BSc Biology Dissertation

Nutritional analysis of waste food:

Does it meet the nutritional

requirements for swine?

Author:

Jessica April Moult

Supervisor:

Dr Eli Rudinow Saetnan

15th April 2015

Abstract

With far-reaching environmental and economic impacts, waste food is a global problem; the

solution might lie in the recycling of our left over food, in the form of pig swill. Historically

being kept at the homestead to eat left-over food, modern day pigs are given diets which

aim to maximise growth performance, optimizing their nutritional intake to match with

values recommended by studies worldwide. Though meat-based by-products cannot be fed

to any animal for human consumption, other food production co-products are already being

utilised in the form of pellets, we aim to determine whether a larger variety of co-products

can be fed to pigs.

We took samples of waste food products from various restaurants, and one private

household, within the small town of Aberystwyth. These samples were blended, dried and

put through various tests to determine their analytical constituents, and thus their suitability

for swine consumption. We found that too much fibre was present throughout the samples;

whereas protein, fat and ash content were highly variable. We found that the café and take-

away foods we tested contained far too much fat, and are thus unsuitable for pig feed.

However, we found that waste foods from establishments with wider and healthier

selections of food, namely restaurants and private households, are indeed suitable. This

opens the door to targeted waste-collection schemes, recycling human waste food for farm

animal consumption and alleviating the pressure of food security on the growing human

population.

Table of Contents

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1

Importance of pig swill ....................................................................................................................1

Waste food Facts ............................................................................................................................2

Pig Nutrition ...................................................................................................................................3

Pig Swill Benefits .............................................................................................................................4

Pig Swill Problems ...........................................................................................................................5

Current Knowledge on Pig Production .............................................................................................6

Diet Composition ............................................................................................................................8

Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 10

Methods ........................................................................................................................................... 11

Sample Preparation ...................................................................................................................... 11

Sample Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 12

Microbial Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 13

Statistical Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 13

Results.............................................................................................................................................. 14

Sample Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 14

Microbial Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 20

Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 22

Sample Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 22

Microbial Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 27

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 28

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................ 29

References ....................................................................................................................................... 29

Word Count ...................................................................................................................................... 39

Appendix .......................................................................................................................................... 40

1

Introduction

Importance of pig swill

In the livestock rearing industry, the most expensive cost of pork production is the feed

(Whitney, 1998). It is thus important to have an understanding of the nutritional contents in

the feed, and how this compares with the requirements of swine (Mrode & Kennedy, 1993;

Noblet et al., 1994). For the pig, energy is the most expensive component of the diet (Noblet

et al., 1994; Whitney, 1998), so from an economic standpoint it is important not to over or

under feed the swine; the correct balance optimises feed conversion and decreases the

overall feed costs (Whitney, 1998; Wilkinson, 2011).

One possible method of reducing the costs of pig feed is by utilising the waste produced in

the preparation of human food. The resultant mixture is commonly known as pig swill, and

was once a common source of pig food. If it can be shown to meet pigs’ dietary

requirements, pig swill can reduce feed costs and human food waste in the modern world.

The total drying cost of fruit and vegetable waste is estimated to be £0.03/kg (Esteban, et

al., 2007; García, 2005), although heat treatment can reduce the digestibility, therefore,

decreasing the nutritional value (Esteban, et al., 2007). The tax on landfilling standard waste

in the UK is £0.08/kg (GOV.UK, 2014), thus it is more expensive to discard fruit and vegetable

waste than to dry it out for pig feed. The EU Landfill Directive (Council directive (EU)

1999/31/EC) promotes the reduction of waste sent to the landfill sites, a move which has

been of benefit to the environment and the general public.

Swine are efficient converters of food waste (Brooks & Cole, 1973; Wilkinson, 2011), and

were historically kept to eat any waste food from the family household and scavenge the

land (Wilkinson, 2011). Diets for growing pigs aim to maximise growth performance and

produce a lean carcass (Ellis & McKeith, 1999); these diets are formulated based on the

protein and energy requirements of the pig with sufficient vitamins and minerals to prevent

nutritional deficiencies in the swine (Ellis & McKeith, 1999). The diet’s chemical

characteristics and type of production system can have an effect on the energy

requirements of the pig (growth, maintenance, milk secretion and fat deposition) (Noblet et

al., 1994).

2

Waste food Facts

Figure 1: Weight of vegetable, fresh fruit, and salad waste, split by avoidability (per thousand

tonnes) (Quested, et al., 2013).

Waste food can be categorised into three sections, 1) unavoidable, 2) possibly avoidable and

3) avoidable (Figure 1; Quested, et al., 2013). In 2012, 7.0 million tonnes of food and drink

were thrown away from households in the UK (Quested, et al., 2013), whereas 6.6 million

tonnes of food and drink packaging is wasted at retail, distribution and manufacturing of the

supply chain (Wrap UK, 2012a). Surprisingly, the largest quantity of food is wasted at the

manufacturing stage (WRAP UK, 2012a). Fortunately, this is also one of the more

manageable stages, subject to any legislation that could be introduced to help control this

growing problem.

Supermarkets have ‘display until’ dates on some of their products: the product cannot be

sold after this date but are still edible (WRAP UK, 2012b); any fruit, vegetable or salad

3

products of this nature could be used to feed pigs. The left over vegetarian produce in the

supermarkets could also be sent off to be processed into pellets for pig meals.

Waste food has environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions (~17 million

tonnes CO₂ equivalent), carbon footprint (produce, package, distribute and store food) and

land requirements. ~80% of waste food is wasted due to ‘not being used in time’ as well as

‘cooking, preparing, serving too much’ (Quested, et al., 2013), whereas such food is often

more than suitable for pigs.

Pig Nutrition

For optimum pig production, feeding diets need to match nutrient requirements at each

growth stage (Arthur & Herd, 2005; Taylor et al., 2013). This seems to be favourable, in

comparison to more general feeding plans (Taylor et al., 2013). Improving feed efficiency

and growth rates are crucial for long term profitability and economic efficiency in pig

production (Taylor et al., 2013).

Feed efficiency in animal husbandry is measured by feed conversion ratios (FCR). In pigs and

chickens this is the measure of feed mass that is converted to meat. A comparison in the FCR

for 1kg of meat produced by pigs and broiler chickens is stated to be 4 and 1 kg when fed

cereal diets (Godfray et al., 2010), though such comparisons do not take into account

different livestock systems (Wilkinson, 2011). This shows pigs are less efficient converters of

cereal than chickens, and waste food would therefore be more appropriate to feed to pigs

than it would be to broiler chickens.

Swine that are in the fattening stage of production are mostly given food which contains a

good amount of nutrients and with low indigestible constituents (Coey & Robinson 1953).

Low indigestible constituents are preferable: the swine gut is not adapted for exploiting

large quantities of bulky, fibrous food, as pigs have a relatively simple digestive tract with a

restricted alimentary capacity (Halnan & Garner, 1947; Coey & Robinson 1953; Hodge,

1974).

4

Pig Swill Benefits

Currently the only waste food or ‘co-product’ that is fed to swine comes from manufactures

in the food and drink industry, for example, spent hops from breweries, whey from dairy and

surplus bread from bakeries, though the trading standards feed materials assurance

scheme(FEMAS), (The Pig Idea, 2013; NPA, 2013; Defra & APHA, 2014). This scheme could

have a broader range and extend to supermarkets to collect any vegetables or cereal that

have not sold by the ‘display until’ date.

The swine industry consumes around 8.5 million tons of soybean meals every year (United

Soybean Board, 2012; Gatrell, et al., 2014). Issues surrounding this that have come to light

are food security, and with an increasing population a way needs to be found to make food

production sustainable as well as maintaining aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Varel &

Yen 1997; Tilman, et al. 2002; Godfray, et al., 2010; Wilkinson, 2011). Soya bean production

also causes deforestation in South America: trees are cut down to increase the land use for

soya bean production or pasture (Morton et al., 2006; Barona, et al., 2010). Soya beans and

other crops would not need to be grown for the pig diet; pig swill (waste food) could make a

significant contribution towards the pig’s energy and nutrient requirements, allowing more

crops to be grown for human consumption, and putting less pressure on the global food

supply.

Pig swill would also decrease feed costs by avoiding the import of feed; transport processes

would also decrease with food sourced in the UK (Van der Werf, et al., 2005). The food

industry would additionally have reduced expenditure due to reduced food recycling costs.

The added benefit of cheaper pig feed would be to alleviate the pressure on the country’s

farmers, reducing the number of farmers forced to go out of business from increasing pig

feed costs (Bornett, et al., 2003); pig production would potentially increase in the UK which

would lead to less pork being imported from outside the UK. As highlighted in the next

section, pig swill would have to be processed in a controlled central system on an industrial

scale with appropriate biosecurity measures in place, not on individual farms; this would

considerably lower the risk of contamination. Plate scrapings from households and

5

restaurants could not be used as this has a higher risk of contamination and would require

boiling and extra processing, although vegetable peelings from the preparation process

would be otherwise suitable.

Pig Swill Problems

At this point, it is rather important that a key historical issue is highlighted as a counter-

argument to the use of pig swill. In the past there have been outbreaks of exotic diseases,

such as foot and mouth disease in the UK in 2001 (Law & Mol, 2008), swine fever and swine

vesicular disease (Moennig, 2000), due to a breakdown in the vital biosecurity measures

surrounding pig swill. The processing of the pig swill also comes with its own hurdles: not

only is microbial contamination an important problem, but macroscopic physical

obstructions such as cutlery were often found in pig swill, based upon plate scrapings in the

1960s (Law & Mol, 2008).

Strict biosecurity measures would have to be put in place to monitor the process of pig swill

production (Ribbens, et al 2008); difficulties could arise with individual farm monitoring

(Horchner & Pointon, 2011) so an industrial process that occurs off farm would be more

efficient and would make the supplier traceable (Regattieri, et al., 2007), reducing the

likelihood of control breakdown. Nutrients in the pig swill may be variable: high fat and high

salt content in the swill may lower the meat quality and give the meat a rancid smell (Wood,

et al., 2004).

Non-meat waste food would probably be more suitable for the pig diet as it is less likely to

leave a tainted taste on the meat and is less likely to transmit zoonotic parasites (Owen,

1835; Ribicich, et al., 2009; Pozio, 2014). Research has previously been done with fishmeal

diets, and the pigs that were fed these diets developed a fishy taint after 4-6months of

frozen storage, whilst a fishy taint was not observed in the fresh pork (Van Deckel, et al.,

1996). Ingestion of infected flesh (raw or undercooked meat) causes the transmission of

parasites (Pozio, 2014).

6

Legal issues and public perspective are also issues surrounding pig swill (Gizzi, et al., 2004;

Stevenson, et al., 2005). Animal by-products should not be fed to any animal for human

consumption; animals should also not be fed any ‘proteins obtained by processing carcasses

of the same species’ or that which would cause cannibalism (Myers, et al., 2003); and

‘products derived from animals declared unfit for human consumption must not enter the

food chain’ (Regulation (EC) No 178/2002). The long term viability of business is dependent

on the public perspective (Leforban & Gerbier, 2002) of British pig production.

Current Knowledge on Pig Production

Nutrients in the pig swill will affect the pigs’ growth performance. Giving zinc to the sow

decreases stillbirth rate during prolonged farrowing and increases pre-weaning low birth

weight piglets survival (Vallet et al., 2014). Production systems are another factor that

affects pig growth: recent studies have shown that pig growth is greater for outdoor than

indoor reared pigs (Wülbers-Mindermann et al., 2002; Millar et al., 2007; Slade et al., 2011).

Pig swill could be feed to either outdoor or indoor reared pigs. There is a higher mortality

rate for outdoor reared pigs; therefore increased weaning weight could be a result of the

sows’ milk being divided between a smaller litter of piglets (Millar et al., 2007; Johnson et al.,

2001).

It has been shown that pig performance was the most efficient at an ambient temperature

of 22.5°C (Stahly & Cromwell, 1979). Although, for the weaning process outdoor-reared pigs

are generally larger and respond better to weaning than indoor-reared pigs (Millar et al.,

2007). It has been suggested that older piglets respond better to weaning and require a less

specialised weaning diet (Millar et al., 2007). Pig swill is likely to meet the requirements of a

less specialised diet and can possibly have a more important function in outdoor production

systems than in indoor production systems. The optimal weaner diet would need to promote

efficient intake and growth performance after weaning (Taylor et al., 2012).

It has been suggested in past research that pork quality is increased if the pigs are reared

with ad libitum feeding rather than restricted feeding. Ad libitum feeding has a wastage cost

associated with it (Laird & Robertson, 1963), and pigs fed with ad libitum feeding systems

7

utilize the feed less efficiently (Braude, 1967). Pig swill would be a cheaper source of feed so

wastage would be less of an economical issue for the farmer. Results from other studies

showed a small significant improvement in juiciness and tenderness of the meat (Ellis &

McKeith, 1999).

Investigations have been carried out into the potential of nutritional improvements for

product development such as muscle colour and pork palatability (Ellis & McKeith, 1999). Pig

swill could contain the right nutrients for pigs or could be added to pellets. The result of lipid

oxidation can be unpleasant odours and flavour, as well as muscle pigments producing a dull

brown muscle colour (Ellis & McKeith, 1999). This is more of an issue in ground products for

instance sausage as it has a larger surface area for oxidation to occur (Ellis & McKeith, 1999).

Studies have shown that improvements in swine nutrition may have a potential link to pork

quality (Ellis & McKeith, 1999). It has been suggested that adding Omega 3 fatty acids to the

diet can improve fat firmness and also improve the quality of the marbling of the fat (Ellis &

McKeith, 1999). In other studies, pigs fed rapeseed and fish oil had an improved FCR and

levels of Omega 3 also increased in pig tissues (Leskanich, et al., 1997). These oils could have

been used to cook with, so may already be present in the pig swill; if not, these oils could be

added to pig swill during the production process. The human diet has a requirement for

Omega 3, and thus sausage and other pig products with increased Omega 3 would be

beneficial for human consumption (Leskanich, et al., 1997). Meat quality was not affected by

adding different oils to the pigs’ diet (Leskanich, et al., 1997). Feeding ground flaxseed had

no treatment effect on growth performance, carcass characteristics, loin meat quality or fat

content in the lion and belly meat (Kouba, et al., 2003; Martínez-Ramírez, et al., 2014).

Canola oil can elevate mono-unsaturated fatty acid content substantial in pork with

influencing pork quality; this would be seen by the consumer as more healthful (St John et

al. 1987).

Similarly, in contrast, it has been implied that diatom micro-algae supplementation may

improve the iron status of pigs (Gatrell, et al., 2014), thus could also be added to the pig

swill; this could also be obtained from vegetarian sushi rolls, for example. Pigs fed naturally

iodine rich algae had iodine enriched fresh muscle; this could be used as a way to combat

8

human iodine deficiencies (Gatrell, et al., 2014). Micro-algae biomass may be a viable and

healthy feedstuff, although more research is needed into environmental impacts (Gatrell, et

al., 2014).

Diet Composition

Growth rate and energy utilization in pigs are improved with a dietary supplementation of

fat (Stahly & Cromwell, 1979), and it has been shown that fat can result in reduced feed

intake and increased growth performance in weaner pigs (Cho & Kim, 2012). Fats can also

slow down the movement though the digestive tract (Cunningham et al., 1962) and improve

the digestibility (Lewis & Southern, 2001; Cho & Kim, 2012); the nutrients in the feed are

absorbed and digested in the intestine (Miller, et al., 1986; Whitney, 2004).

Oats, sunflower seeds, rapeseed, animal fat and vegetable oil contain fat, this should be

incorporated in the diet in limited amounts, this will avoid the occurrence of undesirable soft

back fat and a rancid smell of the carcass (Madsen et al., 1992), therefore pig swill would

also need to contain a limited amount of fat: studies suggest less than 50g/kg of fat for

finishing pigs (Bryhni, et al., 2002); this will help reduce oxidative problems (Bryhni, et al.,

2002).

Lipid oxidation is one of the fundamental problems in which sensory quality of the meat

produce declines, apart from microbial spoilage (Gray, et al., 1996). The changes in meat

quality are the flavour, texture, colour, and nutritive value (Gray, et al., 1996). The type of

fat fed to the pig can also influence meat quality: high poly-unsaturated fatty acids levels

result in rancid loin and sausage products after freezing (Bryhni, et al., 2002). From the pigs

diet the fatty acids are absorbed across the gut and are directly deposited into the fat (Ellis &

McKeith, 1999). Muscle colour can also deteriorate due to lipid oxidation, reducing shelf life

(Ellis & McKeith, 1999). With all this in mind, it is evident that pig swill with high fat content

can lower meat quality, and thus become an undesirable route for farmers to take.

Residual feed intake, or RFI, is the difference between observed and predicted feed intakes.

Pigs subjected to a low RFI diet seem to utilize a high fibre diet better than pigs with high RFI

9

(Montagne, et al., 2014). No differences were found in digestibility of nutrients and energy,

although the high fibre diet decreased the digestibility values of nutrients (Montagne, et al.,

2014; Yáñez et al., 2014). Average daily feed intake (ADFI) was reduced when a growing pig

was fed a high fibre diet (Montagne, et al., 2014). Pig swill would need to consist of

appropriate amounts of fibre; studies suggest this to be ⩽50g/kg (Esteban, et al., 2007).

A high-allowance of starter diet contains the same density of nutrients but has a lower

volume of feed than low-allowance starter diets (Magowan, et al., 2011). Pigs with a high-

allowance starter diet have a more efficient growth rate than compared to those with a low-

allowance diet (Magowan, et al., 2011). Pig swill could be used as either a low or high starter

diet depending on the nutrient levels in the swill. Poor growth performance in the early

stages of pig production lowers the FCR (Magowan, et al., 2011). A high allowance of starter

diet increased the weight of piglets at 10 weeks old, increased average daily gain (ADG) and

reduced ADFI and FCR between weaning and 10 weeks old compared with that of pigs

offered a low allowance (Magowan, et al., 2011). Heavy weight pigs showed the most

obvious growth rate as the light weight pigs responded better to the lower feed intake as an

effect of the high allowance starter diet (Magowan, et al., 2011). Pigs from the high

allowance of starter diet at 20 weeks showed a significant increase when offered a

specialised finishing diet compared to a normal finishing diet (Magowan, et al., 2011). Light

weight pigs had a higher lifetime growth rate and feed intake, as a proportion of their body

weight, than heavy pigs (Magowan, et al., 2011).

Research has also been carried out on effects of decreasing levels of crude protein on

growth performance (Kerr et al., 1995; Ball et al., 2013). One of the studies showed that

growth was poor between 10 and 13 weeks regardless of treatment, implying that diets

were nutritionally inadequate for swine under 40 kg (Ball et al., 2013). Low levels of crude

protein do not provide high enough levels of essentials and non-essential amino acids (Ball

et al., 2013). Increasing lysine levels has no effect on swine less than 13 weeks; however

older swine respond positively to increasing the levels of lysine (Ball et al., 2013). No

interaction was found between crude protein and lysine levels (Ball et al., 2013). Pigs fed

low crude protein diets with no amino acids supplementation generally grew more slowly

(Sundrum, et al., 2000) and were less efficient at feed conversion and developed a poor

10

conformation score carcass (Kerr et al., 1995; The Pig Site, 2014). Pig swill needs to contain a

sufficient amount of protein so not to affect growth rates and feed efficiency. Pig swill with

high meat or fish contents may contain high protein levels, although, as aforementioned,

meat in pig feed would carry a large risk of spreading disease. Pig swill with soya bean, leafy

greens, seeds, legumes and other vegetarian protein sources is likely to contain enough

protein for the pigs’ requirements. Common protein feedstuff includes soybean and canola

meals (Zhou, et al., 2013).

Another part of the composition of the pigs’ diet is calcium and phosphorus. Calcium could

be obtained from dairy products in the pig swill. The balance of calcium is regulated

exclusively in the intestine and declines relatively with increasing intake (Fernández, 1995).

Urinary excretion of calcium is minimal, but is dependent on the presence of sufficient

amounts of absorbable phosphorus (Fernández, 1995; Näsi, et al., 1995). Absorption of

phosphorus is also regulated in the intestine, but to a lower degree than that of calcium; it is

also regulated by renal action (Fernández, 1995). Older pigs tend to retain and absorb more

calcium and phosphorus than their younger counterparts (Fernández, 1995). Improvements

in total digestibility have been found with organic mineral supplementation, the copper ratio

in the pig was maintained without effect on total digestibility of zinc (Lebel, et al., 2014).

Aims and Objectives

The aim of our research was to investigate whether food waste would have the nutritional

requirements for swine as a new feedstuff, exploring the possibility of using non-meat waste

food as a suitable feed replacement for pigs. Meat waste is being tested as a comparison to

see if the nutrient levels differ significantly, especially with regards to protein. The primary

objective of this research is to quantify nutritional composition of vegetarian and meat

waste, comparing the results with stated nutrient requirements for pigs from the National

Research Council of America (NRC, 2012).

11

Methods

Sample Preparation

Waste food samples were collected from local catering outlets, consisting of two university

restaurants, a local café, an Indian restaurant and a private household. The waste food was

separated into two groups: meat and vegetable (veg). The catering outlets were provided

with two clean plastic containers daily for 5 days to put the waste food into. The ‘meat’

container had waste food such as plate scrapings and leftover meat trimmings. The

‘vegetable’ container was filled with waste food such as vegetable peelings, cooked

vegetables and vegetarian meals. The containers were collected daily. Depending on time

constraints the samples were either put in the fridge (at 5˚c) overnight or were prepared

that day for the laboratory procedures.

The laboratory procedure began with the blending up of the samples. As the samples

contained a mixture of ingredients, a relative proportion of each ingredient in each sample

was added to a Kenwood blender. To assist with the blending process, tap water was

weighed (50-200g) on a 2 decimal place set of scales and was added to the blender along

with each sample. The sample was thoroughly blended.

The blended samples (90-380g) were added to aluminium containers and put in a drying

oven at 60˚C until dry, taking between 4 and 10 days. Samples were left in the drying oven

until they stopped decreasing in weight; the final weight was used to work out the dry

matter (DM) of the sample.

When the samples had cooled, they were powdered up with a mortar and pestle. They were

then funnelled into sample pots to be stored. Measurements were done on all the samples

on crude protein (CP), crude fat (CEE; crude ether extract), neutral detergent fibre (NDF),

acid detergent fibre (ADF) and ash.

12

Sample Analysis

Feed samples for NDF were measured by weighing out 0.5g of the powered sample in to a

weighed Ankom filter bag (F57, Ankom Technology) and sealed with an impulse bag sealer.

The filter bags were put in an Ankom 2000 fiber analyser (Ankom Technology; Toral, et al.,

2011) and 1900ml neutral detergent solution was added. Sample and solution were agitated

and heated. Samples were rinsed in the machines cycle, and excess water was gently

pressed out and samples were dipped in a beaker of acetone. Samples were air dried to

allow acetone to evaporate off and put in the drying oven (100˚C); once dry, samples were

cooled in a desiccator and reweighed.

ADF was measured by the same method as NDF with the differences of the filter bags were

put in the Ankom 220 fiber analyser (Ankom Technology; Nsereko, et al., 2000) and 1900ml

acid detergent solution was added (Vogel, et al., 1999). Samples were not rinsed by the

machine; this was done manually, by agitating 2000ml of hot water. Cold water was then

rinsed through to cool the samples for handling.

Elemental analysis based on the Dumas method ISO 16632 (AOAC 968.06; Jha, et al., 2011)

was used for the determination of the total nitrogen content (Total N) in animal feeds.

Samples were run though the Elementar vario MAX cube (elemental analyser). 0.2g of

powdered samples was weighed out into metal crucibles and combusted at 900˚C in the

presence of oxygen. The released gases were passed over columns and the nitrogen content

detected by a thermal conductivity detector and measured against a material of known

nitrogen concentration (Aspartic acid). Crude protein (CP) was determined using the

conversion factor 6.25; weights of individual foodstuffs (in the samples collected) were not

recorded so a general nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor was used (Salo-väänänen &

Koivistoinen, 1996; Mariotti, et al., 2002).

Crude Fat (CEE) was measured by weighing out 1.7g of the powered sample into a weighed

Ankom filter bag (XT4, Ankom Technology) and sealing it with an impulse bag sealer.

Samples were dried in an oven for 3 hours at 100˚C. Samples were cooled to room

temperature in a desiccator and re-weighed. The filter bags were put in the Ankom XT15

13

extraction system (60 minutes at 90˚C) (Ankom Technology; Toral, et al., 2009). Solvent

(Petroleum ether; Fisher scientific, UK) was added up to the solvent sight level. After the fat

extraction process samples were put in a drying oven for 30 minutes at 100˚C, then places in

a desiccator to cool to room temperature. Samples were re-weighed.

To determine the ash content, the NDF bags were folded into weighed ceramic crucibles and

were ignited in the ‘Phoenix furnace’ at 500 ˚C for 23 hours. The crucibles were re-weighed,

and a blank bag correction factor was used in the calculation to determine the ash. All the

carbon would have been removed and the residue is taken to be the inorganic constituent of

the food (McDonald, et al., 2011).

Microbial Analysis

Over a period of 3 days microbiological analysis was carried out on the samples to determine

total viable counts (TVC) and Enterobacteriaceae (Entero), (Edwards & Ewing, 1972). The

microbiological methods are based on BS EN ISO 4883 and BN EN ISO 21528 (De Buyser, et

al., 2003; ISO, 2003; ISO, 2004; Rotar, et al., 2012). 30g of the waste food sample was

weighed out and quarter strength Ringers solution 270ml was added to each sample and

placed in a stomacher for 3 minutes. Serial dilutions were carried out using 1ml of sample

and 9ml quarter strength Ringers solution to -4 for Enterobacteriaceae and -5 for TVC. VRBG

agar (Enterobacteriaceae) was made up on the day, plate count agar (TCV) and the Ringers

solution was made up beforehand. 1ml of each dilution was aseptically inoculated on to

labelled petri dishes for both TCV and Enterobacteriaceae in duplicate. 15ml of molten VRGB

and plate count agar were added to the appropriate plates, mixed and allowed to set. An

overlay was added to the VRBG agar and allowed to set again. All the plates were inverted

and VRBG plates were incubated at 37˚ C for 24 hours and TCV at 30 ˚C for 72 hours.

Statistical Analysis

IBM SPSS statistics (version 22) software was used for statistical analysis. A multivariate two-

way ANOVA was conducted to compare differences between groups. Meat and vegetable

14

groups were compared, and the origin of the food was used as an additional variable to see

if there is an interaction between place and sample (meat or vegetable) on nutritional value

of the components: NDF, ADF, CP, CEE and ash. Post hoc comparisons using Tukey HSD tests

were used for analytical constituents to investigate if they were statistically significant. A

multivariate two-way ANOVA was conducted to compare TVC with ‘Entero’ bacteria.

Results

Sample Analysis

Figure 2: Averages of NDF shown from five places that waste food samples were collected

from. Pantycelyn meat day 1, 2 and 3 were excluded from the data set as they gave values

over 1000g. The two samples are shown as meat and vegetable on the graph. Standard error

of the mean (SEM) has been used for error bars.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Ta Med Da Pantycelyn Sophies Shilam Household

ND

F (g

/kg)

Place Food Collected

meat

veg

ab a ab b ab

15

Figure 3: Averages of ADF shown from five places that waste food samples were collected

from. Pantycelyn meat day 1 and 2 were excluded from the data set as they gave negative

values. The two samples are shown as meat and vegetable on the graph. Standard error of

the mean (SEM) has been used for error bars.

Figure 4: Averages of CP shown from five places that waste food samples were collected

from. The two samples are shown as meat and vegetable on the graph. Standard error of the

mean (SEM) has been used for error bars.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Ta Med Da Pantycelyn Sophies Shilam Household

AD

F (g

/kg)

Place Food Collected

meat

veg

a a a b a

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Ta Med Da Pantycelyn Sophies Shilam Household

CP

(g/

kg)

Place Food Collected

meat

veg

a b a a a

16

Figure 5: Averages of CEE shown from five places that waste food samples were collected

from. The two samples are shown as meat and vegetable on the graph. Standard error of the

mean (SEM) has been used for error bars.

Figure 6: Averages of ash shown from five places that waste food samples were collected

from. Shilam veg day 3 was excluded from the data set as it gave a negative value. The two

samples are shown as meat and vegetable on the graph. Standard error of the mean (SEM)

has been used for error bars.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Ta Med Da Pantycelyn Sophies Shilam Household

CEE

(g/

kg)

Place Food Collected

meat

veg

a a b ab a

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Ta Med Da Pantycelyn Sophies Shilam Household

Ash

(g/

kg)

Place Food Collected

meat

veg

a a a a a

17

Table 1: Predicated values of digestible energy (DE) in the waste food samples, calculated

using the following equation: DE = 4168 – 9.1 x ash + 1.9 x CP + 3.9 X EE – 3.6 x NDF,

(equation from table 6, No. 23, Noblet & Perez, 1993).

Place DE (Kcal/Kg)

Household Veg 3313.3

Shilam veg 3535.8

Sophie’s veg 3126.6

Pantycelyn veg 3017.4

Ta Med Da veg 2957.3

Table 2: Comparisons of Diet Analytical Constituents from vegetable samples (mean +/- SD)

(* Woodman, 1954).

Location NDF ADF CP CEE Ash

Ta Med Da

(g/kg)

303.0 +/-

81.7

158.2 +/-

43.9

131.2 +/-

12.9 46 +/- 7.8

60.2 +/-

12.9

Pantycelyn

(g/kg)

338.7 +/-

82.7

135.7 +/-

76.6

141.6 +/-

57.3 56.1 +/- 18.9

46.1 +/-

16.9

Sophie’s (g/kg)

493.8 +/-

109.3

191.9 +/-

181.8

111.5 +/-

40.8

284.1 +/-

108.1

64.1 +/-

130.7

Shilam (g/kg) 493 +/- 86.2

268.4 +/-

76.9 73.0 +/- 18.5

274.3 +/-

171.8 7.2 +/- 5.1

Household

(g/kg)

313.7 +/-

97.0 146 +/- 26.9 97.4 +/- 70.2 81.3 +/- 66.9

25.0 +/-

13.6

Restaurant

waste (dried)*

(g/kg) 474 7 216 72 148

18

19

Table 4: Recommended feed intake for growing-finishing pigs, gilts and barrows, initial body

weight 25kg final body weight 70kg, environmental temperatures, pig space and antibiotics

not considered (National Research Council (NRC, 2012).

Feeding programme GFCoSBMwt GFCoSBMd

Average diet DE (Kcal/Kg) 3429 3425

Average diet DE intake (Kcal/Kg) 5884 5884

Crude Protein (g/Kg) 126.9 126.9

There was a significant effect (Wilks’ Lambda) on sample (meat and vegetable) (F=32.577,

P=0, Error DF= 33.0), place (F=9.846, P=0, error DF=110.398) and interaction between

sample collection and place on nutritional content (F=2.720, P=0.007, error DF=66.0).

Tests of between-subjects effects show that sample is significant for ADF (F=7.135, P=0.011),

CEE (F=7.091, P=0.011) and CP (F=157.389, P=0). Place is significant for NDF (F=3.970,

P=0.009), ADF (F=11.808, P=0), CEE (F=11.293, P=0) and CP (26.346, P=0). Interaction

between sample collection and place on nutritional content is significant for ADF (F=3.634,

P=0.036) and CP (F=10.125, P=0).

NDF content from Pantycelyn is significantly lower than Shilam (P=0.023) (Figure 2). ADF

content from Ta Med Da, Pantycelyn, Sophie’s are significantly lower than Shilam (P=0),

Household is also significantly lower than Shilam (P=0.011) (Figure 3).

CP content was significantly higher from Pantycelyn compared to all the other collection

places (P=0). Sophie’s was not significantly higher when compared with household

(P=0.051). Household was significantly higher in CP content compared with Shilam (P=0.017)

(Figure 4).

Sophie’s (P= 0.003) and Shilam (P=0.012) were significantly higher in CEE content when

compared with Ta Med Da (Figure 5). Sophie’s (P=0) and Shilam (P=0.002) were significantly

higher in CEE content when compared with Pantycelyn. Sophie’s is significantly higher in CEE

content than Household (P=0.001) (Figure 5). Shilam is significantly higher in CEE content

20

than household (P=0.002). There were no significant differences between places for Ash

(Figure 6).

Microbial Analysis

Figure 7: TVC growth for meat (Shilam- diamond; Sophie’s - triangle) and veg (Shilam -

square; Sophie’s - cross).

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

1 2 3

Bac

teri

a co

un

t / m

L Sh

ilam

me

at

Bac

teri

a co

un

t/ m

L TV

C

Day

21

Figure 8: Entero Growth for meat (Shilam- diamond; Sophie’s - triangle).

Figure 9: Entero Growth for and veg (Shilam - square; Sophie’s - cross).

There was a significant effect (Wilks’ Lambda) on sample (F=6.580, P=0.007, Error DF=19.0).

No significant effect was found for Place (F=2.531, P=0.106, Error DF=19.0) (Figure 7, 8 & 9).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1 2 3

Bac

teri

a C

ou

nt

/ m

L Sh

ilam

Bac

teri

a co

un

t / m

L En

tero

Day

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

350000

400000

450000

1 2 3

Bac

teri

a co

un

t / m

L En

tero

Day

22

There was not a significant interaction between sample collection and place on bacteria

count (F=0.683, P=0.517, Error DF=19.0). Sample had an effect on bacterial colonies.

Tests of between-subjects effect show that sample was significant for entero bacteria

(F=13.228, P=0.002), place was significant for TVC (F=5.283, P=0.32).

Discussion

Sample Analysis

Pellets that are currently on the market have fibre ranging from 30 - 150 g/kg (Table 3), the

pig swill samples have a higher amount of fibre present (NDF; ~303 - 493 g/kg) than the

pellets (Table 2). A diet containing high fibre usually contains less metabolisable energy

when compared with a low fibre diet (Wenk, 2001), and such diets give the pig an earlier

satiety; this is important in pregnant sows (Robert, et al., 1993; Wenk, 2001). In growing-

finishing pigs, a diet with low fibre content would be preferred, in order to maximise the

intake of available nutrients and energy (Wenk, 2001). A physically and nutritionally satisfied

pig is less likely to be stressed and may be less physically active (Rijnen et al., 1999; Schrama

& Bakke, 1999).

Increases in dietary fibre promote the pig to increase secretion of fluids of the upper

digestive tract with pancreatic juices almost doubling; bile also significantly increases this

raises the metabolic demand for the pig but a more efficient digestibility of the feed can be

expected (Wenk, 2001). With elevated fibre content in the diet a general observation is the

reduction in digestibility of energy (Wenk, 2001). There are physiological effects on nutrient

digestion as a result of increasing dietary fibre (Wenk, 2001). An elevated level of dietary

fibre is associated with a lower accessibility of energy content in the feed (Noblet & Le Goff,

2001). In order for dietary energy content to be maintained fibre rich ingredients are

combined with high energy ingredients such as vegetable oil or animal fat, in most practical

conditions (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001).

23

Digestibility of fibre is lower than for other nutrients: increased fibre content is linked with a

reduced digestibility of energy in the diet (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001). Growing pigs have a

lower digestibility of fibre than sows (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001). The difference of fibre

digestibility between sows and growing pigs is reliant on the fibre source (Noblet & Le Goff,

2001). Pigs are capable of digesting dietary fibre to a sufficient quantity, notably when they

are older (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001). The utilisation of dietary fibre to energy increases in

more mature animals and particularly in breeding sows (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001).

As there is a shift in fibre utilisation, from a practical point of view there should be at least

two energy values for the majority of ingredients used in pig feed, one value for growing-

finishing pigs and one value for adult sows (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001). Fibre is a feedstuff

commonly described as an ‘element’ of plant origin which is complex and highly variable

(Kerr & Shurson, 2013). Analytical methods which are used to characterize fibre often

measure (in a given feed) the same fibre fractions or omit fibre fractions that are distinctly

different carbohydrate fractions. Consequently, the ability to satisfactorily relate analytical

measures to fibre utilization can be challenging (Kerr & Shurson, 2013). Fibre content and

energy digestibility are linked; development of processing techniques and enzymes that

could degrade fibre would dramatically improve energy digestibility which would in turn be

both metabolically and economically beneficial to pork production (Kerr & Shurson, 2013).

Methane production had the highest recorded values when feeding fully-grown sows a high

fibre diet (396g/kg NDF; low NDF 140g/kg) with less energy retained, with an increase to the

frequency of exposure to cold temperatures of pregnant sows, they gained a higher ability to

utilise the dietary fibre (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001). When the NDF content is increased the

difference in co-efficient of digestibility of energy between growing pigs and adult sows is

high but is negligible for low NDF ingredients (Noblet & Le Goff, 2001).

CP in the pig swill (~73 - 142 g/kg, Table 2) is generally lower than in the pellets (120 - 190

g/kg, Table 3). CP from the samples collected is also different from the recommended

amount (Tables 2 & 4). CP for Sophie’s, Shilam and household was lower than recommended

amount (Tables 2 & 4). Pigs with low CP diets without amino acid (AA) supplement tend to

consume more feed (Kerr, et al., 1995; Le Bellego & Noblet, 2002). Meal frequency of low CP

24

diets with adequate AA supplement revealed no effect on energy utilisation (Le Bellego, et

al., 2001). Although, decreasing dietary CP concentration (including crystalline AA

supplements) from 15 to 6% increases both indispensable and dispensable AA ileal

digestibility (Otto, et al., 2003).

A study showed that a reduction of dietary CP levels in combination with sufficient AA

supplementation does not affect the aspects of performance and body composition of the

piglets and contributes to lower N excretion (Le Bellego & Noblet, 2002), but the lowest CP

in the diets was 169g/kg which is still higher than the recommended level (Table 4).

Although, high levels of dietary protein will not affect the pigs’ performance but will have an

economical effect with regards to over feeding protein to the pig which may lower the FCR.

Pantycelyn was noticeably higher in CP than the recommended amount (Tables 2 & 4) while

Ta Med Da’s CP was marginally higher than the recommended CP levels (Tables 2 & 4). High-

protein distillers dried grains fed to growing-finishing pigs in high levels had no negative

affect on overall pig performance, muscle quality, carcass composition, or palatability but

may have decrease fat quality (Widmer, et al., 2008).

Fats and oil in the pellets range from 35 - 60 g/kg (Table 3) the pig swill contains ranges from

~46 - 284 g/kg (Table 2). Sophie’s and Shilam have a very high fat content while Ta Med Da

and Pantycelyn contain values within the pellets fat ranges. Household fat content was also

higher than the pellet range, but only marginally higher. High fat does not improve the

performance for market (Tokach, et al., 1995). Dietary fat increased body fat in growing pigs

and decreased the body condition score in lactating sows (Chilliard, 1993). In pork, the

concentration of stearic acid is related to the melting point of lipids and the

hardness/firmness of carcass fat (Wood, et al., 2004). A high fat diet affects the shelf life of

the pork products. As the display time of the pork produce increases the oxidisation process

of the unsaturated fatty acids leads to the development of rancidity. Fatty acids can also

affect meat flavour as a result of the production of odorous, volatile, lipid oxidation products

during cooking (Wood, et al., 2004).

As a comparison, too little fat in the diet can have a negative affect pig performance. Low fat

in the diet slows the growth rate but has no effect on feed consumption (Witz & Beeson,

25

1951). No fat in the diet can have detrimental effects on the pigs’ anatomy with an outcome

of very small gall bladders and underdeveloped digestive tracts (Witz & Beeson, 1951). Low

fat diets such as pigs feed diets containing 6g/kg fat showed external fat deficiency

symptoms such as “scaly dandruff-like dermatitis on the tail, back and shoulders; loss of hair;

the remaining hair being dull and dry; a brown gummy exudate on the belly and sides;

necrotic areas on the skin around the neck and shoulders” (Witz & Beeson, 1951).

Ash content for the pellets ranges from 52 - 70 g/kg (Table 3), and the pig swill ash content is

highly variable across the samples (~7 - 64 g/kg, Table 2), with Shilam, household and

Pantycelyn having lower ranges than the pellets. Pantycelyn was scarcely any lower;

household had half of the lowest content of ash in the pellets while Shilam had considerably

lower ash content. Sophie’s and Ta Med Da contained ash levels in the range of the pellets.

Supplement withdrawal (withdrawal of dietary vitamins and trace minerals along with a two-

thirds reduction in inorganic phosphorus in the diet) did not influence ADG or carcass traits

(Shaw, et al., 2002), but ADG was lower (Edmonds & Arentson, 2001). However, supplement

withdrawal does alter the nutritional content of the pork products; this may lower consumer

assurances in the nutritional value of pork (Shaw, et al., 2002).

Animals do not have a requirement for ash in their diet but require the individual mineral

elements (McDonald, et al., 2011). Studies have shown that despite the removal of trace

mineral premix there was no effect on overall growth performance (Edmonds & Arentson,

2001; Shelton, et al., 2004), but it does lower the vitamin E in pork muscle (longissimus

muscle and ham) if trace minerals are removed at the finishing stage; copper concentration

in ham can also be reduced (Edmonds & Arentson, 2001). Many vitamin and mineral

concentrations in pork products are influenced by the selection of prime feed ingredients in

the pigs diet (Shaw, et al., 2002). Supplement withdrawal from 17 to 45 days before

slaughter decreases nutrient excretion and feed costs, this makes it an attractive practice to

pork producers (Shaw, et al., 2002), but for optimal nutritional value of pork vitamins and

minerals should be included in the finishing pig diet (Edmonds & Arentson, 2001).

Recommended average diet DE (Kcal/kg) is 3492 or 3425 depending on the feeding

programme (Table 4). The waste food samples had a range of ~2957 - 3536 Kcal/kg (Table

26

1). Shilam and household are within ~100 Kcal/kg of the recommended diet while Sophie’s

Pantycelyn and Ta Med Da are too low (Table 1). A recent study showed the DE ratios were

lower in sows than in growing pigs, this is a result of higher energy losses in sows though

urination; the difference in DE values between fully-grown sows and growing pigs increased

with dietary fibre content but was not constant (Le Goff & Noblet, 2001). The energy value

of a diet varies with the physiological stage of the pig; Energy values can be predicted from

the total tract digestible nutrient contents with specific values for each physiological stage

(Le Goff & Noblet, 2001).

Samples from Sophie’s had large Variations between days for analytical constituents (Figure

3, 5 & 6). This would be a dilemma as composition of the pig diet is important, adequate

constituents are needed for optimum pig performance as previously discussed. The samples

are highly variable depending on the place it was collected from. Minor differences in

composition can be noticed, but generally samples from an individual place had a similar

composition, with the exception of Sophie’s. The immense variation in Sophie’s café could

be explained by different food consumption habits of the customers. The university food

outlets and the private household would be more likely have people of similar consumption

habits, and the Indian would use similar basic ingredients in the curries.

Pigs’ performance is better when fed pellets, they also reduce wastage compared to meals

(Braude, 1967). Pellet conditioning (durability and hardness) is important as well as hygienic

and nutritional standards (Thomas, et al., 1997). Pelleting the feed generally results in

decreased feed intake, increased weight gain and improved feed utilisation (Thomas, et al.,

1998). Pigs prefer pelleted feed to whole sorghum grains (Braude, 1967; Skoch, et al., 1983).

Pelleting can also slightly reduce fibre digestibility depending on the fineness of the grind,

the structural components which have been though a finer grind induce a lower digestibility

co-efficient (Thomas, et al., 1998). Reducing the pellet size will increase the prominence of

the stomach ulcers (Wondra, et al., 1985). Although, studies have indicated that piglets in

the first few weeks after weaning when fed liquid feed show an increased post-weaning

growth rate (Russell, et al., 1996).

27

Content of nutrient analysis should be performed on different food types (Morgan, et al.,

1975) like with the rolled rye (Nilsson, et al., 1997) and ash in crops (Monti et al., 2008) so it

could be better applied to the pig diet and added to the pellets in appropriate proportions,

focusing analysis mainly on different vegetables and non-meat waste.

Microbial Analysis

Shilam boiled the curry samples for Day 1 and 2; this could explain why the bacteria counts

are lower for these days (Figure 7, 8 & 9). Sophie’s left the waste food samples out of the

fridge all day; this could have allowed the bacteria to have multiplied on the plate scrapings

collected. Occurrence of Enterobacteriaceae in meat and raw milk may be from food animals

which act as reservoirs for strains; this can be a way into the food production chain (Geser,

et al., 2011). This implies that it would be necessary to boil any plate scrapping meant for pig

consumption; temperatures over 65˚C should not be used so to maintain the wastes

digestibility (Esteban, et al., 2007). High moisture is favourable for microbes and would make

handling difficult (García, 2005). Differences in moisture could be explained from variation in

atmospheric conditions, although, as the waste food would need to be dried before animal

consumption, moisture would not pose a problem (Esteban, et al., 2007).

Enterobacteriaceae in faecal samples of farm animals are a risk for carcass contamination,

particularly at slaughter; there is an indication for a potential contamination of retail meat

products (Geser, et al., 2011). Contamination of meat products would lead to problems with

public health and safety. The ranges of Enterobacteriaceae species that reside in each

individual pig are unique, and several different species can dominate. Mass bacterial

attachment to the intestine wall does not appear to be essential for successful colonization

(Schierack, et al., 2007); many strains could therefore colonize the pig gut. Pathogenic

bacteria in the gut compete with the host and beneficial bacteria for nutrients and reduce

overall intestinal function (Whitney, 2004).

28

Conclusion

Pig swill could be fed to pigs and act as an alternative management method for waste food.

More research would need to go into individual analytical constituents of feedstuffs, so that

a more accurate diet could be composed from the ingredients that are available. In this

research fractions of waste food were ‘recycled’ and analysed for swine feed, recovering

nutrients from waste generated plate scraping. From the results, Ta Med Da would be the

most appropriate to feed to swine: the CEE and Ash are in the same range as the pellets

currently on the market. The crude protein is 4.4 g/kg over the recommended protein

content, which will have minimal effect on the pigs’ performance. DE would have to be

increased by ~450 Kcal/kg. The NDF would be manageable for an adult sow. Pantycelyn

could also be fed to adult sows with CEE meeting the pellet range, and ash being only

3.9g/kg under. The protein is 14.7 g/kg; research suggests no negative effects on pig

performance. With NDF manageable for adult sows. DE is at a higher level than Ta Med Da

but would still need to increase by ~407Kcal/kg. For a broader comparison of samples in the

future, they should be collected from a wider range of establishments.

Further benefits of pig swill include the reduction of methane gas production at landfill sites

(Wang, et al., 1997) which contributes to global warming and the greenhouse effect. Less

cereal and other crops would need to be grown for pig feed, instead would be used for

human consumption; this can reduce the food waste problem and reduce pressure on other

systems to recycle the food such as anaerobic digestion. Another alternative would be for

waste food to be recycled in compost bins, but not all households and catering facilities may

have space for them and it is costly to implement. ‘Zero waste’ targets would also be a

useful alternative for waste reduction, leaving more direct food produce available for farm

animals such as pigs. Either way, it seems that there exist truly viable ways of reducing the

impact of our waste food, providing ourselves and future generations with a sustainable way

of life.

29

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all the catering outlets and people involved in collecting the waste food

samples for my research. I would also like to thank the laboratory technicians from “guts ‘r’

us”, Aberystwyth University, for all their collaboration with the laboratory experiments for

this research. I would particularly like to thank my supervisor for taking the time to answer

my constant questions!

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40

Appendix

Used a 4 decimal place scale to weight out the feed stuffs (methods, sample analysis)

Table: Averages of Original Plate Counts.

Place Meat/Veg Day TVC Entero

Shilam M 1 935 95

M 2 8900 0

M 3 23500 0

V 1 3300 0

V 2 59000 15

V 3 320000 395000

Sophie’s M 1 1590 0

M 2 1173500 1375

M 3 130500 30

V 1 172500 201000

V 2 6050000 216500

V 3 800000 143000

Table: Comparisons of Diet Analytical Constituents from meat samples (mean +/- SD).

Location NDF ADF CP CF/CEE Ash

DE

(Kcal/Kg)

Ta Med Da

(g/kg) 465.6 +/- 34.0 97.0 +/- 19.6 273.7 +/- 34.0 259.1 +/- 25.3 28.3 +/- 4.0 3765.1

Pantycelyn

(g/kg) 759.9 +/- 76.6 18.3 +/- 10.8 710.7 +/- 71.2 187.5 +/- 48.9 73.2 +/- 5.3 2847.5

Sophie’s

(g/kg) 532.9 +/- 53.6 76.6 +/- 32.9 346.5 +/- 40.9 379.2 +/- 17.3 15.4 +/- 2.9 4246.9

Shilam (g/kg) 629.3 +/- 43.4

298.1 +/-

12.8 425.9 +/- 24.3 341.0 +/- 21.1 10.5 +/- 0.9 3946.1

41

Raw Data from this study

sample

day place

meat

/veg

contain

er (g)

water

added

(g)

container,

water and

food (g)

(wet

weight

) food

(g)

(dry

weight)

food and

container

(g) content

1

ta med

da veg 5.9 190.6 332.5 136 23.3

red cabbage,

cabbage, onion

fennel, bell

peppers, turnip

1

ta med

da meat 7.1 97.5 372.8 268.2 80.1

noodles, carrots,

broccoli, green

beans, onions,

chicken

1

Pantyc

elyn veg 5.8 202.5 478.7 270.4 110.6 chips, sweetcorn

1

Pantyc

elyn meat 6.1 183.3 299.6 110.2 40.5

chicken, melted

cheese

2

ta med

da meat 5.5 87.5 259.2 166.2 53.8

noodles, chick

peas, baked

beans, turkey,

bell pepper,

onions, lettuce,

tomato

2

ta med

da veg 5.4 94.8 265.2 165 24.7

carrots, parsley,

celery, courgette,

leek, broccoli

stork, thyme

2

Pantyc

elyn veg 5.4 103 232.3 123.9 12.6

lettuce, tomato,

cucumber, red

onion, bell

pepper

2 Pantyc meat 6.2 162.5 387.8 219.1 80.3 turkey, gravy

42

elyn

3

ta med

da veg 7.5 100.9 302.9 194.5 29.9

turnip, leek,

carrot, parsnip,

red onion, bell

pepper, broccoli

stork

3

ta med

da meat 6.8 156.3 511.4 348.3 102.3

beef, onion,

gravy, salmon,

broccoli, tomato,

haddock, bell

pepper, carrots,

sweetcorn, red

kidney beans,

crab sticks, chips,

pasta, scrambled

egg

3

Pantyc

elyn veg 6.4 117.1 250.5 127 32.1

cabbage, carrots,

broccoli, cooked

potatoes skin

3

Pantyc

elyn meat 6.4 188.7 477.8 282.7 104 beef, gravy

4

ta med

da meat 6.5 159.2 466.7 301 92.9

roast potatoes,

boiled potatoes,

hash brown,

pasta, ham, bell

pepper, carrots,

broccoli,

courgette, black

olives, inions,

ham fat, baked

beans, scrambled

egg

43

4

ta med

da veg 7 95.2 223.2 121 22.4

lettuce, turnip,

orange segments

and peel,

broccoli, red

onion, cabbage

4

Pantyc

elyn veg 7.3 85.5 246.5 153.7 26.3 turnip

4

Pantyc

elyn meat 5.8 123.8 293.2 163.6 82.7

pork, ham, bacon,

black pudding,

gravy

5

ta med

da meat 5.7 158.5 557.5 393.3 135.8

Bacon, Lamb,

pork, lettuce,

tomatoes,

cucumber, bell

pepper, baked

beans, scrambled

egg, red onion,

red cabbage,

carrots, roast

potatoes, baked

potatoes, rice,

cheese, broccoli,

bread, sausage

5

ta med

da veg 6.9 138.8 419.4 273.7 40.2

parsnip, bell

pepper, carrots,

courgette

5

Pantyc

elyn veg 7 90.1 169.7 72.6 16 cabbage

5

Pantyc

elyn meat 7 212.9 449.2 229.3 117

sausage,

gammon, bacon

44

1

Sophie

’s veg 5.9 84.6 199.9 109.4 62.7

pancake, seeded

bread, white

bread, fried

bread, baked

beans, onions,

mushrooms,

sweet potatoes

fries, fries, curly

fries, calsaw

1

Sophie

’s meat 5.5 148.6 294.2 140.1 8.5

sausage, bacon,

chicken

1 Shilam veg 5.7 53.5 491.7 432.5 90.9

vegetable curry,

potatoes,

courgette,

carrots, broccoli,

cabbage,

cauliflower, onion

1 Shilam meat 5.8 35.5 300.1 258.8 87.2

lamb curry, bell

peppers

2

Sophie

’s veg 5.4 85.6 310.2 219.2 88.9

baked beans,

fried egg, hash

brown,

mushroom, sweet

potatoes fries,

fries, curly fries,

lettuce, tomato,

calsaw, fried

bread, bread

2

Sophie

’s meat 7.1 110.2 283.3 166 101.5

beef, onion,

tomato, sausage,

bacon, fries,

sweet potatoes

fries, fries, bread,

salmon, bread,

45

ham, cheese, bbq

sauce, cheese

spread, black

pudding, calsaw

2 shilam veg 5.8 53.9 433.4 373.7 94.8

vegetable curry,

potatoes,

courgette,

carrots, cabbage,

onion, spinach

2 shilam meat 5.9 56.2 374.6 312.5 111.7

chicken curry, bell

peppers, onion

3

Sophie

’s veg 6.3 93.5 269.5 169.7 87

porridge, curly

fries, fries, sweet

potatoes fries,

mushroom,

lettuce,

scrambled egg,

fried egg, hash

brown, fried

bread, bread

3

Sophie

’s meat 6.4 94.6 179 78 53.2

bacon, chicken,

sausage fish

finger

3 shilam veg 7.2 55.5 389.1 326.4 106.5

vegetable curry,

potatoes,

cabbage, carrots,

broccoli,

courgette

3 shilam meat 6.8 80.7 427.2 339.7 106.6

chicken curry,

onion

46

4

Sophie

’s veg 6.5 81.6 278.8 190.7 91.5

curly fries, fries,

fried bread,

bread, toast,

baked beans,

fried egg, lettuce,

tomato, baked

potatoes, butter,

calsaw, porridge

4

Sophie

’s meat 6.6 167.7 351.8 177.5 110

bacon, black

pudding, sausage,

baked beans

4 shilam veg 7 53.3 510.9 450.6 113.2

vegetable curry,

potatoes,

cabbage, chick

peas, spinach,

carrots, courgette

4 shilam meat 5.8 67.9 605.3 531.6 167.8

chicken korma,

coconut

5

Sophie

’s veg 6.9 86.3 214.2 121 83

tomato, hash

brown, fries, fried

bread, tea leaves,

baked beans

5

Sophie

’s meat 7 93.8 152.3 51.5 38.7 bacon, sausage

5 shilam veg 6.9 61.1 332.5 264.5 85

vegetable curry,

potatoes,

courgette,

cabbage, spinach,

onion

5 shilam meat 6.1 71.8 296.5 218.6 79.9 lamb curry, onion

1

house

hold veg 6.4 86.5 211.2 118.3 34.2

carrot, broccoli

stork, rhubarb

crumble, tea

leaves

47

2

house

hold veg 5.6 100.9 195.2 88.7 23

bread, carrots,

orange peeling,

lettuce, potatoes,

apple

3

house

hold veg 5.4 90.1 302.6 207.1 67.1

orange, lemon,

carrot, apple, tea

leaves, clove,

cinnamon,

butternut squash,

sweet potatoes,

gingerbread

dough,

cardamom pods

4

house

hold veg 5.9 91.1 215 118 30.6

carrots, sweet

potato, butternut

squash, apple,

pear, clove

5

house

hold veg 6.7 172.5 369.5 190.3 104.4

egg shell,

broccoli,

sweetcorn, pasta,

pastry dough,

parmesan,

mushroom,

bread, lettuce

Microbiology Raw Data, with two replications, multiply by dilution factor to get original

colony count e.g. T-1x10, T-2 x100. Refer to key below for column titles.

1 2 3 4 5 6

E-1 E-1 E-3 E-1 E-1 E-1

9 10 0 0 189 213 0 0 2 1 0 0

T-1 T-2 T-3 T-1 T-3 T-2

93 94 34 32 172 173 148 170 39 79 85 93

48

7 8 9 10 11 12

E-3 E-1 E-1 E-3 E-4 E-1

158 275 142 133 2 4 154 132 45 34 0 0

T-5 T-4 T-3 T-4 T-4 T-3

56 65 213 217 133 128 145 15 64 32 31 16

Key for microbiology raw data.

1 shilam meat day 1

2 shilam veg 1

3 Sophie’s veg 1

4 Sophie’s meat 1

5 shilam veg day 2

6 shilam meat 2

7 Sophie’s veg 2

8 Sophie’s meat 2

9 Sophie’s meat day 3

10 Sophie’s veg 3

11 shilam veg 3

12 shilam meat 3

Energy Calculation (DE) Table 6, Equation no. 23

DE = 4,168 – 9.1 x Ash + 1.9 x CP + 3.9 x EE – 3.6 x NFD

Used acetone not ether

Dry Matter Calculation

DM (g/kg) dry weight food (g)/ wet weight food (g) x1000

Ash Calculation

ash (g/kg)= (w3-w1- (c1xc2)) x1000/w2

Where:

49

w1 = crucible before furnace

w2 = weight of food before furnace

w3 = crucible and food after furnace

c1 = blank filter bag before furnace

c2- blank filter bag after furnace

Crude Fat Calculation

crude fat (g/kg) =(100x(w2-w3)/w1)x10

Where:

w1 = original weight of sample

w2= weight of pre-extraction dried sample and filter bag

w3= weight of dried sample and filter bag after extraction

ADF Calculation

ADF (g/kg) = (W3 – (W1 x C1)) x 1000/W2

Where:

W1 = Bag tare weight

W2 = Sample weight

W3 = Weight after extraction process

C1 = Blank bag correction (final oven-dried weight/original blank bag weight)

NDF Calculation

NDF (g/kg) = (W3 – (W1 * C1)) * 1000/W2

Where:

W1 = Bag tare weight

W2 = Sample weight

W3 = Weight after extraction process

C1 = Blank bag correction (final oven-dried weight/original blank bag weight)

50

Protein Calculation

CP (g/kg)= (N factor x 6.25) x10

assumes sample 100% dry

Where

6.25 = nitrogen: protein conversion factor