluble phosphate, 3.2. During the irrigation and nonirrigation sea-sons, the approximate contribution of ions or salts in pounds per acreresulting from irrigation were, respectively, bicarbonate, 676 and716; chloride, 37 and 63; nitrate, 33 and 35; and soluble phosphate,1 and 1.2.

Tatum, C. O. 1951.Removal of Plant Nutrients from Tree Crowns by Rain. Physi

ologia Plantarunt, Vol. 4, pp. 184-188. (From Putnam and 01.son, 1960.)

The study area was the experimental forest of the Forest ResearchInstitute, Bogesund, Sweden.

Analysis of pure rainwater samples collected in an open area inOctober and November provided the following data:

=matePotashes

AMMINIIMI

3 441 mg/t.4 to 0 11 rnti,

01 tn0/4.

godiumTotal trite eaplgopbotos

IA to 4.7 tniti.rift&0.0) ottil.

100

4

Tann, C. O. 1953.Growth, Yield, and Nutrition in Carpets of a Forest Moss. Medde

landen Mitt Staten, Skogsforskning Institut, Vol. 43, pp. 1-140.(From Putnam and Olson, 1960.)

Rainwater was collected in an open field using funnels and flasks ofstainless steel. Analysis of the collected rainwater yielded the fol-lowing data (mg/1) :

NfirN P K Na Ce re Ma 810,

Nov. 1-17, 1951Nov. 17-24, 1951Ally 17-Aug 12, 1952Aug. 12, 15, 1952

0.8.2.9.6

0.1.1

0.6.3.3.3

1.0.7.0.8

0.7.2.5.2

U.02.02

00

0.4

During the summer and autumn of 1952, rainwater was collectedduring five different periods, using glass funnels and flasks. A 'otatof 227 mm of water fell during the sampling period carrying d ,xn,as an average from three different sampling vessels, 0.97 mg K, 1.41mg Na, and 0.91 mg Ca per dm'.

Tanner, 11. A. 1960.Some Consequences of Adding Fertilizer to Five Michigan Trout

Lakes. Transactions American Fisheries Society, Vol. 89, No.2, pp. 198-205.

Inorganic fertilizer (10-6-4) was applied to four of a group of sixMichigan trout lakes ranging in size from 2.6 to 5.9 acres at ratesvarying from 80 to 650 pounds per acre. The thermocline in thethree lakes receiving the most fertilizer shifted to a more shallowrsition. Three of the fertilized lakes decreased in total alkalinity

a greater rate than did the two lakes not fertilized. Fertilizationresulted in the oxygen being depleted from the hypolimnion and someoxygen reduction occurred in the thermocline. The volume of oxy-genated water remaining under the ice during the critical period oflate winter was reduced in the fertilized lakes, and lakes fertilizedat the highest rate very nearly approached winterkill conditions. Thereduction of oxygen both in summer stagnation periods and in latewinter was more severe after the second season of fertilization. Authorcites Einsele (1938) as indicating that, in general, when iron is presentin the hypolimnion, it combines with phosphorus as ferric phosphatein the presence of oxygen. The precipitate formed is insoluble andresults in the remov.+1 of phosphorus from the lake water. If, however,oxygen is absent when the iron and phosphorus combine, the productis a soluble ferrous phosphate, some of which will be reused. Mortimer(1941) has indicated that the processes of reduction usually return

771-0910-435--9 10i

the nutrient material in forms more usable by plants end bacteria thando the processes of oxidation. Eutrophication is extremely slow whilethe lake is oligotrophic. When the lake assumes the characteristics ofa eutrophic lake, which includes lack of oxygen in the hypolimnionduring the summer stagnation period, continued eutrophication andextinction become rapid.

Etnsete, W. 1938. t)ber chemische und colloldalechemische Vorgange inElsenPhosphorSystemen unter linmocbemischen und limnogeologischenGesicbspunken. Arch. f. Hydro', lot, Vol. 33, pp. 361-387.

Mortimer, C. H. 1941. The Exchange of Pissolved Substances between Mudand Water in Lakes. I and II. Journal of Ecology Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.280-329.

Tucker, A. 1957.The Relation of Phytoplankton Periodicity to the Nature of the

PhysicoChemical Environment with Special Reference to Phos-phorus. 1. Morphometrical, Physical and Chemical Conditions.

American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 57, pp. 300-333.

The investigation was carried on for 16 months at Douglas Lake,Michigan, with water samples being collected and phosphorus deter-minations being made every two weeks.

At the surface, total phosphorus fluctuated between 7 and 14 micro-grams per liter, at the 12-meter depth (lower limit of the epilimnion)between 7 and 15 micrograms per liter. At. the 20-meter depth, be-tween July 3 and September 16, the amount of total phosphorus in-creased from 10 micrograms per lit!.r to 641. Seasonal variation ininorganic phosphorus (soluble) followed closely the variation in totalphosphorus, although smaller in amount. Analysis of a vertical seriesof samples showed that ':he most constant fraction of phosphorus wasthe soluble organic phosphorus, never exceeeding 9 micrograms perliter regardless of the depth at which the sample was taken.

The pH was S.0 -8.4 in the epilimnion and between 7.0 and 8.0 inthe hypolimnion.

Tucker, A. 1957a.The Relation of Phytoplankton Periodicity to the Nature of the

Physico-Chemical Environment with Special Reference to Phosphorus. II. Seasonal and Vertical Distribution of the Phyto-plankton in Relation to the Environment. American MidlandNaturalist, Vol. 57, pp. 334-370.

Toward the end of the summer, oxygen was absent at the bottom ofthe hypolimnion in Douglas Lake, Michigan, but phosphorus could notbe detected in this bottom area until about 8 weeks after the disap-

102

ti

pearance of. the oxygen. It was concluded that the reason for the lackof analyzable phosphorus was that iron and phosphorus can exist in-dependently only when or, is absent and that if oxygen is intro-duced, the iron and phospnorus will combine to form an insolubleferric phosphate precipitate. When oxygen disappears from bottomwaters, the ferric complexes are reduced, forming ferrous complexeswhich are soluble.

Tucker, J. M., D. R. Cordy, L. J. Berry, W. A. Harvey, and T. C.Fuller. 1961.

Nitrate Poisoning In Livestock. California Agricultural Expert.ment Station Extension Service, University of California Circular506, 9 pp.

Nitrates, absorbed from the soil by must plants, serve as a sourceof nitrogen which plants convert into proteins and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Normally functioning plants usually containrelatively small amounts of nitrate because the nitrate is converted intoother nitrogenous compounds almost as soon as it is absorbed. Undercertain conditions, however, some plants may accumulate fairly highconcentrations of nitr,;te. While these concentrations are not toxic tothe plant itself, animals feeding on well plants may sometimes sufferfatal poisoning.

Nitrate itself is not very toxic, but is readily converted into nitrite.Probably most of the conversion of nitrate to nitrite takes place in theanimal digestive tract, although some field studies indicate that nitritemay already be present in the plants before they are eaten. Nitriteconverts the hemoglobin in red blood cells to niethemoglohin, whichcannot transport needed oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues.Thus, animals affected with nitrate poisoning show general symptomsof oxygen deficiency.

Ruminants, particularly cattle, are the principal victims of nitratepoisoning because of the large amounts of plant material they eat andthe action of microorganisms in the rumen. Sheep and swine areless susceptible. There appears to be few recorded cases of horsesdying from nitrate poisoning under pasture or range conditions.

Factors affecting nitrate accumulation in plant .1 include the stage ofthe plant's growth (the pre-blooming period has the highest accumu-lation), an ample supply of available nitrate in the soil, an adequatemoisture supply, an acid rather than an alkaline soil, relatively lowtemperatures (around 55° F), and reduction in light intensity. Anexcess of phosphate tends to retard nitrate absorption.

Plants are considered as potentially toxic if they contain nitrateamounting to more than 1.6 percent expressed as KNO, on a dryweight basis. This is 15,000 ppm KNO, or 2,078 ppm N.

103

Plants that have been involved in nitrate poisoning or are capableof accumulating appreciable amounts of nitrate include:

PLANT COMMON NAMEAntaranthus blitoides Prostrate plgweed.A. prowl:an. Tumbling pigweed.A. retro/Wu. Rough pigweed.Ammi ma /us Bishop's weed.Antainek(a douglastana Douglas' fiddleneck.A. Intel-media Common flddleneck.ApIvn gr aveolena Celery.Ayala sa live Oats.Dela vulgar,. Sugar beet.

Vtligaris var. raps Mangel.Bidet!. frondora Leggaricks.Draturica compeatris Turnip.B. napobrals ice Rutabaga .B. napu. Rape.B. oleracea vars Brocolli, Kale, Kohlrabi.D. rapes TurnipEromta catharticus Rescue grass.Ohenopodium album Lamb's-nuar tem.C. ambrnitefde. Mexican tea.C. oatiforttioum Soap plant.O. mural° Nettle-leaf goosefoot.Clirsium arvenae Canada thistle.Oleome serrulata_ Rocky Mountain bee plant.Conium maculatum Poison hemlock.Convolvu /us arven.14 Wild morning-glory.duotimis sativa Cucumber.Cuom aka maxima Hubbard squash.Dauous oarota Carrot.Eleuelno indica Goose grass.Euphorbfa mactaata Spotted spurge.Glyeine max Soybean .Onaphailum purpureum Purple cudweedHaplopappus venetua Coast gold enbush,Ilelfanthust annuur Common sunflower.Itelfanthus tuberosus Jerusalem artichoke.Ilordcutn vulgare Barley.Koohia americana Fireball.Lactuca saliva Lettuce.L. acariola Prickly lettuce.Littum usitatfesimum Flax,ifalva parviflora Cheeseweed.

elflotua oftleinalis Yellow sweet clover.Wont fa perfoliata Miner's lettuce.Panicum capillare Witch grass.Park(nson(a aculeata Horse bean,Pastinaoa saliva Parsnip.Plagiobothrud op. Popcorn flower.Raltneseufa californica California chicory.Raphanus so t iV1441 Radish.Salsola kali Russian thistle.

104

PLANT COMMON NAME&oak cereal, Rye.Siriamm marianum Milk thistle.Solanum carolinense Carolina horse nettle.S. nfgram European black nightshade.Sonchus ewer Prickly sow-thistle.S. oleraceua C)mmon sow-thistle.Sorghum Wegense Johnson bTass.S. audaneture Sudan grass.S. vuigarc Sorghum.Thelypodium lasiophyllu M. California mustard.Trfbulua terrestris Puncture vine.Triticvm oestivum Wheat.Verbeeina cuceltodes Crownbeard.Zca may. Corn,

Vaccaro, R. F. 1964.Available Nitrogen and Phosphorus at the Biochemical Cycle in the

Atlantic of New England. Journal of Marine Research, Vol. 21,No. 3, pp. 284-301.

During August, when only trace amounts of -itrate persist in thephotic layer, ammonia appears to be the major source of availablenitrogen. By late summer, nitrogen assimilation by marine phyto-plankton in the surface waters off New England had reduced nitrateto trace amounts close to the limit of sensitivity of the analyticalmethod employed. Ammonia persists throughout the summer at abouthalf of its winter concentration, and by August it has become the mostabundant source of plant nitrogen. Conversely during winter, al-though higher concentrations of each type of nitrogen are present,nitrate-nitrogen is five or six times more abundant than ammonia.It appears that the relative abundance of ammonia as opposed tonitrate during summer in the euphotic waters oft New England coin-cides with maximum stratification of the water column because ofincreased surface temperatures. Until the occurrence of active nitrifi-cation within the upper layer is more conclusively demonstrated, itmust be assumed that, at such times, the major impetus to the nitrogencycle is provided by ammonia because of its mcre rapid exchangebetween organisms and environment and because of its direct additionfrom the atmosphere in association with rain. The annual variationin available phosphorus within these waters, unlike that of nitrogen,is much less pronounced, and excess amounts are the rule throughoutthe year.

The analyses of particulate nitrogen and phosphorous provide aquantitative basis for assessing the extent of seasonal adaptation to thesummer supply of available nitrogen and phosphorus. When nitratewas virtually absent from the upper fifty meters during August, the

105

phytoplankton contained nitrogen and phosphorus on a dry weightbasis at a ratio corresponding to 12:1. This condition was accom-panied by generally higher ratios up to 20:1 in the coarser netmaterial. Competent ratios measured by Harris a :A Riley (1056)were cited for Long Island Sound as 12.0 : 1 for August phytoplanktonand 20.6: 1 for July zooplanl:ton. For March of the same year, whenlarge amounts of available nitrogen were present, the same authorsreported a ratio of 17.2: 1 for Long Island Sound phytoplankton.

Harris, E. and G. A. Riley. 1950.Oceanography of Long Island Bound, 1952 -54.VIII. Chemical Composition of the Plankton.Bull. Bingham 0 zeanogr. Coll., Vol. 15, pp. 315-323.

Vallentyne, J. R. 1952.Insect Removal of Nitrogen ind Phosphorus Compounds From

Lakes. Ecology, Voi. 33, pp. 573-577; Water Pollution Ab-stracts, Vol. 26, No. 11, Abs. No. 1861.

To determine the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus removedfrom lakes by aquatic insects which leave the water in the adult stage,a study was made of the concentration of total nitrogen and phos-phorus in adult insects trapped as they emerged from the water inLake Opinicon, Ontario. On an average, 136 insects emerged per dayper square meter of surface and these had a fresh weight of 69.2 mgand contained 2.26 mg of total nitrogen and 0.15 mg of total phos-phor is. It is calculated that in Winona Lake, Indiana, where theamount of organic sediment has been determined, the loss of organicmatter by emergence of insects was less than 1 percent of the amountof organic sediment deposited annually.

VanVuran, J. P. J. 1948.Soil Fertility and Sewage. Dover Publications Inc., New York,

236 pp.

The average human inhabitant of a European city excretes 107pounds per year solids and 964 pounds per year liquids fora total of1,071 pounds. This contains 75.8 pounds of dry matter, 11.4 pounds ofnitrogen and 2.6 pounds of phosphoric acid. The average compositionof fresh human feces is 1 percent nitrogen and 1.10 percent phosphoricoxide (PO) ; the composition of urine is 0.6 percent litrogen and 0.17percent PO.

The quantity of manure voided by animals varies with type, climateand food. Roughly for 1,000 pounds of live weight, cows excrete22,000 pounds of solids and 6,800 pounds of liquids per year-; horses,

106

13,000 and 2,600 pounds, respectively. Yearly fertilizer constitutentswere given as follows :

Nitrogen(potrods)

Phosphoricacid (pounds)

Horse 128 43Cow 1/5 38Sh p 119 44Pig /53 104

The water hyacinth was first introduced into the United States fromVenezuela and exhibited at the New Orleans Cotton Exposition in1884. Its rapid spread in the new environment soon made it a nui-sance. Random samples of a compost manure of water hyacinth haveshown a nitrogen percentage of 1.12 on a dry eight basis. Underoptimum conditions the nitrogen percentage may range, to 2.23 percenton a dry weight basis and the phosphoric oxide 0.86 to 8.0 percent.Based on the average weight of plants per square foot, half an hourafter their removal from water, it was calculated that an acre of well-grown plants would weigh approximately 96 tons. The yield wasassumed to range fom 4.3 to 6.7 tons of dry matter per month. It waspostulated that as a true water plant, water hyacinth was especiallysuitable for effluent lakes with its major difficulty being its bulk andhigh percentage of water. Under suitable climatic conditions, oneacre with cropping would remove 3,075 pounds of nitrogen per year,the discharge of 220 persons per annum.

VI:digt, G. K. 1960.Alteration of the Composition of Rainwater by Trees. American

Midland Naturalist, Vol. 63, pp. 321-326.

The investigation was concerned with the nutrient content of rain-water, its modification by three forest cover types, and the net nutrientreturn to forest soils resulting from the addition of rainwater.

The area of study was located in southern Connecticut, a regionwhich receives about 45 inches of precipitation per year. The watersamples were collected from two storms, one in Diay and one inSsptembtir.

The composition of rainwater collected in an open area in mg/1 wasas follows :

Mal September May September

NItroten (total)Phosphorus

0.05. 01

O. t)7.01

Parini=Calcium.

0.8 0. 4.1

107

The differences in potassium and calcium content between Mayand September are probably related to the proximity of the studyarea to the highly industrial region of the east. This, together withdifferences in wind direction and storm movements, could causegreat differences in the amount of air pollution.

Walton, G. 1951.Survey of Literature Relaiiug to Infant Methemoglobinemla Due to

Nitrate- Contaminated Water. American Journal of PublicHealth, Vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 986-996.

Although methemoglobinemia may result from congenital heartdiseases, or from the ingestion, inhalation, or absorption, or themedicinal administration, of any one of several drugs or chemicals,an important cause of cases in infants is the ingestion of water highin nitrate.

The permissible nitrate-nitrogen (NO, -N) concentration in waterwhich may cause infant. methemoglobinemia when used in a feedingformula is dependent on the individual's susceptibility, the increase innitrate-nitrogen concentration that is due to boiling the water, thequantity of boiled water consumed per day per unit weight of theinfant, the duration of exposure to the high nitrate water, and possiblyother factors.

Com ly (1945) considered it inadvisable to use well water containingmore than 10 or 20 mg/I nitrate-nitrogen (NO, -N) in preparing aninfant's feeding formula. No cases have been reported which wereassociated with water containing 10 mg/1 nitrate nitrogen or less,and the nitrate nitrogen content was less than 20 mg/I for only 2.3per cent of the cases for which data are available.

According io Sarles, et al. (1910), the principal sources of nitrog-enous matter in the soil are the decomposition products of plants,animals and microorganisms; the liquid and solid wastes of animalmetabolism; and fertilizers added to enrich the soil. The possibilityof geological formations containing appreciable amounts of nitratesmust also be considered. Since bacteria are essential in the produc-tion of nitrates from organic nitrogen, factors influencing theiractivity affect the nitrate content of the soil. Series, ct al. (1940),note that nitrification takes place only when the soil contains bufferingsubstances which neutralize the nitric acid and maintain a pH around6.5 to 8.0; when aerobic conditions, such as result from plowing,cultivating, etc., are maintained ; when soil contains only 50 per cent

108

of its water-holding capacity; when ammonia salts and other nutrientelements are present in the soil; and at temperatures above 50° andbelow 100° F.

Comly, H. If. 1045.Cyanosis in Infants Caused by Nitrates in Well Water.Journal American Medical Association, Vol. 129, pi). 112-110.Sarles, W. R., Frazier, W. C., :nd McCarter, J. ft. 1940.Bacteriology (Rev. Ed.), Madison, Wis.: i;ramer Business Service.

Webster, G. C. 1959.Nitrogen Metabolism in Plante. Row, Peterson and Co., Evanston,

Illinois, 152 pp.

The nitrogenous substances assimihdad by plants can be dividedinto four major classes: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitratenitrogen, and molenlar nitrogen. Although is few plants (certainbacteria ar.d algae) can assimilate all four forms of nitrogen, thegreat majority can utilizb only nitrate, ammonia, and various formsof organic nitrogen as shown in the following table :

Utilization of various forms cf nitrogen by plants

Organism Organicnitrogen

Ammonianitrogen

Nitratenitrogen

Molecularnitrogen

Some hunt, some bacteria, and so me species ol Eagle ns-Some fungi, some bacteriaMost bacteria, fungi, algae and higher plantsSome bacteria and blue-green algae

XXXX

XXX

XX X

Weibel, S. R., R. J. Anderson, and R. L. Woodward. 1964.Urban Land Runoff as a Factor in Stream Pollution. Journal Water

Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 36, No. 7, pp. 914-924.

Stormwater runoff from a 27-acre residential and light commercialdrainage basin with separate sewers in the Cincinnati, Ohio, areacontained 2.5 and 8.9 pounds per acre per year PO, and total nitro-gen-N, respectively. Based on a population density of 0 personsper acre and a flow of 100 gallons per capita per day, the comparativeraw sanitary sewage would contain 27 and 81 pounds per acre peryear PO, and total N, respectively. Phosphates in stormwater runoffconstituted 9 percent of the phosphates in the calculate-1 raw sanitarysewage and total nitrogen-N composed 11 percent of the total nitro-gen in sewage.

109

Whipple, G. C., G. M. Fair, and M. C. Whipple. 1948.The Micros lopy of Drinking Water. John Wiley and Sons, New

York, 586 pp.

Free ammonia indicates oz genic matter in a state of decay. Nitratestend to increase in cold weather alter the 4rouing season, and freeammonia and nitrites decrease because of inhibited bacterial action.In the spring ammonia and nitrites usually increase in advance ofgrowing plant life.

"Putrefaction and decay of dead organisms and waste materialsgive rise to ammonia compounds that are assimilated by some plantorganisms; usually the nitrogen of the ammonia compounds is carriedto nitrites and nitrates by oxidizing bacteria. The oxidized nitrogenbecomes one of the chief foods of plants in building up protein. Toa slight extent oxidation is sometimes reversed and nitrates are reducedto nitrogen that may be dissolved in the water or escape to the air, thusrepresenting a loss. Plant protein becomes animal protein. Finallydeath of both plants and animals returns nitrogen to the process ofputrefaction and decay. A short circuit in the cycle is the digestionof protein with elimination of urea, from which ammonia is derivedwithout putrefaction."

Whitford, L. A. and R, C. Phillips. 1959.Bound Phosphorus and Growth of Phytoplankton. Science, Vol.

129, No. 3354, pp. 961-962.

No correlation was found between p2,ytoplankton pulses in fourNorth Carolina ponds and variations in bound (total) phosphorus.It was concluded that the interaction of a complex of chemical aadphysical factors produces both seasonal fluctuations and sporadicblooms of phytoplankton.

Winks, W. R., A. K. Sutherland, and R. M. Salisbury. 1950.Nitrite Poisoning in Pigs. Qd. J. Agrie. &I., Vol. 71, pp. 1-14;

Wakr Pollution Abstracts, Vol. 25, No. 10, Abs. No. 1528.

Pigs fed with soups prepared with well water containing 1,740 to2,970 mg/I sodium nitrate died from methemoglobinemia. Experiments showed that 0.09 grams of s xlium nitrite per kg. of body weightwas fatal to pigs and it was concluded that poisoning was due tonitrites derived from the nitrates.

110

Wurtz, A. G. 1962.Some Problems Remaining lit Algae Culturing. Algae and Man

(D. F. Jackaon, editor), Plenum Press, pp. 120-137 (19(1).

In poi* the introduction of phosphates into the water raises thepH of the mud, accelerating the reactions of decomposition in themud, and liberating from the mud not only inorminic but also organicnitrogen.

Ticker, E. L., K. C. Berger and A. D. Hasler. 1956.Phosphorus Release from Bog Lake Muds. Limnology and Ocean.

ography, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 296-303.

In laboratory experiments the percentage, as well as the amount ofphosphorus released to the water from radioactive superphosphatefertilizer placed a.t various depth- below the mud surface in an undis-turbed mud-water system was rated to be very small. There wasvirtually ;o release of phosph. from fertilizer placed at depthsgreater than one-fourth inch below the mud surface. There was rihigher percentage of soluble phcsphorus contained in the water sam-ples taken neat the mud &ance than in water samples taken at greaterdistances above the mud surface. The radiophosphorus placed one-half inch below the mud sin face slowed only a very slight tendencyto diffuse into the water, white the radiophcsphorus placed at the 'me -inch depth did not diffuse into the water at all.

Zilersmit, b. 13., C. Entennian, and M. C. Fishier. 1943.On the Calculation of "Turnover Time" and "Turnover Rate" from

Experiments Involving the Use of Labeling Agents. Journal ofGeneral Physiology, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 325431.

The term "turnover" refers to the process of renewal of a givensubstance which may be accomplished by (1) the incorporation oflabeled atoms into a substance, (2) the entering of a labeled substanceinto a tissue, or (3) a combination of the above two precems. The"turnover rate" of a substance in a tissue is the amount of the substancethat is turned over by that tissue per unit of time. The "turnovertime" of a substance in a tissue is the time required for the appearanceor disappearance of an amunt of that substance equal to the amountof that substance present in the tinue. If the rate of appearance ofa substance in a time is "a" and the amount of that substance present

t-in that tissue is "b," the turnover time is a'

a

111I gtirtkirtin p*,,,.1ttittxt 1,41

Definitions and Equivalentscfs=cuble feet per second; cfsX448.8=gallons per

minute; cfaX6.4 X101=pounds per dayg/1=grams per liter; g/lX1,000=parts per milliong/m'=grams per square motor; g/in'X8.022=pounds

per acreha =hectare; hnX2.471=acreskg=kilograms; kgX2,2= poundskg/ha = kilograms per hectare; kg/haX0.8922= pounds

per acremetric tonsX2,204,= poundspg-at P/g.--- microgram atoms phosphorus per gram =41

parts per million phosphoruspg-at P/1=microgram atoms phosphorus per liter.---31

parts per billion phosphoruspg/g= mierograms per gram=ppmpg/l=micrograms per liter=ppb; pg/1X10-'=parts per

millionpig/O.-micrograms per square meter; pern'X8.92 X10'

=pounds per acretng/g =milligrams per gram; mg/g X 10i= ppmmieromoles 1' per 100 grams X0.31= parts per millionIng/1=tnilligrams per liter=parts per millionmg/m1=milligrams per cubic meter; mem' X0.00272

=pounds per acre -foctmg/mi= milligrams per square meter, mg /m' X8,922

=pounds per acremg elo= milligrams percent.. milligrams in 100 grams = I

part in 100,000 parts wet weight; mg % X0.1 =ppmmgd=million gallons per day; and X1.647=cubie feet

per secondppb=parts per billionppm=parts per millionP.03,-,phoe:phorus pentoxide; P,0 X0.438=1'PO= phosphate; PO, X0.328 = PNO, nitrate; NO,X0.226=NParts per million Xeublo feet per second X 8.4= pounds

per day (gallons per mitotteX2.228X10-1.----eubiefeet per second)

Parts per million X8.34 Xgallons per day X W.= poundsper day (gallons per minuteX1,440=gallons perday)

M-014-43 (Flee P. Ili)

I