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47DiscussiondocumentconcerningtheREFORMofBASIC

MUSICTHEORYTERMINOLOGY1.Tonalityandform

PhilipTagg,29December,20131

PreliminariesFormalconventions AllsourcereferencesarelistedinasingleReferencesappendix. ThistextfollowstheCambridgeUniversityPresshousestyle,e.g.synthesiseratherthansynthesize,singleratherthandoublequotes.

Thefollowingtypefaceconventionsareused:1. Sans-serif bold lower casefornotenames,e.g. ;2. Tahomaforleadsheetchordnames,e.g. Am;3. romannumeralsinIMPRINTfontfornonkeyspecifictertial

chordsbasedonscaledegreee.g. VII IV I.4. simplearabicnumeralsfornonkeyspecificscaledegrees,e.g.

12 345 6 7ratherthan foraharmonicminorscale.5. Chordloopsaredelimitedbyarrowsturning180horizontally,

e.g. (I-vi-ii-V7vampinCmajor);6. Chordshuttlesaredenotedbyadoubleheadedarrow,

e.g. atthestartofChopinsMarchfunbre.ScopeofthistextThis text ispartofproposals to reform, rationalise,democratiseanddeethnocentrify the studyofmusic. Itaddresses some fundamentalproblems of logic and cultural equity in the denotation ofmusicalstructure.Itfocusesonthetroubleswithtonalterminology(p.7,ff.)andontherestrictivenotionofforminmusic(p.24,ff.).Itdoesnot

1. SubstantialpartsofthistextweresubmittedunderthetitleTroubleswithtonalterminologyasacontributiontotheFestschriftforCorinAharoninandGracielaParaskevadis(Montevideo),NovemberDecember2011.SubsequentchangesandadditionsweremadeinApril2012,February2013andNovember2013.ThistextisarevisionoftheNovember2013version.

2 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)address issuesof timbre,vocalisation, sounddesign,aural staging,rhythm,periodicity,phrasing,etc.inanydetail.

Background

Myownawarenessofproblemsdenotingmusicalstructuresistheresultof fortyyearsofwork asa musicologistof thepopular.AlthoughIwas,inthe1970s,awareofincongruitieswhenItriedtoapplytheterminologyofconventionalmusictheorytopopularmusic,itwasnotuntilthe1990sthatIrealisedtheextenttowhichthatterminologycanbeboth inadequateanddeceptive.Itwasagradualawakeningthat,summarisedinthefollowingsixstages,willhopefullymakeforinstructivereading.

Sixstages

[1]WhenIwasveryyoung,mymotherusedtosingtheminorhexatonictuneTheTailorandtheMouse.Ialsorememberherhummingionianminichromaticmusichall numbers like If YouWere TheOnlyGirl/BoyInTheWorld.Myfather,aselftaughtamateurpianist, couldmuddle throughpianoarrangementsofminuets fromMozartsymphoniesandaccompanytraditionaltuneslikethedorianWhatShallWeDoWithTheDrunkenSailor?,aswellasioniannurseryrhymeslikeHickoryDickoryDock.2HecouldalsooccasionallybehearddoodledooingaGlennMillerorJackHyltonhornriff.Then,asateenager,mypianoandorganteacher,KenNaylor,notonlyintroducedmetobebopandBartkbutalsotaughtmetoplayjazzstandardsandtodocloseharmonyarrangements.Withthatmusicalbackground,whichIlaterdiscoveredwasconsideredunusuallyeclecticbyothers,IbecameamusicstudentatCambridgeUniversityintheearly1960sandwasconfrontedbyanalmost exclusively euroclassical world. During my time at thatinstitution(196265)Ihadtoactivelyseekoutmusicalopportunitiesoutsidetheacademy,notsomuchforprosacfinancialreasonsastopreservemyownpsychosociomusicalsanity.I joineda a

2. References:[1]TheTailorandtheMouse(Eng.trad.,Tagg2009c);[2]IfYouWereTheOnlyGirl(Como1946);[3]WhatShallWeDoWithTheDrunkenSailor?(Eng.trad.);[4]HickoryDickoryDock(Eng.nurseryrhyme).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 3Scottishcountrydancebandandasoul/R&Bcombowhiletryingtofindthetime,evenifIrarelyfoundtheinclination,tocompletethismotet in the style of Palestrina.3 Before studying atCambridgeIhadnotmetmanywhoheardonesortofmusicasintrinsicallysuperiortoanother,butduringmytimeinthatDisneylandoftheEnglishRenaissanceIfoundmyselfrepeatedlytryingtoconvince thosewhoheld suchnarrowviewsofaestheticexcellencethattheyweremissingsomething.Therein,Isuppose,lietheoriginsofmysubsequentcareerasmusicologistofthepopular.ThefirstreallysubstantialwritingIproducedon thesubjectwasmydoctoralthesis(Tagg,1979).

[2]Oneof themainpoints in the explanationofpopularmusicanalysismethodpresented inmyPhDwas that thehierarchyofprimary(scribal)andsecondary(nonscribal)parametersofexpressionwasinapplicabletomusicwhosemediationrarelyreliedonnotationandwhoseexpressivedynamicresidedinboutsoftheextendedpresent (intensional aesthetic) rather than in longtermharmonic and melodic narrative (extensional).4 Another criticalpointwasmyinsistenceonasemioticapproachtomusicanalysisand on the notion that thoughts about musical structurationshouldincludediscussionofitsmeanings.

[3] Invited in 1984 byCorinAharonin to run popularmusicanalysisseminarsattheCursoslatinoamericanosdemsicacontemporneainTatu,Brazil,IhadtoconfrontmyEuroNorthAmericanculturallimitationsandtolistenwithopenearstopreviouslyunfamiliartypesofmusic.Withhelpfromothercourseparticipants,IgainedinsightsintohowtheactualsoundsofpopularmusicsinLatinAmerica, like thoseofmanypopular styles frommyownpartoftheworld,couldnotbeadequatelydescribedusingtheterminologyofconventionalmusictheory.CorinalsobroughttomyattentiontheworkofCarlosVegawhosewritingsonpopularmu

3. CompletethismotetinthestyleofPalestrina,thisinventioninthestyleofBach,thispianoquartetinthestyleofBrahmsetc.weretypicalendofyearcompositionexamquestions.

4 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)sicIlaterfoundusefulinexplainingthefunctionsofharmonyinchordshuttlesandloops.5

[4]Later,whenquestioningreductionistandethnocentricassumptions about the structural traits of black and white inmusic(Tagg,1989;2011c),Istumbledonstrangecontradictionsinterminologydescriptiveofrhythmandmetre.Firstly,the1958HarvardDictionary ofMusicentryon DottedNotes refers to the Scotchsnap as the reverse of the ordinarydotted rhythm, noting that[i]nverteddotting isvery frequent inOrientaland inprimitive[sic] music, where the normal dotted rhythm is rather rare.Whoops!Ifordinaryandnormalarerareandifthereverseorinverseisveryfrequent,linguisticlogichasbrokendown,unlesstheoxymoronisintendedasahumorousrhetoricaldevice.6Secondly, ifsyncopationis,accordingtothesameHarvardDictionary,anydeliberateupsettingofthenormalpulseofmetre,accentandrhythm,andif[o]ursystemofmusicalrhythmrestsuponthegroupingof

4. SeeExtendedpresentinChapter8ofTagg(2013).AccordingtoHall(1992:209),[b]asicto[LeonardB]MeyersargumentarethedifferencesbetweenprimaryandsecondaryparametersTheprimaryparametersmelody,rhythm,harmonyaresyntacticbecausetheycandefineclosureThesecondaryparameterstempo,dynamics,texture,timbrearestatisticalratherthansyntacticbecausetheychangeonlyinquantityandthereforecannotcreateclosureAcentraltheme[ofMeyer(1989),underreview]isthatsecondaryparametersgainincreasingdominanceoverprimaryparametersandsyntacticprocessesthroughthenineteenthcenturyandintothetwentieth.Thistrendleadstotheincreasingstructuralimportanceofstatisticalplansasopposedtosyntacticscripts,andtotheoverwhelmingstatisticalclimaxesbywhichunrealizedimplications[and]unresolvedtensionsareabsorbedandabsolved(p.268).SinceMeyerhimselfseemswellawareoftheincongruity(theincreasingdominanceofsecondaryoverprimaryparameters,etc.),itisnothishistoricalobservationsthataretheproblembuttheactualtermsprimaryandsecondary.TheConciseOxfordDictionary(1995)presentsthefirstmeaningsofprimaryasofthefirstimportance,chief;fundamentalwhilesecondaryisprimarily(sic)definedascomingafterornextbelowwhatisprimary;derivedfromordependingonorsupplementingwhatisprimary.Ifwhatseemedoncetobeprimaryandsecondarycan,inthelightofmusicalevidence,nolongerbeusefullyconceptualisedinsuchclearlyhierarchicalterms,moreaccurate,nonhierarchicalconceptsbecomeanecessity.Perhapsweshouldbetalkingaboutscribalandnonscribal,ornotatable(transcriptibleinFrench)andnonnotatable(nontranscriptible)parameters.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 5equalbeatsintogroupsoftwoandthree,witharegularlyrecurringaccentonthefirstbeatofeachgroup,then[a]nydeviationfromthisschemeisfeltasadisturbanceorcontradictionbetweentheunderlying (normal)pulseand theactual (abnormal)rhythm.Thisdefinitionmeansthat syncopationcanonlyoccurinmonometricmusic because, as soon as twometres cooccur, disturbance in one beat pattern (abnormal rhythm) is normally thenormintheother,andbecausethosetwopatternstogethercreateacompositenormofcrossrhythm,asinglemetricunitinanongoingstateofcontradiction. Itssimplywrong toqualifyassyncopatedwhateverthoseofusfromamonometricbackgroundhearasabnormalintermsofshiftingupanddownbeats.7

[5]Duringthe1990sanincreasingnumberofstudentsinmyfilmmusicandpopularmusicanalysisseminarscamefromdisciplines

5. SeeChapters1012inTagg(2009a).Shuttle=lanzadera,vaivn(repeatedtoandfrobetweentwochords);loop=lazo,vuelta(short,repeatedcircleofusuallythreeorfourchords).Vegasconceptofbimodalitywasusefulinexplainingharmonyinmanydifferenttypesofpopularmusic.

6. Allitalicsandunderliningsaremine.ForathoroughdiscussionoftheScotchsnap,seeTagg(2011a).

7. NeitherSubSaharancrossrhythmnorthefluctuatingtoandfropatternsofdownbeatplacementinstyleslikecandombe,merengue,rumbaorsonmontunoconstitutesyncopationbecausewhatsoundslikemetricdisturbanceinourearsisanintrinsicpartoftheongoingnorm.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthetermpolyrhythm(literally=morethanonerhythmatthesametime)isoftenusederraticallytodenoteSubSaharancrossrhythm.Unlessthemusicisstrictlyhomophonicandcontainsnocontrapuntalelements,allpolyphonicmusicfeaturesmorethanonesimultaneousrhythmandisthereforepolyrhythmic.Polymetricity(morethanonemetreatthesametime)maybeaviabletermforpeoplebroughtupinamonometricmusicculturewhowanttograsptherhythmicprinciplesofSubSaharanmusicsbutthatisnothowthemusicsusersandscholarshearit.Forthemitscrossrhythm,asinglemetreinapermanentstateofcontradiction(Tagg,2013:457465,quotingLadzekpo(1995)andPealosa(2009)).Moreover,medieval,baroqueandTudormusicperformancepractice,withitsuseoftactusinsteadofmetricconducting,suggeststhatsymmetricmonometricity,visualisedinlatertypesofnotationbytheubiquitousbarline,isalsoforeigntoEuropeanmusicsofthattime.Thetermsyncopation,appliedtofrequenthemiolashifts(asintheGalliard),isinotherwordsquestionable,especiallyincontrapuntalsectionswheredupleandtriplemetreoccursimultaneouslyindifferentvoicesassimplecompositecrossrhythm.

6 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)other thanmusic[ology]. I soon discovered that these studentswerecompetentmembersofthemusicculture[s]towhichtheybelonged.Theycould identify significantaspectsofmusical structure in terms like thechordat1minute40[seconds](timecodedesignation),orwhatthedrummerdoesjustbeforethefinalchorus(designationbyparamusicalsynchrony).8TheywerealsooftenbetterthanmusicstudentsatidentifyingtheexpressivequalitiesofthestructurestheyidentifiedinthissortofwaytheCelticfolkvirgin voice, the detective chord, the sexophone, the tiptoebass,forexample.Itbecameclearthattherewasasharpdividebetweenstructuraldescriptorsderivingchieflyfromtheproductionofmusicpoetic descriptors like head voice tessitura and minormajorninechordand thosebasedonperceptionaesthesicdescriptors like the princessvoiceand the detectivechord. Itbecame increasingly obvious that music theorys structuraldescriptors,unlikethoseusedin,say,thevisualarts,werealmostexclusively poetic and gobbledygook to thosewith no formaltraining inmusic theory.Themostdisturbing symptomsof thiscontradictionareofcourse:[i]thatmusicalanalysisismoreoftenthannotabsentinmediaeducation;[ii]thatfilmdirectorsandfilmcomposersoftenhavedifficultiesunderstandingeachother;and[iii]thatvernacularmusicalcompetenceasinreferencesto,say,thesexysaxortiptoebassistrivialisedandacademicallydisqualified.Wemusicologistshave,Ifear,largelyfailedtorecognise,letalonesystematise,thisubiquitoustypeofculturalcompetence.Theneedforademocraticreformofstructuralterminologyinmusiciscriticalinthisageofdigitalmedia,smartphones,gaming,satelliteTV,audioandvideostreamingordownloading,etc.9

[6] The final stage in the process of awareness under reviewstartedinthelate1990swhenIhadtowritesubstantialentriesonmelody,harmony,polyphonyandmodesforvolume2ofEPMOW

8. SeeTagg(2013:256260).9. Formoreonpoeticandaesthesicdescriptors,seeunderMusicalknowledges

inchapter3andunderAesthesicfocusinchapter6ofTagg(2013).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 7(2003), theContinuumEncyclopedia ofPopularMusic of theWorld.ThistaskforcedmetodirectlyconfrontthesortofproblemsIhadexperiencedearlier.Itbecameimpossibletoevenpretendthinkingthat the terminologyof conventionalmusic theorymight somehowsortitselfout.Ifeltobligedtoraisesomesortofalarm.Mysubsequenteffortstobringatleastsomesemblanceoflogictoverybasictermsofstructuraldenotationstartedwithasmallbutsignificant anomalywhat to call chords based on stacked thirds ifthosebasedonstackedfourthsarecalledquartal.IagonisedforweekswhenwritingtheharmonyentrybeforerealisingthatIhadnoalternativebuttoproposeaneologism,asexplainedinthenextsection.Then,whenaskedbyFrancoFabbri in2006tousethoseencyclopaediaarticlesasthebasisforahandbookinmusictheory(Tagg2009a,2011b)andbyCorintocontributetotheconferenceMuscologiaycolonialismo(Tagg2009b),Ifinallymanagedtoconnectthedots.Itwasnotonlyamatterofscholarlylogicbutalso,asbothFabbriandAharoninwerewellaware,ofproposingalternativestoanethnocentricandclasscentricterminologythatisalsocolonialist(Aharonin1992).

TonalterminologyTriadsandtertialharmonyEx. 1. Four tertial and five quartal chords

Example 1 shows nine chords, the first four based on stackedthirds([1] ,[2] invertedas ,[3] and[4] inverted),thelastfiveonstackedfourths([5] invertedas ,[6] as ,[7] as ,[8] as ,and[9] arranged .Chordnumbers1,2,4,5,6and7aretriadsbecauseeachcontainsthreedifferentlynamedtones,chordnumbers3and8aretetrads(fourdifferentlynamedtones)andnumber9isapentad(five).Sofar,sogood:chords5,6and7

8 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)arequartaltriads,chord8aquartaltetradandchord9aquartalpentad.Thetroublestartswhenyoutrytobeequallypreciseaboutchords14becausemanymusictheoristsinsistoncallingthemtriadiceven thoughchords57areno less triadic thanchords1,2and4.Itis,Isuppose,understandablethatthestackingofthirdsseemedtoneednoqualificationas longas itwasconsideredthesinglenormfromwhichallothertypesoftonalitywereassumedtodiverge,butthatassumptionisclearlyuntenableassoonasavarietyof tonal idiomsneeds tobedescribed.Therefore, ifharmonybasedonstacked fourths iscalledquartal,harmonycharacterisedbythestackingofthirdshastobecalledTERTIAL.10Thesupposedbinarytriadic/quartalisfalsebecauseitconfusestwodistinctcriteriaofchorddenotationthenumberofnotesinachord(triadic,tetradic,etc.)andtheprincipleofintervalstackinginachord(tertialforthirds,quartalforfourths).Itsasifquartalharmony,the abnormalidiomineuroclassicalears,neededalabel(quartal)whilethenormalidiom(tertial)wasconsideredsonormalastorequirenoqualification.11

Euroclassicaltertialharmonyisalsosometimesreferredtoasfunctionalasifothertypesoftonalpolyphonyhadnofunction.Thefactthatthechordloops,shuttles,matricesandturnaroundsofpopularmusicstylesfunctioneitherasongoing tonalmotoricgesture(partofgroove),orasepisodicmarkers,andthatchangefromoneongoingtonalpatterntoanothercanbeinstrumentalinestablishingasenseofnarrative(diataxisorepisodic form)seemstoescapedisciplesofRiemannorSchenker.Iveevenhearddiatonicusedasalabelfortertialharmonyasifnoquartalpolyphonyever

10. Itgoeswithoutsayingthatchordsconsistingofstackedfifthsarealsoquartal,notquintal,becausethefifthistheoctavecomplementofthefourth,justasnoonereferstosextalharmonywhenasixth,theoctavecomplementofathird,isfeaturedinatertialchord.

11. Itsanothercaseofusasnormalpeopleagainstthemasforeignersorothers,includingtheOtherinsideourselves(Kristeva,1988:trangersnousmmes);seealsoPopularMusicStudiesversustheOther(Tagg,1996).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 9visitedallnotesinadiatonicheptatonicmode:itsasifthemusicofHindemith,Bartk,FreddieHubbard,MilesDavis,McCoyTyner,ClarenceAshleyandSokratisMlamashadneverexisted.12Euroclassicaltertialharmonyissimplyoneparticular(andintermsofnarrative construction particularly interesting) variant of tonalpolyphony.Therearemanyothersbut theirdenotationcan, likethatofeuroclassicaltertiality,oftenbeproblematic,sometimestothepointofabsurdity.ParticularlymuddleheadedarethetwobinariesTONALV.ATONALandTONALV.MODAL.

UnderlyingproblemconceptsBasictonalterms Beforedisentanglingthecontradictorybinariesjustmentioned

Ineedtopositsixaxiomaticworkingdefinitions.

[1]NOTE:[i]anysingle,discretesoundoffinitedurationinapieceofmusic(MIDIdefinition);[ii]anysuchsoundwithaudiblefundamentalpitch(forexample ,alow , 440Hz,ahigh );[iii]theduration,relativetothemusicsunderlyingpulse,ofanynoteaccordingtodefinition[i]or[ii](e.g.quarternote,Viertel).ThefirstdefinitionofNOTEwillbeusedinthistext:anysingle,discretesoundoffinitedurationinapieceofmusic(theMIDIdefinition).

[2]TONE:notewithaudiblefundamentalpitch(definition[ii]ofNOTE).TONALmeanshavingthecharacteristicsofatoneoroftones.

[3]TONIC(n.):referencetone,keynoteortoneofcentralimportanceinapieceorextractofmusic.

[4]TONALITY:system,explicitlycodifiedornot,accordingtowhichtonesareconfiguredinamusicalcultureorsubculture.

[5]MODE:tonalvocabulary,oftenabstractedandarrangedinscalarformfortheoreticalpurposes,ofapieceorextractofmusic.

[6]POLYPHONY: [i]music inwhichat least twosoundsofclearlydifferingpitch,rhythm,timbreortypeofarticulationoccuratthe

12. Wikipediafeaturesauthoritativearticlesonallthesemusicians.

10 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)sametime(MIDIdefinition);[ii]musicinwhichatleasttwosoundsof audible fundamentalpitch occur simultaneously (tonalpolyphony); [iii] a particular type of contrapuntal tonal polyphonyusedbycertainEuropeancomposersbetweenc.1400andc.1650(restrictiveeuroclassicalmeaning).InthisarticlePOLYPHONYwillrefer tomusic inwhichat least two soundsof clearlydifferingpitch,rhythm,timbreortypeofarticulationoccuratthesametimeandPOLYPHONICwillqualifyanymusicexhibitingthosetraits.Drumkitpatterns (nontonalpolyphony),melodieswithdrone or any otherformoftonalornontonalaccompaniment,fourparthomophony,rock recordings,etc.,aswellasaByrdmotetorBach fugue (alltonalpolyphony),areinotherwords(unlike,say,anaccompaniedmonophonicmelody or clave pattern sounding on its own) allpolyphonicaccordingtothiscommonsensedefinitionused,forexample,byinstrumentmanufacturersneeding,inthe1980s,todistinguishapolyphonicfromamonophonicsynthesiser.

Tonalandtonical

Themoststriking terminologicalanomaly inconventionalmusictheoryisperhapsthatbetweenTONALandATONALmusic.Schnberg, forone,objected to the label atonalbecausehiscompositional norms were defined by tonal rules, by TWELVE TONEtechniques.Besides,neitherhe,norBerg,norWebernwerefamousfor theiruseofatonalsounds(atonal in the logicalsenseofnontonal):youwontfindmuchhihat,snaredrum,maracasorsampled traffic in theiruvre. It is indeedbizarre thateuroclassicalmusictheoristsmanagedtoconfusethenotionofmusicwithnointended tonic,as in theworkof twelvetone composersor inHerrmannsmusicfortheshowerscene inPsycho(1960),withmusiccontainingnotones,asin,say,taikodrumming(e.g.Kod1985)orHerrmannsscoreforTheBirds(1963).Usingappropriatelinguisticderivatives,therearetwoconceivablesolutionstothisembarrassinglexicalproblem:theAL,ALITY,ALISTandtheIC,ICALpatternssetoutinTable1(p.11).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 11Table 1. Linguistically conceivable solutions to the terminological confusion between tone and tonic

TONE,TONALandTONALITYfollowthelinguisticlogicofCENTRECENTRALCENTRALITYandFORMFORMALFORMALITYbut,unlikethose examples of that pattern, TONE has no adjective derivingfrom theabstractnounTONALITY.UnlikeCENTRALISTorFORMALIST,TONALIST(orTONALISTIC)justdoesntexist.Ifitdid,itmightbeused to qualify tonal music with a tonic, while nontonalistmightbeused todenote tonalmusicwithnone.However,apartfromsoundinglikethenameofapoliticalmovementwetonalistswillintroducefreemobileringtonesafterthenextelectionNONTONALISTwoulderroneouslyimplythattonalmusicwithoutakeynotehasnotonality,i.e.nosystemaccordingtowhichtonesareconfigured.Sincethatispatentlyuntrue,theonlylogicalsolutionistousethesecondpatternofderivationtocreateanadjectiveending in ALon thebasisofanoun ending in IC.Pattern2 inTable1 suggests that justasCLINICAL thingshappen inCLINICS,justastheweatherisTROPICALintheTROPICS,andjustasRHETORICALdevices(likethejustasanaphoraofthissentence)areusedinRHETORIC, tonalmusic thatusesaTONICought tobeTONICALandtonalmusicthatdoesnotshouldbecalledeitherATONICALorNONTONICAL.Thatwouldat least ridusof the illogicalusesofatonalandatonality.

Pattern1:,al,ality,alist[ic]rootnoun adjective1 abstractnoun adjective2centre central centrality centralistform formal formality formalistcrime criminal criminality criminalisticsense sensual sensuality sensualistTONE TONAL TONALITY TONALIST[IC]?

Pattern2:ic,icalnoun adjective noun adjectivecomic comical clinic clinicalethic[s] ethical magic magicalmusic musical rhetoric rhetoricalpolemic polemical tropic[s] tropicalstatistic[s] statistical TONIC TONICAL

12 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)Thenextitemofwidespreadterminologicaldisorderislessobviouslyabsurdbutitis,Ibelieve,justasquestionable.Itisalsomoreinsidious.

Tonalandmodal

Letmestartwithananalogy.IonceoverheardaFrenchstudentonexchangeattheUniversitdeMontralsayingtooneofherqubcoisclassmates Maisvousavez tousunaccent ici. Iwasstruckbythe chauvinism of her observation, not least because she wasattending the oldest francophoneuniversity in the francophoneworldssecondlargestcity.Itisprobablylesssurprisingthat,herein theUK, itwasonly a fewdecades ago that talkingwith anaccent(i.e.inanyotherwaythanthatconsideredcorrectatpublic(i.e.private)schoolsoratOxbridge)wasconsideredacceptableforBBCannouncersandnewsreaders.

Theanalogybetweenthenotionofspeakingwithanaccentandmakingmodalmusicshouldbeclear.Accordingtosuchthinkingitmattersnot,sotospeak,ifmorepeoplespeakwithanaccentthan use received pronunciation, or if theymakemusic usingtonalvocabularies(modes)differingfromthoseoftheeuroclassical repertoire. In both cases the former, usually practised by amajority,isgivenalabelimplyingdivergenceordeviationfromanassumednormusuallyestablishedbyaminority.13Indeed,modalmusicinconventionalmusictheorycametomeanmusicinanyothermodethanthetwousedintheeuroclassicalrepertoireoftheeighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Those two modes are ofcoursetheheptatonicmajorscale(ionian12 345 6 7)andtheheptatonicminorscalewhichhasthreevariants.1. Melodicminor(ascending):12 345 6 7(ionianised)2. Melodicminor(descending):8 7 654 32[1](olian)3. Harmonicminor:12 345 6 7(ionianised)

13. ModeswereoftennamedaftertheregionsornationsofwhichtheywereconsideredtypicaltheIonianandDorianmodes,forexample,ortheHijjazandKurdajnas,or,invernacularEuropeanparlance,aGypsyscale.Seealsothesemanticcontortionofinversev.normaldottingaccordingtotheHarvardDictionaryofMusicunder4,pp.45,above.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 13OnlythedescendingmelodicminorcorrespondstoanyoftheotherEuropeanheptatonicmodes.Thepointisthatinconventionalmusictheory,tonalvocabulariesusingtheeuroclassicalmajorandionianisedminormodesareoftenqualifiedastonal,asifallothermodeswerenotalsotonal,asiftheirdistinctivetonaltraitswerenotalsodefinedbythewaytheirconstituenttonesareconfiguredinrelationtoatonic.Thatisclearlynonsensebecauseallmodesarebydefinitiontonalinthattheyconsistoftones.Theyarealsotonicalbecausetheyaredefinedbythewayinwhichtheirconstituenttonesareconfiguredinrelationtoatonic.14

Conversely,theionianmode,themostcommontonalvocabularyintheeuroclassicalrepertoire,israrely,ifever,consideredamodebecause,Iveheardpeoplesay,itstonal,notmodal!Thistautologicaltravestynotonlyethnocentricallyrelegatesmodalitytoastateofalteritydivergentfromaunilaterallydeclaredtonalnorm;also,byexcluding the ionian from therealmofmodality, itpreventsusfrominvestigatingwhichparticularcharacteristicsofthatmodemayhaveledtoitsgeneraladoptionandpopularityinEuropeintheseventeenththroughnineteenthcenturies.

HereitisworthrememberingthatonlytwoofthesevenEuropeanheptatonicchurchmodes(ionianandlydian)containraisedsubtonics(leadingnotes, )and,intermsofharmony,thatonlytheionianmodefeaturestertialmajortriadsontheprime,theperfectfourthand theperfect fifth.Did the semitonalpull towards thetonictriadofnotesinsidetheothertwotertialmajortriads,onedescending( inIVIorV I),theotherascending( inVI),makeforastrongertypeoftonaldirectionalitythanthosefoundinotherEuropeanheptatonicmodes?Did thepopularityof the ionianmode,withits ,leadtoalterationofthesubtonicintwooftheeuroclassicaltraditionsthreeminormodevariants?Didtheionianmodes two leadingnotes,one rising ( )and theotherfalling( ),makeitmoreconducivetomodulationthanotheravailablemodes?Couldanyofthoseothermodeshaveeverledtothedevelopmentofextensionalharmonicnarrative,as in theso

14. Seesectiononmonomodality/bimodality,p.19,ff.

14 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)nataformofthefirstmovementinaBeethovensymphony?Icannotansweranyof thesequestionsbut Ialso fail toseehowanylightcanbeshedonsuchmattersiftheionianisnotconsideredasonemodeamongseveral.

Theterminologicalappropriationoftonaltorefertojustonesetoftonalpracticesduringabriefperiodinthehistoryoftheworldssmallestcontinentis,tosaytheleast,problematic.Thefalsedichotomy tonalv.modal isoneexampleof theconfusion, the termspretonalandposttonalanother,sincetheybothpatentlyimplythatmedievalandearlyRenaissancemusic(pre)isasdevoidoftonesas twelvetonemusic (posttonal, atonal,etc.).Andwhatabout theanhemitonicpentatonicism inwidespreaduseallovertheplanetbefore,duringandafterthesocalledtonalperiod,orof the continuedpopularityof tertial ionianharmony in todayssupposedlyposttonalera?ThishijackingoftonalhasobviousrepercussionsonthenotionofTONALITY.

Tonality,Grammaticality,Tonart,Tonalit

TONALITY isstillusedbysomescholarsofmusic todenote thepracticestheyconsidertonalintherestrictivesensejustcriticised.Usedinthatway,tonalityreferstoonesystem,andoneonly,accordingtowhichtonesareconfigured.ImagineifGRAMMATICALITYcouldonlyrefertothegrammaticalrulesofjustonelanguageorgroupoflanguages,forexampletoEnglishortoNeoLatinandGermanic languages, inwhichcorrectuseofdefiniteand indefinitearticlesisacentralelementofgrammaticality.SuchrestrictiveuseofthetermwouldmeanthatChinese,Farsi,Hindi,Indonesian,Japanese,Russianandhundredsofotherwidelyspokenlanguageswhichusenodefinitearticleswouldnotbeconsideredgrammatical.Suchanimplicationwouldprovokeuproaramongcomparative linguists but I have yet to register much uproar amongmusicologistsagainstanequallyrestrictiveuseofthewordTONALITY.ThatswhyIproposethatTONALITYshouldmeanthesystemorsetofnormsaccordingtowhichtonesareconfiguredinanymusicalculture.However,evenifthatmuchlessethnocentricdefinitionsolvesoneimportantproblem,itraisesanother.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 15ThebroaderdefinitionjustpresentedworkswellinEnglishandinGermaniclanguageswhereTONALITY/TONALITTisdistinguishedfrom the conceptofKEY/TONART. InNeoLatin languages,however, TONALIT, TONALIT, TONALITATE, TONALIDAD and TONALIDADEtendtomeanKEY/TONARTratherthanTONALITY/TONALITTwhich, consequently, requires another expression to clarify thedistinction.Asanativeanglophone Iamhardly inaposition toadvisespeakersofCatalan,French,Italian,Spanish,PortugueseorRomanian how TONALITY/TONALITT should be translated but Iused to suggested to students at the francophoneUniversitdeMontralwhowereuncomfortableusingTONALITinbothsensesthattheymightconsider,atleastasastopgapsolution,anexpression like IDIOME TONAL or SYSTME TONAL to cover the conceptTONALITY/TONALITTandsticktothemorecommonuseofTONALITasequivalenttotheAngloGermanicconceptofKEY/TONART.Irealisehowunsatisfactory thissuggestionmaybeandwouldbegratefultohearsuggestionsfromcolleaguesinIberia,Italy,LatinAmerica,Romaniaandthefrancophoneworldastohowthisconceptualproblemmightberesolved.15

Morenorms

Theconfusionandculturallyrestrictivecharacterofcentralconceptsreferringtotonalityinconventionalmusictheoryrunsdeepinthedetailsofstructuraldescription.IvealreadymentionedtheproblemsofTONAL,ATONALandTONICAL,aswellofTERTIALandQUARTAL.Iwillendthispartofmytextwithaverybriefaccountof two interrelatedproblems: harmonic cadence nomenclature andmonomodality.

Harmoniccadencenomenclature

Therearefourmainharmoniccadencetypes intheconventionaltheoryofeuroclassicalmusic.Twoofthosecadencetypestakeone

15. ThankstoLuanaStan(Iai/Montral)whoinformedme(20111204)thatinRomaniasistemtonaldenotessolelyeuroclassicalioniantonalityincontradistinctiontoothertonalitiessuchassistematonal,asintwelvetonemusic(!),andsistemmodal(allthosenontonalmodes!).IfsimilarlymuddleheadednotionsexistinotherNeoLatinlanguagesthisproblemwillnotbeeasilysolved.

16 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)stepflatwards,theothertwoonestepsharpwardsroundthecircleof fifths. The centrality of the flatwardsV I PERFECT or FINALCADENCE in euroclassical tonalityneedsno introductionbut thethreeotherswarrantsomediscussionthatcanshedlightonconceptualproblemswiththenomenclatureofallfourtypes.ThetwocadenceswhichproceedclockwiseroundthecircleoffifthsaretheHALForIMPERFECTCADENCEandthePLAGALCADENCE.ThesecondanticlockwisetypeisusuallycalledanINTERRUPTEDCADENCE.

The HALF CADENCE is so called because itmarks the harmonicchangefromItoVincommonharmonicschemeslikeI V V Ioveraperiodof,say,four,eightorsixteenbarsinwhichVistheobvioushalfwayhouse.Atypicalhalfcadence,asinbars34ofexample2,whichproceedsfromItoV,isacadencebecauseitmarksarestingpointonadifferentchordtowhateverprecdesit;anditishalfbecauseitmarksthatchangehalfwaythroughalongerharmonicscheme,suchastheeightbarperiodofex.2.Itisanimperfectcadencebecause, ina tonalcontextof ionian tertiality, ithasno finality.Bymarking theendofaphraseor smallerpartofalargerunit,ofwhichhalfisstilltocome,ithastheoppositeeffectoftheperfectcadenceV I.Putsimply,halforimperfectcadences(I V) in ioniantertialtonalityserverathertoopenupharmonicprocessesandperfectcadences(V I)toclosethem.16

Ex. 2. Half/imperfect cadence : E viva Espaa (Vrethammar, 1973).

16. CadencesuspendueandcadenzasospesaaretheFrenchandItaliannamesforhalfcadence:harmoniccompletionhasbeensuspended,lefthangingintheair.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 17Ex. 3. Mila moja (A section; Serbian trad., quoted from memory)

However,thenotionthatI Vcadencesareintrinsicallyimperfect,incompleteorsuspendedobviouslymakesnosenseinexample3,withitsfermataandFineonthefinalA.Ofcourse,itsdoubtfulifAisactuallyaVchordatall.Itcertainlycantbeadominantifitsthepiecesfinalharmonicrestingplace.ThatinturnbegsthequestionastowhetherthetuneisinDor .Itsmorelikelyconceivedaccordingtodifferenttonalnorms.Maybeitsinboth and ?17

Like their imperfect cousins, PLAGALCADENCESalso run clockwiseround thecircleof fifths,butnot fromI toV. Instead theytakethesinglesharpwardsstepIV I.Sincetheyendonthetonic,plagalcadencesinvolveharmonicclosure,asisevidentfromtheiruseastheAMENchordformulaparexcellence.Thatsaid,itssignificant thatmedievalmusic theorists chose theLatinword foroblique (plagius, from plgio meaning sideways, slanting,askance,misleadingthe sameetymological connotationsas inplagiarism) to distinguish certainmodes, not chords, from theirauthentic variants. Its also interesting to note how the sameadjectiveconnotingfalsitycametoqualifythechordalAmenending IV I.Plagal cadencesmay in otherwords be endings butconventionalmusictheorydoesnotqualifythemastrue,authentic,direct,complete, full, finalorperfect.ThoseadjectivesareofcoursereservedfortheperfectcadenceV I.

INTERRUPTEDCADENCES ineuroclassical tonalitydoexactlywhattheirnamesuggests:theyinterruptaV IcadencebysubstitutingIwithacloselyrelatedchord,usuallythecommontriadondegree6 of the relevant key,V vi, or sometimesV VI, or, less commonly,V VI.ProceedingfromVtovi(orVI)isofcourseanefficientway of interrupting euroclassical finality because, in thattonal tradition, vi orVI leads anticlockwise round the circle of

17. Seecommentsaboutmonomodalityandbimodality(p.19,ff.).

18 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)fifths, via ii or II back toV again and the FINAL/FULL/PERFECTCADENCEV I. Its also significant how the interrupted cadence(V vi) is referred to inotherEuropean languagesas deceptive(cadence trompeuse, Trugschluss, cadenza dinganno), broken(cadencerompue)andavoided(vite).18

Ifanythingdemonstrates the normalityofV I closure in conventionalnotionsofeuroclassicalharmony itmustsurelybe thedistinctionbetweenqualifierslike,ontheonehand,HALF,INCOMPLETE,PLAGAL/OBLIQUE, INTERRUPTED,DECEPTIVEandFALSE;and,ontheother,PERFECT/FINAL/FULL(V I).However

Ex. 4. Uninterrupted final cadence on vi: Um Um Um Um Um (Wayne Fon-tana and the Mindbenders, 1964): final refrain and ending.

Iveincludedexample4asevidencethatthereneedbenothinginterrupted, oblique, deceptive, false, unauthentic, incomplete, orimperfectabouta finalcadence landingonvi (F m), therelativeminor triad of the songs previous tonal centre (I inAmajor).Theresevenaritenutoandchangeofrhythmicarticulationtounderlinefinality |insteadoftheusual .19Inshort,euroclassicalcadencecategoriesandassumptionsaboutharmonicdirectionmaybefineforthemusicalculturalpracticesonwhichsuch conceptualisation is based but it is absurd to assume thatthosecategoriesandconceptsapplytoanyotherbodyofmusic

Tomakethispointquiteclear,example5presentsanunambiguously uninterrupted final melodic cadence from pretonal(!)times.Thatsfollowedbytwoequallyuninterruptedinterruptedcadencesfromposttonal(!)times(examples5and7).20

18. Trompeuse,rompue,viteareFrench,TrugschlussisGermanandingannoItalian.19. UmUmUmUmUmwaswrittenbyCurtisMayfieldandfirstrecordedby

MajorLance(1963).TheversesareresoundinglyinAmajoras,indeed,isthefirsthalfofeachrefrain.TheLanceoriginalendswithafadeoutbuttheFontanacoverleavesnodoubtabouttheidentityofthetunesfinalchord.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 19Ex. 5. Psalm tone 2 (end of final Gloria Patri simplified)

Ex. 6. Beatles: Not A Second Time (1963c: uninterrupted olian cadence and I-vi/ III-i shuttle in fade-out)

Ex. 7. Los Calchakis: Quiquenita (Argentinian trad.); La flte indienne, 1968) bimodal loop: VII III V i or IV I III vi?

Monomodality

Whileexamples4and5 illustratefinal uninterruptedcadences,examples5and7donot:theyaresimplyuninterruptedandcarrynodefinitesenseoffinality.TheBeatlestune(ex.5)fadesoutoverashuttlebetweenGmajorandEminorandalthough theactualFlteindiennerecording(ex.7)endsonEminoritcouldgoonrepeatingtheloop CGBEm inaeternam.Now,studentsofconventionalmusic theory are expected to identify the key of anytonicalmusictheyareaskedtoanalyse.Oneobviousclueineuro

20. Thecontradictoryexpressionuninterruptedinterruptedcadenceisintendedtohighlighttheabsurdityofapplyingeuroclassicalcadencenomenclaturetononeuroclassicalmusics.Preandposttonalareincludedhereasjokesonthosenonsensicalterms.

20 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)classicalmusicisofcoursethefinalchordofthepiecebutinexample4 thatcluewouldbequitemisleadingbecause therecordingspendsmoretimeinAmajorthanF minorevenifitcadenceseachverseandthewholeperformanceonthelatter.WiththefadeoutoveraGEmshuttleinexample5andwiththeconstantloopofexample7thenotionofasingletonicbecomesevenmoreuntenable.AsCarlosVeganoted(1944:160)withreferencetocriollosong:

Nohaymelodiasenmayorymelodiasenminor:haysimplementemelodiasbimodales.21

BimodalityiscommoninmanypopularstylesfromLatinAmericaandtheBritishIsles.ApartfromtheIvior IIIishuttleofexamples5and7,anothervariantofharmonicbimodality inLatinAmericaisthefamiliarharmonicminorloop i iv V V (e.g.F mBmC inex.8,b.112)which,whenthepolesarereversedfromascendingtodescending(e.g.F mEDC ,ex.7,b.1316)becomesaphrygiansequenceinC (iv III II I).22

Ex. 8. Carlos Puebla: Hasta la victoria (1965): olian and phrygian.

Thenextexample(no.9,p.21) iscloser tomyhome (Yorkshire)andprovidesadifferentslantontheissueofbimodality.Whatisthetonalityofthistune?Whatkeyormodeisitin?Well,ifthestartandendingplus therecurrenceofopenfifth dyads (C5) in theguitarpart(bars1,3,7,11,15,16)areanythingtogoby,itsin .

21. =Therearenomajorandminortunes:therearejustbimodaltunes.22. Formoreonolian/phrygianreversibility,seeTagg(2009a:227234).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 21Ex. 9. Steeleye Span: The Female Drummer (Eng. trad., rec. 1971)23

SomeofmymusicstudentshaveonfirstlisteningheardthetuneasCdorian,eventhoughnothird,neither nor ,occursanywhereintherecording:itmightjustaswellbemixolydianwithnomajorthird.Inshort,nooneintheclassroom,includingmyself,isreallysurehowthepiecestonalityshouldbedenoted.Apparentlyhexatonic( )andneithermajornorminor,itdefiesdescriptionusing thesortofeuroclassicalmusic theorymostofushavelearnt.Onewayoutofthisconceptualimpasseistoconsiderthetuneashavingtwomodes,eachbasedonitsowntonalcentre:[1]asananhemitonicpentatonicscalebasedonthetonic( )andin

23. =open5thdyad , = etc.Thetune,assungandasplayedonfiddle,variesslightlyfromversetoverse.Themelodiclineshowninex.9isgenericfortherecordingasawhole.Thewordsarethoseofverse1only.

22 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)cludingheptatonicscaledegrees1,2,4,5and 7( );[2]asapentatonicmajormodebasedon the firstmodessubtonic ( )andincludingthesamefivenotes( )inrelationtothatas(heptatonic)scaledegrees1,2, 3,5and 6,plustheadditionalhexatonic 7( )asunstressedneighbouringnotetothecounterpoiseon .24Table 2. Configuration of tonal poles in The Female Drummer (ex. 9)

AsshowninTable2,thefirstmode,basedon ,occupiesbars1,3,7,11,15and16(6of16=37%),whilethesecondmode,withitstonalcentre ,isheardinbars2,4(includingthefinal inbar3),5, 10, 12 (including the upbeat) and 13 (166 = 37%).Thatleavesbars6,8,9and14(25%)whichtheguitaristmarkswitheitherthefifthabove ( inbars6,8and14)orthefifthabove (inbar9).ThissortoffluctuationbetweentwotonalpolesthatIcallthe(MAIN)TONICandtheCOUNTERPOISE( and inexample9)istypicalformanytunesfrompreindustrialBritainandIreland.25Itcanbeconfiguredinalargevarietyofwaystogenerateinterestingpatternsoftonalmovementandofperiodicityregularorirregu

24. Thesecondarymodemighttheoreticallyalsobelydian,butIamunawareofanytraditionalmelodyfromtheBritishIslesbeinginthatmode.

bar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

tonalpole 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16

25. Anotherissuewithex.9isthatmyfrancophoneMontralstudentsoftenidentifieditasIrishorCeltic,eventhoughtheballad,traceablebacktothe1790s,wascollectedbyPercyGraingerfromaYorkshiresinger(c.1910;rec.A.L.LloydandTheWatersonsin1965)anddespitetheprominenceofunambiguouslyEnglishwordsinthelyricslikeYorkshire,LondonandtheTower[ofLondon].FormoreaboutthisveryEnglishsong,seeThePrettyDrummerBoy/FemaleDrummerat mainlynorfolk.info/watersons/songs/theprettydrummerboy.htmlandSoldierMaidat fresnostate.edu/folklore/ballads/DTsoldma.html [131229].ThewidespreadNorthAmericannotionofIrish/CeltictonalityaspositivelyotherandofEnglishmusicasnegativelyhegemonicandEuropeanisofcoursehighlyproblematic(seeScotchSnaps:TheBigPicture(Tagg,2011a)).

http://mainlynorfolk.info/watersons/songs/theprettydrummerboy.htmlhttp://www.fresnostate.edu/folklore/ballads/DTsoldma.htmlhttp://www.fresnostate.edu/folklore/ballads/DTsoldma.html

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 23lar,equalorunequalthat,judgingfromthedifficultyImhavingindescribingthephenomenon,seemstohavenoreadystructuraldescriptors.

Moreover,whiletheB mode( withouttheadditional )has two relatively familiar namesanhemitonicMAJOR PENTATONIC or, to use Kodlys terminology, DOHPENTATONIC, thepentatonicmodeon inexample9 isvirtuallyunknownintonaltraditionswherethepresenceofheptatonicscaledegree3isessential.Containingscaledegrees1,2,4,5and 7,itsneithermajornorminorbut,asshowninTable3andcontinuingwithKodlysnamingsystem,RPENTATONIC(rmisolladoh).Itcovers to ontheblacknotesofapianokeyboard( )or to ( )onthewhitenotes.Andwhataboutthemel

odyinbars6,8,9and14,noneofwhichcanbeunequivocallyassignedtoeitherrpentatonicmode1ortohexatonicallyextendeddohpentatonicmode2evenifthetuneinthosebarstheoreticallyfitsboth?AreweperhapshearingpartofaGminorpentatonicmode(lapentatonicon )inbars6,8and14,andanFmajorpentatonicmode (dopentatonicon ) inbar9?Theguitaristclearlyseemstobehearingthingsthatwayinthosebars.Thequestionishow thesevariantsof the twounderlyingpentatonicmodesandtheshiftsintonalnuancetheyproduceshouldbedenoted.Idontknow.Doesanybody?

Table 3. The five anhemitonic pentatonic modes

Numerousotherquestionsofstructuraldesignationarisefromtheproblemsjustdiscussed.Forexample:

Modename Blacknotesonly Heptatonicscaledegrees Whitenotes

dohpentatonic [ ] [8] [ ]

rpentatonic [ ] [8] [ ]

mipentatonic [ ] [8] d[ ]

solpentatonic [ ] [8] [ ]

lapentatonic [ ] [8] [ ]

24 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) Howdothetwothirdlessanhemitonicpentatonicmodesonsolandr( and respectivelyonthepianosblacknotes)relatetoprinciplesofquartalharmony?

Howcandifferentquartalchordsbedenoted,alsoinabbreviatedform,insteadofbeingmistakenlyidentifiedintertialtermslikesus4whenharmonicsuspensionisneitherintendednorheard?AreindicationslikeC5(openfifthdyad ),orC4,5(triad ),C2,5(triad ),C4,5, 7(tetrad )ofanyuse,orcansuchchordsbelabelledmoreefficiently?

Whydohexatonicmodesseemtolacklabelswheneachofthesevendiatonicheptatonicmodeshasitsownname?

CouldtheGuidonianhexachordbeofanyuseinthesystematisationofhexatonicmodesand,ifso,how?OrshouldwebethinkingintermsofArabic,PersianorEuropeanmedievaltetrachords,orofhandshapesonstringedinstruments?

HowusefulmightGlareanshypomodesbeinunderstandingthedifferenttypesofbimodalityofexamples49?

CouldtheconceptsofvadiandsamvadiinthetheoryofclassicalmusicfromNorthernIndiabeappliedinanyusefulwaytothedynamicbetweenwhatIcallmaintonicandcounterpoise?

WhatdowecalltertialioniantonalityintheeuroclassicaltraditionandhowdoweconceptuallydistinguishitfromthetertialioniantonalityoftuneslikeLaBambaorGuantanamera?

Idonthaveanswerstoanyofthesequestionsandlookforwardtosuggestionsfromothersstrugglingwithsimilarproblems.

FormSyntaxanddiataxisAccording to theOxfordConciseEnglishDictionary (1995), FORMmeanstheshapeorpatternintowhichdifferentpartsorelementsarearranged,ordered,orotherwisecombinedintoawhole.Forexample,thethreewordsinthetwosentencesTimhitTomandTomhitTimhave thesame formsubject verb objectbutdifferentmeanings. In this instance form isamatterofEnglishlanguagesyntaxcreatedbypresentingtheconstituentelementsinaparticularorder.Syntaxalsoexistsinmusicinthat,forexample,melodicphrasesconsistofatleasttwomotifs(Tagg,2000a:289295).

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 25Ex. 10.Mozart: Symphony no. 40 in G minor (K550), I: (a) start of first theme; (b) commutation using same syntax; (c) different syntax

Examples10aand10bare,asmeaningfulstatements,asdifferentasTimhitTomisfromTomhitTim.Atthesametime,justlikeTimhitTomandTomhitTim,examples10aand10bshareacommonsyntaxconsistingofarepeatedinitialmotiffollowedbyadifferentterminalmotifhighlightedbytheprecedingrepetition.26Example10c,on theotherhand,usesanothersyntax featuring initialandterminalmotifsofequaldurationwithoutrepetition.Itsadifferentmusicalstatementnotjustintermsoftheorderingbutalsooftherelativeimportanceofitsconstituentelements.

Now,despitethedictionarydefinitionofform,conventionalWesternmusictheoryrarelyconsiderssuchaspectsofsyntaxintermsof form. Instead itusesFORMalmostexclusively todesignate thewayinwhichepisodesorsectionsratherthanmotifsareorderedalongtheunidirectionalaxisofpassingtimetocreateextensionalpatternsofmusical change and recurrence like sonata formorrondo form. This longterm, linear, episodic, horizontal ordiachronicsortofformneedstobedistinguishedfromtheshorttermhorizontal typeof form (syntax)operative in theconstructionofmusicalphrases.DIATAXISwastheleastambiguouswordIcould find tomark thatdistinction between those two types ofform.27Butthatisneithertheonlynormostimportantreasonfor

26. SeePropulsivereiterationinTagg(2013:518520).27. Diataxis[ ;fr.Gk.)meansorderofserviceinByzantine

Orthodoxliturgy.Asachronologicalorderingofconstituentepisodesintoanoverallform,diataxiscanbeusedtodesignatewhatconceptslikesonataformandthe32barAABAjazzstandardhaveincommon.Seealsoftnt.31,p.28.

26 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)havingtocomeupwithanewterm.ContemplatingabushmayhelpexplainwhytheneologismwasnecessarySyncrisis

The bush on the left is shaped like amushroom.Itsconstituentelementsbranches, twigs, leaves, etc. havebeenintentionallycutandtrimmed(arranged)intoaparticularFORM.Itmayhavetakenyearstoproducethatformbut its perception as a mushroomformisprettyimmediate.

Forminconventionalpainting,sculptureandphotographyhasnodiachronicaspectbecauseperceptionof its constituentelementsdoesnotunfoldovertime,asinmusic,danceorfilm.Forminthevisualartsisusuallycalledcomposition28andreferstothesynchronicarrangementofaworksconstituentelementswhichare,sotospeak,fixedonthecanvas,orinthesculptureorphoto.Neither those elements nor the form inwhich they are presentedchangeonceyoustartviewingthework,evenifyouinterpretthemdifferentlythelongerormoreattentivelyyoulook,orifyouviewthework inadifferentcontextorunderdifferentcircumstances.Amongtheparametersdefiningform(composition)inthevisualartsaresize,proportion,perspective,positioningandorientationofconstituentelements,theviewerspointandangleofentry,colour,negativespace,contrast,symmetryandlighting.

Severalof theparameters justenumeratedarerelevanttomusic,notleastthesynchronicplacementandrelativeimportanceofconstituentelements.AsIvesuggestedelsewhere(Tagg,2013:235),explanationsofmusicalsemiosisneedtoconsiderseveralindividuallymeaningfullayersthatsoundsimultaneously.Thesecompositelayersofsimultaneouslysoundingmusemesmusemestacksconstituteformwithinthelimitsoftheextendedpresent.29

28. Sincecompositionhasaparticularmeaninginmusicstudiesthemusicalworkitcannotbeusedtodenotemusicalform,sincethatisonlyoneaspectof(musical)composition.

Fig. 1. Mushroom bush

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 27Themuseme stack shown as example 11 lasts four seconds (8beatsat =120),wellwithinthelimitsoftheextendedpresent.Itsheard16times,withafewvariations,intherecordingbeforeitsreplacedbyaslightlydifferentgroove.Ithasbydefinitionaformbecause it contains several constituent elementsthe onguitarandbass, onviolinsandflute, ontrombonesplus hihat and kickdrumpatterns (not shown) all arrangedintoan identifiablewhole (Gestalt) that repeatsasa singleunit.Thissortof form isneithershorttermsyntaxnordiataxis.Sinceitsperceptiblewithin the limitsof theextendedpresenttypicallyasacompositeofaurallystaged, simultaneouslysoundingmotifs, riffs, chords, instruments, voices, timbres, pitches,rhythms,etc. inaparticularmetreataparticular speedanddBlevelitcanbeconsideredsynchronic.

Ex. 11.Museme stack (excl. drumkit) in Shaft (Isaac Hayes, 1971)30

29. EXTENDEDPRESENT(a.k.a.presenttimeexperienceand,misleadingly,speciouspresent).Asadurationtheextendedpresentlastsnolongerthanamusicalphrase(exhalation),orafewfootsteps,orashortgesturalpattern,orafewheartbeats.Itsadurationexperiencedasasingleunit(Gestalt)inpresenttime,asnowratherthanasanextendedsequenceofmusicalideas.TheextendedpresentcanalsobeimaginedasthehumanbrainsequivalenttoacomputersRAMwhereinformationisprocessedimmediately,ratherthanasitsharddrive(longertermmemory)whereaccessandretrievaltimesarelonger.Forfurtherexplanations,seeTagg(2013:1920,272273,588).

30. Theextractstartsat1:44intherecording.TranscriptioninDavis(2005:299).

28 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)Moreover, since stacking (as in museme stack) implies heightratherthanlength(musemestring),thissynchronictypeofmusicalformcanalsobethoughtofasmorevertical thanhorizontal,moreintensionalthanextensional.Ittakestheformofastatemorethanofaprocessornarrative,eventhoughitcancontainelementsof shortterm syntax. If this sort of form, a composite of nowsounds, isneither syntaxnordiataxis,what canwe call it? IveoptedforthewordSYNCRISIS.31

Summary(form)To summarise, its essential to consider at least three types ofmusicalform.Idistinguishbetweenthemasfollows.1. SYNTAXdenotesaspectsofformandsignificationbearingon

thetemporalrelationshipofconstituentelements.Itusuallycoverstheshorttermorderingofelementsinsidetheextendedpresent.

2. DIATAXISisthelongterm,diachronic,processual,episodicandextensionalorderingofeventsoverdurationsexceedingthatoftheextendedpresent.ItcanbethoughtofintermsofoverallNARRATIVEFORM,32andashorizontalratherthanvertical.InconventionalWesternmusictheorydiataxisisusuallycalledform,asifnoothertypeofmusicalformexisted.

3. SYNCRISISdenotesaspectsofformandsignificationbearingonthesynchronic,intensional,arrangementofstructuralelementsinsidetheextendedpresent.Itcancontainelementsofshorttermsyntaxandbethoughtofasverticalstackingratherthanasahorizontalarray.

31. SYNCRISIS[ ],fromAncientGreek,meansaputtingtogether,anaggregate,combination,etc.,fromtheverb=tocombine,compound,etc.WhilenativespeakersofEnglishmighthavepreferredexpressionslikestackformornowformtosyncrisis,andstringformornarrativeformorepisodicformtodiataxis,thosemorepopularsoundingtermshavethreedisadvantages:[1]theyarelonger;[2]theyarenoteasytouseadjectivallyoradverbially(unlikesyncritic[ally]ordiatactical[ly]);[3]theyaremoredifficulttotranslatesatisfactorilyintootherlanguages.

32. NARRATIVEn.aspokenorwrittenaccountofeventsinorderofhappening.MUSICALNARRATIVEmeanstheoverallpresentationofmusicaleventsinorderofhappening.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 29ConventionalWesternmusictheorysconceptualmonopolisationof form issimilar to itshijackingof tonality.Themaindifferenceisthatwhiletheconceptualfalsificationoftonalitygivesrise,asIexplainedearlier,toaseriouslyflawedterminologytonalversusatonal,modal,pretonal,posttonal,etc.,itsinabilityorreluctancetodealwithtypesofformotherthandiataxisconstitutes an errorof conceptual omission.Particularlyworrying is itsneglectofSYNCRISIS,moreprecisely the theoretical traditions failuretoconceptualiseFORMasanimportantdynamic,kinetic,synchronic, intensional, textural, tactile, spatial or vertical statecontainedwithin the extended present (syncrisis).33 There is inotherwordsnogoodreasonwhynarrativeprocessesinmusic(diataxis) should be prioritised at the expense ofmusics dynamicstates(syncrisis),especiallyinrelationtomusicswherethelatter,ratherthantheformer,isofprimaryinterest.

Sowhat?AlthoughIvetriedtosuggestsolutionstosomeoftheproblemsdiscussed above, much of this text consists of questions andDONTKNOWs.Ivebeenunableheretodiscussthedescriptionoftimbre,vocalpersona,orperiodicityandIvedonenomorethanskim issues of tonality and form.There are clearlymanymoreissuesofstructuralconceptualisationlefttoconfront.

Ihopeneverthelesstoatleasthaveclarifiedhowunreasonableandmisleadingitistousetermslikedominant,subdominant,perfectcadence,half cadenceand interrupted cadencewhendescribingtonalityinthecountlesspiecesofwidelyheardmusicinmixolydian,dorian,olianorphrygianmodes,wherehalfcadencesandinterruptedcadencesareoftenfinal,andwheremajortertialtriadsonscaledegree5(V)areeitheralteredfrommodespecificminortriadsornonexistent?Inmixolydian,dorianandolianrockharmony, for example, a dominant tertial triad ismost likelybasedonthefourth(IV,thesubdominantineuroclassicalmusic

33. SeeTagg(2013:272273,383385,chapter12,esp.pp.417425).Thenotionoftexturecoversnomorethanoneaspectofsyncrisis.

30 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)theory) and a subdominant chord on the unaltered subtonic( VII)which,accordingtothemusictheoryIwastaught,apparentlyeitherhasnofunctionorisasubdominanttothesubdominantwhichcannotexistbecausethereisnodominanttowhichitcanreasonablybesub.Inshort,difficultiesinthestructuraldesignationofnoneuroclassicaltonicalitycanbecrippling.Itoughtalsotobeclearthatnotionsofformareproblematicbecause,aswejustsaw,onlyoneofthreemaincategoriesdiataxisqualifiesasforminconventionalmusictheory,whiletheothertwosyntaxandsyncrisisareatbestsidelined,moreoftenignored.

Butdotheseproblemsreallymatter?,objectsmypopulistmusoalterego. Afterall,heargues, weretalkingaboutmusicthat isplayed,heardandfelt.Andbesides,hesays,ifyoustarttocodifyityoull just endupwith another setof fixed rules that canbetaughtyearafteryearintheacademy.Thatllbenobetterthanthesystemyourecurrentlycriticising.

Mymusiciandevilsadvocateisbothrightandwrong.Hesrightto point out the dangers of institutionalised codification butwrongtosingleoutcodificationratherthanitsinstitutionalisationas the problem. Obviously, codified rules extrapolated fromexistingpracticeseasilybecomefixedandnormativeiftheyareused tomaintain a status quo of power established after theirintroduction into the institution.Amongmechanisms conduciveto such entrenchmentare: [1]managerial inertiaand shorttermcostcutting (the same courseswith the same teacher is cheaperandlesshassle);[2]notgivingteachersenoughtimeforresearchand innovation (itsmoreprofitable to teachmorestudentswithfewer teachers); [3]discouragingormarginalising teacherswhomightupset the apple cart; [4]preoccupationwith leaguetablescams that force institutions to conform toa relativelyhomogenous setofactivities soas to facilitate comparisonona scaleofquantifiable excellence (a conservativemechanism intrinsic tothemagicmarkets credo of free competition). In addition tothosefourpointsitshouldalsoberememberedthatteachersandresearchershavetoearnalivingbyworkinginsuchinstitutions,

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 31thattheyneedtopaytheirrentormortgage,sendtheirchildrentoschool,etc.,and thata few colleaguesmayhavepersonalproblems relating to careerism, selfaggrandisement, financial gain,positionsofpower,etc.Allthesefactorsmeanthattheriskofepistemicentrenchmentandinertiaishigh.Indeed,mymusoalteregoisrightinthatsuchmechanismsofinstitutionalisationareprerequisitesfortheterminologicalchaoscriticisedinthisarticle.However,asItrytoexplainbywayofconclusion,noneofthismeansthatnecessaryterminologicalreformiseitherdangerousorpointless.Onthecontrary.

Ifthetonalandformalpracticesofmusicotherthantheeuroclassicalanditsoffshootsremainuncodified,theterminologyofconventionaleuroclassicalmusic theorywill stayunchallengedandcontinue tomarginalise, trivialise or falsify any type ofmusicexhibitingimportanttraitsforwhichithaseitherflawedconceptsornoconceptsatall.Notonlywould thatprolong theundemocratic disrespect and ethnocentric ignorance it seems to showtowardssomanymusicsusedbyamajorityoftheworldspopulation; itwouldalso,as Iarguedearlier,obstructefforts tounderstandwhatmade themusical tradition onwhich it based thatsameterminologybothinterestingandinfluential.Moreover,eventhoughnoone canpossiblyunderstand everymusical traditionexistingatanytimeanywhereintheworld,lessinadequateconceptsofmusicalstructurationcanatleastgiveusabetterchanceofunderstandinghowdifferenttypesofmusicactuallywork.Forexample,insightintothedynamicsofphrygiantertialharmony,asusedby flamenquistaslikeSabicas(n.d.),orbyCarlosPueblaandhissonmusicians(ex.8),orbyChileancuecaurbanabandLosTrukeros(2007),orbyawholehostofpopularmusiciansintheBalkans, couldhavepreventedat leastoneotherwisegiftedyoungguitaristfromattachinganextra perfectcadence(E Am)totheendofamalagueaperformancethathehadalreadyendedwitharesoundinglyfinal II Iphrygiancadence(F E),completewithits three simultaneously descending leading semitones (

).34

32 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)FinalreflexionsThisarticlehasdealtwithonlyaverysmallnumberofconceptualproblemsinconventionaleuroclassicalmusictheory.DespitedifficultyinpresentingsomestructuralpointsbecauseIcouldfindnovocabularywithwhichtodesignatethem,Ichosetolimitthediscussiontoafewaspectsoftonalityandformfortwointerrelatedreasons.Thefirstispurelylogisticinthesensethattonalandformalparametersareeasiertoputintothescribalformintrinsictothemedium of this text than are parameters of, say, timbre orauralmiseenscne.Theotherreason isthatconventionalmusictheoryhasdevelopednumeroustermstodenotetonalandformalfeatures specific to the euroclassical repertoire, fewer to denotethoserelatingtotime,speed,rhythm,metre,periodicity,etc.,andfar, far fewer todenoteaspectsof timbreandspatiality.Tonalityandformareinotherwordsareasofstudyinwhichmusictheoristsaresupposed toexcel. Iought inotherwords tobeable toassumethattheywillfullyunderstandwhatIwriteorsayonthetopic.Butwillthey?

Having,inOctober2011,giventhefirstlivepresentationofideascontained in this text,Icanreport thatreactionswere ingeneralencouraging on fourteen of sixteen occasions.35 On one of theother two occasions (a depressingly conservative internationalmusicanalysisconference)Iwasmetwithcompactsilence.Aftermy talk,ahelpful research student toldme in the corridor thatmostparticipantsthoughtIwascausingunnecessarytroubleandthattheyjustwantedtoregressintothebusinessasusualoftheir

34. olianphrygianbimodalityisdiscussedin bTagg(2009a:227234)andillustratedin Tagg(2009b)whichalsoincludesthebizarreperfectcadenceaddon.PhrygianfinalcadencesareofcoursetwoapennyintertiallyharmonisedmusicfromtheBalkan,forexampleinsuchpopularrecordingsasAlexiou/(1976),ErMalyk/(1992),Mlamas/(2006).SeealsobPennanen(1997)ontertialharmonyinGreekrebetikaandlaikamusic.

35. BetweenOctober2011andAugust2013IgavepresentationsrelatingtothistextatconferencesinRome,Edinburgh,GranadaandCceres,aswellatuniversityschoolsofmusicand/ormediainGlasgow,Aarhus,Durham,Newcastle,Liverpool,Lancaster,Nottingham,Huddersfield,Cambridge(AngliaRuskin),Keele,Trento,Turin,Paris,NantesandSantiagodeChile.

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 33ivorytowers.TheothernegativeexperiencewasatapostgraduateseminarinauniversitymusicschoolwhereIspoketoanaudienceof three.On thatoccasionI learntfromoneof the three thatmyideaswerelikelytobeinterpretedasanattackontheauthoritarian intellectualagendapromotedby influentialmembersofstaffat the institution.36 Inboth instances Iwas clearly livingonanepistemicplanetradicallydifferenttothatinhabitedbytheintellectuallyorliterallyabsentaudience.

Theotherfourteenoccasionsweredecidedlylessalienating.ThatdoesnotmeanImetnocriticalcommentsindiscussionsfollowingmypresentation.Forexample,onestudentfearedthatcleaninguptheterminologywouldjustcreateanothersetofuselessrulesthatstudentswouldhavetofollow.Onanotheroccasion,aseniorprofessor of composition expressed adifferent kind of scepsis. Ofcourseyourerightandwhatyousayisperfectlylogical,hesaid,buttheresnotahopeinhellthatanythingwillcomeofit!Thatcomment seemed quite realistic in the light ofwhat Id experiencedonthetwooccasionssketchedonthepreviouspage.Iwas,however,abletoassurehimthatIwouldnotbedissuadedfromeffortstobringsomesemblanceofreasonandsocioethnicjusticeinto the terminology ofmusic theory. Ive drawn considerableencouragement in thisquest from the sort of reactions summarisedbelow.

Atoneseminaranexperiencedteacherrecountedhisembarrassmentathavingtouse,asheputit,thestupidwordatonalwhenteachingcompositionandthehistoryoftwentiethcenturymusic.TONICAL,heagreed,mightsolvethatproblem.Elsewhere,thosewith experience in music outside the euroclassical and avantgardespherestendedtogostraighttotheheartofthematter,severalofthemraisingspecificquestionsaboutdesignatingparticular structural features of noneuroclassical tonality. In fact thediscussionof tonality inTheFemaleDrummer (example9 in this

36. Thetwoconservativeagendaswere:[1]oldstylemusicalabsolutism(seeTagg,2013:83100);[2]1990sstylepoststructuralisttheorising,i.e.thesortofmetacontextualabsolutismcritiquedinTagg(2013:101115).

34 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)text) is largely the result of a question asked in the seminar atGlasgow University and of subsequent email correspondencewiththememberofstaffwhoaskedit.37

AtGlasgow,withitsstrengthsincompositionandperformance,attheAarhusmusicdepartmentwith itsattachment to theuniversitysSchoolofMedia,aswellasonalltheothertwelveoccasions,several teachers and studentswanted to discuss otherways inwhichmusictheorymightbereformed.Ofparticularimportance,theythought,wasthedevelopmentofconceptsdenotingaspectsoftimbre,kinetics,tactilityandspatiality,avocabularyacknowledging thevernacularcompetenceof the listeningmajoritywhoareexposedtoanaveragedailydoseofmusiclastingmorethantwo hours.38 I agreewith them and have elsewhere suggestedwaysinwhichmusicologycancontributetothatsortofdevelopment.39Nevertheless,therecanbe littledoubtthatmusictheory,asitisstillwidelytaught,isinneedofterminologicalreformthatopensuptoallsortsofmusicandthatsuchreformgoeshandinhandwiththeinterdisciplinaryanddemocraticprocessrequestedbymanyofthoseImetwhenspeakingaboutthistopic.

Mostrecently(lateJuly,2013),Isentashortstatementabout theneedforterminologicalreformtotheIASPMemaillist.40Herearejusta fewof thecomments I received from34 individuals in14nations,inanswertothatstatement.

Ivetaughtanalysisinmy[LatinAmerican]universityfor25yearsandIvemetthesameproblemsasyouWeeventriedtosetupamusicalterminologycommissiontenyearsagobut...Iminterestedindevelopingappropriatediscourseforsubtlevariationsofintonationin...traditionalmusicandtryingtobreakfreeofageneralanalyticalhierarchy.Popularmusicshouldneverhavebeentackledasitwere18thcenturywesternartmusic.Idliketosee...aradicalmovementinmultimodalsemioticanal

37. ThankstoDaveMcGuinness( davidmcguinness.com/ [2013-02-18]).38. SeeChapter1inTagg(2013)forstatisticaldetails.39. SeeChapters6(Intersubjectivity),10(NotesonVocalPersona)and12(Ana

lysingFilmMusic)inTagg(2013).Seealsostage5(p.5)inthisarticle.40. IASPM:InternationalAssociationfortheStudyofPopularmusic iaspm.net.

http://www.iaspm.net/http://www.concal.org/david-mcguinness

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 35ysiswhichsweepsawaytheterminologyofEuroAmericanmusicologicaltheoryandstartsfromthework[someauthors]havealreadydoneinpointingoutanegalitarianterminologyforasocialsemioticsofmusic.

MusictheoryitselfneedsrethinkingIminterestedinhowthemusicalvocabularyofotherlanguagesaddressestheseareas.

Iwasraisedinawiderangeofmusicaltraditions.ThenIrecentlystudiedmusicology,sohadtoconfrontallthose[strangeterms]Well,withthe[local/regional/national]musicaltraditionsIknow...Wow!Alotofthosetermsjustdontworkatall.

ImateacherinterestedinthereformofmusicteachinginsecondaryschoolsTheconcepts/elementsofmusicarebecomingmorecentraltomusiceducationandteachersheredontknowwhattheyreallyarenorhowtoteachthem.Imkeentohelpbuildclarityonthis!

IstillfindmyselfemittingsighsofdespairanddisbeliefeachtimeI readorhearTONALopposed toMODAL,TRIADIC insteadofTERTIAL,etc.IalsofinditdepressingtoreadorhearFORMusedtodesignate the order of themusics episodes andnothing else.Thatsaid, I have to admit that Im probably more frustrated withmyselfthanwiththosewhostillperpetuatesuchconceptualfalsehoods because, with my unusually eclectic musical background,41Iwasbetterplacedmuchearlierinlifethanthosewithamore exclusively euroclassical upbringing to register the problemsand to tryand solve them.The fact that it tookmenearlythirtyyearstodosotoanysignificantextentisshamefulandIcanoffernovalid excuse for such sluggishness.However,now thatsomeofthebasicproblemsareoutintheopen,Iwouldurgeeveryone inmusic education and research to think at least twicebeforeapplyinganyconceptofstructuraldesignationtoanytypeofmusicifthoseconceptsderivefromconventionaleuroclassicalmusictheory.Afterall,whereasImayhavebeenunusuallyeclecticin1971,Iam,ifthestudentsIvemetsincethelate1980sareanythingtogoby,nolongertheexceptionbuttherule.Itwouldsimplybeembarrassing,ifnothingelse,formusicstudiestoper

41. Seestage1atthestartofthisarticle(p.2).

36 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)sistwith its illogical, undemocratic, outdated, ethnocentric andmuddleheaded business as usual. I think its high time formusictheorytogrowupandtoembracesocialandmusicalrealitiesinthereallivesofrealpeople.

ReferencesNotesThisappendixcontainsalltypesofreference.

Tosavespace,thefollowingsymbolsareused: bbibliographicalsource(writtenword). audiovisualsource;

DVD; audiosource; YouTubefile.

Pleasealsonotethat:Theprefixisremovedfrominternetreferences. replacesthestringsothat,forexample, rWlt9Is1nmsmeansthecompleteURL.Datesofaccesstomaterialsontheinternet,includingYouTubefiles,areexpressedintheformatyymmddsothat,forexample, [111111]means11November2011,[100521]21May2010,etc.

Listingb AHARONIN,Corin(1992)Identidad,colonialismoyeducacin

musical.Conversacionessobremsica,culturaeidentidad.Montevideo.

b(2002)Introduccinalamsica.Montevideo:Tacuab.

ALEXIOU,Haris[](1976)and.:.MinosEMILabelsound724348013927(2000); zrVwegvso64[131229].

b APEL,Willi(ed.,1958).TheHarvardDictionaryofMusic. Cambridge,MA:HarvardU.P.

BEATLES,The(1963)NotASecondTime.WithTheBeatles. ParlophonePCS3045/PMC1206. glvQ9c3lh4U[131229].

THEBIRDS(1963) Universal Hitchcock BernardHerrmann.

CALCHAKIS,Los(1968)Quinquenita.Laflteindienne. BarclayPanache920014. mpm_QXAotaE(at 19:58) [131229].

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Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 37 COMO,Perry(1946)IfYouWereTheOnlyGirl(InTheWorld)NatDAyer(1916) HMVBD1165 wTD5SxUfEPI [131229].

bDAVIS,Bob(2005)WhoGotdaFunk?AnEtymphonyofFunkfromthe1950sto1979. PhD,Facultdemusique,UniversitdeMontraltagg.org/bookxtrax/DavisFunkPhDv1.pdf [2012-11-15].

b EPMOW(2003)TheContinuumEncyclopediaofPopularMusicoftheWorld,Volume2,ed.JohnShepherd,DavidHorn,DaveLaing,PaulOliverandPeterWicke.London&NewYork:Continuum.

(ErMaluk/Malyk/Malak](Bulgarians)[ ,phrygian]).1(ErMalak1). RTM(Sofia). .ermalak.net/sites/default/files/01.Bulgari_0.mp3[131216].

FONTANA,Wayne[ANDTHEMINDBENDERS](1964)UmUmUmUmUm.FontanaH497 gi3fp2-QYPM[131229];coverof MAJORLANCE(1963)

b HALL,AnneC(1992).ReviewofMeyer(1989q.v.).MusicTheorySpectrum,14/2:209213;Univ.CaliforniaPress/SocietyforMusicTheory |www.jstor.org/stable/746108| [111111].

b THEHARVARDDICTIONARYOFMUSIC(ed.W.Apeletal.,1958)Cambridge,MA:HarvardU.P.

HERRMANN,Bernard(1960)Psycho(Colonnasonoraoriginale).RCACinematreNL33224(1975) Xd_OolN34eA[131229].

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HICKORYDICKORYDOCK(n.d.) A7xYz5P_rCw [111205].

b HINDEMITH,Paul(1961)AComposersWorld.NewYork:Anchor/Doubleday.

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bKRISTEVA,Julia(1988)trangersnousmmes.Paris:Fayard.

b LACASSE,Serge(2000)ListentoMyVoice:TheEvocativePowerofVocalStaginginRecordedRockMusicandOtherFormsofVocalExpression.PhDdiss.,InstituteofPopularMusic,UniversityofLiverpool.www.mus.ulaval.ca/lacasse/texts/THESIS.pdf| [101021].

b LADZEKPO,CK(1995)FoundationCourseinAfricanDanceDrummingBerkeley:UniversityofCalifornia.https://home.comcast.net/~dzinyaladzekpo/Foundation.html [120725].

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38 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)b LING,Jan(1989)Musiksomklassiskkonst.En1700talsidsomblevklassisk.FrihetensformerenvnboktillSvenEricLiedman.Lund:Arkiv:171187[=Musicasclassicalart.An18thcenturyideathatbecameclassical].

MAJORLANCE(1963)UmUmUmUmUm( CurtisMayfield),Okeh47187;alsoonMajorLanceSwinginestHits,CBSP17702(1984).

MLAMAS,Sokrtes(2006)(Princess).//Live,2006.MINOSEMI094639249121 FUjcnSXWUxQ&list=PLA662E323111171C4 [131229]

(TheGuardandtheKing),LyraCD0798(2000).

b MATTELART,Armand;NEVEU,rik(1996)CulturalStudiesStories.Ladomesticationdunepensesauvage?Paris:Rseauxno.80www.cnet. ens-sib.fr/autres-sites/reseaux-cnet/80/01-matte.pdf [110717].

b MEYER,LeonardB(1989)StyleandMusic:Theory,HistoryandIdeology.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.

bPEALOSA,David(2009)TheClaveMatrix:AfroCubanRhythm,itsPrinciplesandAfricanOrigins.Redway,CA:BembeInc.

bPENNANEN,RistoPekka(1997)ThedevelopmentofchordalharmonyinGreekrebetikaandlaikamusic,1930sto1960s.BritishJournalofEthnomusicology,6:65116.

PUEBLA,Carlos(1965)Hastasiempre;CheGuevara.Marchasycancionesrevolucionarias.Arito3310(n.d.,c.1970);alsoonCantarteComandante,EGREMCD0259(1997) jK1_yiBfMTk[131229].

NORMAN,Monty(1962)42ThemefromDrNo(a.k.a.JamesBondTheme);onTheBestofBond,UnitedArtistsUAS29021(1975);tagg.org/audio/DrNoBondVinyl.mp3;seealso mF_6cSads0Eandwww.itunes.apple.com/us/art-ist/john-barry-orchestra/id133904310 [both 100923];alsoDVDDrNo(NTSC)MGM0729845285(n.d.)at0:00:00.

SABICAS(AgustnCastellnCampos,n.d.)Malaguea(withMariaAlbaandCompany) A3Iq0Qs0GAI [131229].

STEELEYESPAN(1971)FemaleDrummer( YorkshireTrad.,viaPercyGrainger,TheWatersonsandBertLloyd).PleasetoSeetheKing.Crest8 Z4XJeZ-wQi0 [131229].

42. Normansauthorshipisnotlegallydisputed,butitspossiblethattheJamesBondThememaybemusicallyasmuchtheworkofJohnBarryandDonBlack.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FUjcnSXWUxQ&list=PLA662E323111171C4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A3Iq0Qs0GAIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4XJeZ-wQi0http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jK1_yiBfMTk

Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29) 39b TAGG,Philip(1979)Kojak:50SecondsofTelevisionMusic.TowardstheAnalysisofAffectinPopularMusic.Gteborg:Musikvetenskapligainstitutionen,Gteborgsuniversitet(outofprint);2nded.(2000):NewYork:MMMSP tagg.org/mmmsp/kojak.html [111111].

b(1989)OpenLetteraboutBlackandWhiteMusic.PopularMusic,8/3:285298;original(1987)isat tagg.org/articles/xpdfs/opelet.pdf [110717].

b(1996)PopularMusicStudiesversustheOther.PaperdeliveredatconferenceMusicandLifeworld.OthernessandTransgressionintheCultureofthe20thCentury.InmemoriamFernandoLopesGraa(Cascais,Dec.1995) tagg.org/articles/xpdfs/cascais.pdf [131229].

b(2009a)EverydayTonality.NewYork&Montral:MassMediaMusicScholarsPress tagg.org/mmmsp/EverydayTonalityInfo.htm [110717].

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b(2011b)LatonalitdituttiigiorniArmonia,modalit,tonalitnellapopularmusic:unmanuale.(ed.FFabbri.,transl.JConti).Milano:IlSaggiatore tagg.org/mmmsp/EverydayTonalityInfo.htm#Tonalita [131229].

b(2013)MusicsMeanings:amodernmusicologyfornonmusos.NewYork&Huddersfield:MassMediaMusicScholarsPress

tagg.org/mmmsp/NonMusoInfo.htm [130216].bTAGG,PhilipandCLARIDA,Bob(2003)TenLittleTitleTunes.NewYork

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b TAMLYN,Garry(1998)TheBigBeatOriginsandDevelopmentofSnareBackbeatandotherAccompanimentalRhythmsinRocknRoll.PhDThesis,2volumes,InstiuteofPopularMusic,UniversityofLiverpool tagg.org/others/TamlynPhD.html [110723].

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40 Tagg: Terminology tonality and form (2013-12-29)

PreliminariesFormal conventionsScope of this textBackgroundSix stages

Tonal terminologyTriads and tertial harmonyUnderlying problem conceptsBasic tonal termsTonal and tonicalTonal and modalTonality, Grammaticality, Tonart, TonalitMore normsHarmonic cadence nomenclatureMonomodality

FormSyntax and diataxisSyncrisisSummary (form)

So what?Final reflexions

ReferencesNotesListing