Do We Have an Achievement Gap,

or is it Really an Instructional Gap?

Achievement is Up, But Gaps Remain

Although there have been some improvements in mathematics and science for 4th and 8th graders, the

achievement gap has stayed constant or widened since 1990.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). NAEP trends. U.S. Department of Education, National Assessment of Educational Progress. http://nces.ed.gov

The foremost explanations given for achievement differentials today are:

Cultural and/or Class Poverty

Student Oppositional Identity & Alienation

Deficit Theories

Low Teacher Expectancy

Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a student-based inquiry perspective. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.

The Achievement Gap

It could be that the central issue pertaining to student achievement might have to do with

differential quality of education, which reproduces social and economic inequality.

Wiggan, G. (2007). Race, school achievement, and educational inequality: Toward a student-based inquiry perspective. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 310-333.

The Achievement Triangle

Teaching

Curriculum/Policies Culture/Economics

Achievement

Opportunity to learn is widely considered the single most important predictor of student

achievement. Defined by the National Research Council as “circumstances that

allow students to engage in and spend time on academic tasks …” (p. 333).

Opportunity to Learn

National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. J. Kilpatrick, J. Swafford, & B. Findell (Eds.). Mathematics Learning Study Committee, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

1. Curriculum Policy and Students’ Course-Taking Options – How much math and

which courses.

2. How much thinking is called for in the classroom? – the cognitive demand of the

learning tasks.

Opportunity to Learn – Two Distinct Aspects

AERA. (2006). Do the math: Cognitive demand makes a difference. Research Points: Essential Information for Education Policy, 4(2).

Curriculum Policy and Students’ Course-Taking Options

Closing the Achievement Gap – Policies and Practices

Stevens, F. I. (2003). Implementing opportunity-to-learn assessment strategies and standards. In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices (pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

In the United States, much of the educational research has attributed differences among ethnic

groups’ academic achievement to race and socioeconomic status. In contrast, other countries cite content coverage [opportunity to learn] as the

major contributor of differential achievement.

Ability Grouping Beyond Gifted/AP Exacerbates the GAP

Manning, J. B., & Kovach, J. A. (2003). The continuing challenges of excellence and equity. In B. Williams (Ed.), Closing the achievement gap: A vision for changing beliefs and practices (pp.25-47). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Numerous studies have found minimal effects for most forms of ability grouping … and special

education. A major issue is whether students in these categories, groupings, and tracks have equal access to high-quality curriculum, teachers, and learning

experiences.

Eliminating Low-Level Courses

RAND Mathematics Study Panel. (2003). Mathematics proficiency for all students: Toward a strategic research and development program in mathematics education. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Some school districts that have adopted a policy that all ninth-graders take algebra typically have eliminated

general mathematics, consumer mathematics, and pre-algebra courses. Research suggests that this is a

positive step toward raising standards for all students, and a direction that should lead to greater equity for

students who have traditionally (and disproportionately) occupied the lower-level courses.

Tracking Persists in New Forms

AERA. (2006). Do the math: Cognitive demand makes a difference. Research Points: Essential Information for Education Policy, 4(2).

Although many schools have done away with traditional three-track sorting, hidden forms of

tracking persist. In one common situation, students are divided by perceived ability under the

same course label. For example, an algebra course might sort students into fast and slow

speeds of learning, so that by the end of the year students in the same class have not had the same

opportunity to learn.

Education Trust. (2005). Gaining traction, gaining ground: How some high schools accelerate learning for struggling students. Washington, DC: Education Trust.

Slowing down student course-taking is what average-impact schools typically do, but it

limits their ability to continue in the college prep course of study and keeps them from

catching up.

Slowing Down the Opportunity to Learn Does not Work

We Need to Learn to Intervene without Slowing Down

Interventions must combine practice in material not yet mastered with instruction in new areas … Yet the need

for remediation cannot be allowed to exclude these students from instruction in new ideas … It is perfectly

appropriate, even advisable, to group those students who do not understand a concept or skill, find the time to reteach the concept or skill, and provide additional practice. At the same time those students should be

participating with a more heterogeneous mix of students in regular classroom instruction.

Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission. (2006). Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools Kindergarten through Grade Twelve (2005 edition). Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education.

Frequent monitoring (at least weekly) of student progress.

Results of frequent assessment are used to form small groups of students for instruction, practice, and

reinforcement in the skills and concepts with which they are struggling. Small group support takes place in

addition to whole class instruction.

Instructional Interventions that Make a Difference

Baker, S., & Gersten, R., & Lee, D. (2002). A synthesis of empirical research on teaching mathematics to low-achieving students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73.

“Level Up” and AccelerateA longitudinal study of over 1,000 low-achieving and at-risk

6-8 grade students found that students placed in heterogeneous “universal acceleration” courses with

“workshop” support had greater gains in achievement and continued to enroll in upper level math courses at greater

rates than those placed in traditional remedial courses that slowed down instruction. This finding confirms earlier

studies at the elementary level.

Burris, C.C., Heubert, J.P., & Levin, H.M. (2006). Accelerating mathematics achievement using heterogeneous grouping. American Educational Research Journal, 43(1), 105-136 .

Bloom, H.S., Ham, S., Melton, L., & O’Brient, J. (2001). Evaluating the accelerated schools approach: A look at early implementation and impacts on student achievement in eight elementary schools. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.

Finnan, C., & Swanson, J.D. (2000). Accelerating the learning of all students. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Levin, H. M. (1997). Raising school productivity: An x-efficiency approach. Economics of Education Review, 16, 303-312.

The New 3-Rs – Reteaching, Relearning, Reassessing

In effective schools one of the most consistent In effective schools one of the most consistent practices of successful teachers is the provision of practices of successful teachers is the provision of

multiple opportunities to learn … The multiple opportunities to learn … The consequences for a student who fails to meet a consequences for a student who fails to meet a

standard is not a low grade but rather the standard is not a low grade but rather the opportunity, indeed the requirement to resubmit opportunity, indeed the requirement to resubmit

his or her work.his or her work.

Reeves, D., “Standards are Not Enough: Essential Transformations for School Success.” NASSP Bulletin, Dec. 2000, 11.

Time and support must become variables. Some students will require more time to learn, and so the school must

develop strategies to provide students with that time during the school day. Some students will require more support for learning. They may never learn the concept in the classroom setting, and so the school must develop systems to provide them with small group or one-on-one

tutorials until they have achieved mastery.

Time Must Become the Variable, Not Learning

DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Karhanek, G.. (2004). Whatever it takes: How professional learning communities respond when kids don’t learn. Bloomington, IN: National Education Service. p. 35.

Achievement Gaps are a Function of Course Taking

Hoffer, T. B., Rasinski, K. A., & Moore, W. (1995). Social background differences in high school mathematics and science coursetaking and achievement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

When African American and White students complete the same mathematics courses, the differences in

average achievement gains are statistically insignificant. Additionally, there are no statistically significant differences in achievement between high-

and low-SES students who complete the same courses.

Of all pre-college curricula, the highest level of mathematics in secondary school has the

strongest continuing influence on bachelor’s degree completion. Finishing a course beyond

Algebra 2 more than doubles the odds that a student who enters post-secondary education will

complete a bachelor’s degree.

The Importance of Persisting in the Curriculum

Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the toolbox: academic intensity, attendance patterns, and bachelor’s degree attainment. (Office of Educational Research and Improvement Publication.) http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Toolbox/Title.html

Creating Opportunity

Students whose parents did not attend college more than doubled their chances of enrolling

in 4-year colleges if they took high school mathematics courses beyond Algebra 2.

Horn, L., & Nunez, A. (2000). Mapping the road to college: First-generation students’ mathematics track, planning strategies and context support. (NCES Publication No. 2000-153). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

Never Has it Been More Essential that We Address the Gap

Because the economy can no longer absorb unskilled workers at decent wages, lack of education is

increasingly linked to crime and welfare dependency …no society in a knowledge-based world can long

prosper without supporting a thinking education for all its people. A societal infrastructure disintegrates, both economically and socially, when large numbers

of individuals cannot become productive citizens.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Distinguished Lecture – Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.

The Future of the Society we Live in Depends More than Ever on Reaching All Students

Our Future

Our future will be increasingly determined by our capacity and our will to educate all children well – a challenge we have very little time to meet if the United States is not to

enact the modern equivalent of the fall of Rome.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). The flat earth and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Educational Researcher, 36(6), 318-334.

It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear

Luntz, F. (2007). Words that work: It’s not what you say, it’s what people hear. New York: Hyperion.

Achievement Gap

Instructional Gap

Despite ongoing hand-wringing about the persistence of the achievement gap, much is known about critical

components of schools that make a difference in achievement. These include … access to challenging

curriculum, which ultimately determines a greater quotient of students’ achievement than their initial ability levels; and schools and classes that are organized so that

students are well known and well supported.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). 2006 DeWitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Distinguished Lecture – Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching and learning. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 13-24.

We Know What Makes a Difference