DevianceDeviance

Chapter 8Chapter 8

What Is Deviance?What Is Deviance?

The word deviance connotes odd or The word deviance connotes odd or unacceptable behavior, but in the unacceptable behavior, but in the sociological sense of the word, sociological sense of the word, deviance is simply any violation of deviance is simply any violation of society’s norms.society’s norms.

Deviance can range from something Deviance can range from something minor, such as a traffic violation, to minor, such as a traffic violation, to something major, such as murder.something major, such as murder.

Relativism and DevianceRelativism and Deviance

Deviance is a Deviance is a relative issue, and relative issue, and standards for standards for deviance change deviance change based on a number based on a number of factors, including of factors, including the following:the following:

1: 1: LocationLocation 2: 2: AgeAge 3: 3: Social statusSocial status 4: 4: Individual Individual

societiessocieties

Deviant TraitsDeviant Traits

A person does not A person does not need to act in a need to act in a deviant manner in deviant manner in order to be order to be considered considered deviant. deviant.

Deviant TraitsDeviant Traits Sometimes people are Sometimes people are

considered deviant considered deviant because of a trait or a because of a trait or a characteristic they characteristic they possess. possess.

Sociologist Sociologist Erving Erving GoffmanGoffman used the used the term term stigmastigma to identify to identify deviant characteristics. deviant characteristics.

These include These include violations of the norms violations of the norms of physical ability or of physical ability or appearance. appearance.

Social ControlSocial Control

Punishing people for deviant behavior Punishing people for deviant behavior reminds people what is expected of reminds people what is expected of them and what will happen if they do them and what will happen if they do not conform to society’s norms. not conform to society’s norms.

Every society has methods of social Every society has methods of social control, or means of encouraging control, or means of encouraging conformity to norms. conformity to norms.

These methods of social control These methods of social control include positive sanctions and include positive sanctions and negative sanctions. negative sanctions.

Positive SanctionsPositive Sanctions Society uses positive Society uses positive

sanctions to reward people sanctions to reward people for following norms. for following norms.

Positive sanctions can be Positive sanctions can be formal, such as an award formal, such as an award or a raise. or a raise.

They can also be informal They can also be informal and include words, and include words, gestures, or facial gestures, or facial expressions.expressions.

A reaction to an A reaction to an individual’s actions can be individual’s actions can be a positive sanction, even if a positive sanction, even if it is not intended to be. it is not intended to be.

Negative SanctionsNegative Sanctions Negative sanctions can range Negative sanctions can range

from formal to informal.from formal to informal. Some subcultures dole out Some subcultures dole out

negative sanctions for behaviors negative sanctions for behaviors generally condoned by the rest of generally condoned by the rest of society. society.

Academic achievement is usually Academic achievement is usually held in high esteem. held in high esteem.

Some subcultures, succeeding in Some subcultures, succeeding in a way that the dominant society a way that the dominant society approves of is not considered a approves of is not considered a good thing. good thing.

In some gangs, getting good In some gangs, getting good grades is not acceptable, and grades is not acceptable, and gang members who do well in gang members who do well in school are criticized by their school are criticized by their friends for “selling out.” friends for “selling out.”

Conformity to traditional figures Conformity to traditional figures of authority, such as teachers, is of authority, such as teachers, is negatively sanctioned.negatively sanctioned.

Symbolic Inter-actionist Symbolic Inter-actionist PerspectivePerspective

Symbolic inter-actionists study how Symbolic inter-actionists study how people use symbols to create people use symbols to create meaning. meaning.

THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL THEORY OF DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATIONASSOCIATION

Sociologist Edwin Sutherland studied Sociologist Edwin Sutherland studied deviance from the symbolic inter-deviance from the symbolic inter-actionist perspective. actionist perspective.

The basic tenet of his theory of The basic tenet of his theory of differential association is that differential association is that deviance is a learned behavior— deviance is a learned behavior— people learn it.people learn it.

Edwin SutherlandEdwin Sutherland

He further explained He further explained exactly what one exactly what one learns from people learns from people who commit deviance.who commit deviance.

He said that the future He said that the future deviant learns values deviant learns values different from those of different from those of the dominant culture, the dominant culture, as well as techniques as well as techniques for committing for committing deviance.deviance.

Edwin SutherlandEdwin Sutherland

Part of Sutherland’s theory is that if Part of Sutherland’s theory is that if people learn deviance from others, people learn deviance from others, the people with whom we associate the people with whom we associate are of utmost importance. are of utmost importance.

The closer the relationship, the more The closer the relationship, the more likely someone is to be influenced.likely someone is to be influenced.

Deviant SubculturesDeviant Subcultures

When individuals When individuals share a particular share a particular form of deviance, form of deviance, they often they often

form a deviant form a deviant subculture, a way of subculture, a way of living that differs living that differs from the dominant from the dominant culture and is based culture and is based on that shared on that shared deviance. deviance.

Control TheroyControl Theroy

Sociologist Walter Reckless developed Sociologist Walter Reckless developed the control theory to explain how the control theory to explain how some people resist the pressure to some people resist the pressure to become deviants. become deviants.

According to control theory, people According to control theory, people have two control systems that work have two control systems that work against their desire to deviate. against their desire to deviate.

Each person has a set of inner Each person has a set of inner controls and outer controls.controls and outer controls.

Travis Hirschi and Travis Hirschi and Control TheoryControl Theory

Sociologist Travis Hirschi elaborated Sociologist Travis Hirschi elaborated on the control theory. on the control theory.

He identified four elements that He identified four elements that would render an individual more or would render an individual more or less likely to commit deviance: less likely to commit deviance: attachment, commitment, attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.involvement, and belief.

Labeling TheoryLabeling Theory

A key aspect of the symbolic inter-A key aspect of the symbolic inter-actionist perspective of deviance is actionist perspective of deviance is labeling theory. labeling theory.

First proposed by sociologist Howard First proposed by sociologist Howard Becker in the 1960s, labeling theory Becker in the 1960s, labeling theory posits that deviance is that which is posits that deviance is that which is so labeled. so labeled.

No status or behavior is inherently No status or behavior is inherently deviant until other people have deviant until other people have judged it and labeled it deviant.judged it and labeled it deviant.

Primary and Secondary Primary and Secondary DevianceDeviance

Sociologist Edwin Lemert differentiated between Sociologist Edwin Lemert differentiated between primary deviance and secondary deviance. primary deviance and secondary deviance.

The difference between primary deviance and The difference between primary deviance and secondary deviance is in the reactions other secondary deviance is in the reactions other people have to the original act of deviance.people have to the original act of deviance.

Primary deviance is a deviant act that provokes Primary deviance is a deviant act that provokes little reaction and has limited effect on a little reaction and has limited effect on a person’s self-esteem.person’s self-esteem.

The deviant does not change his or her behavior The deviant does not change his or her behavior as a result of this act.as a result of this act.

Secondary deviance includes repeated deviant Secondary deviance includes repeated deviant behavior that is brought on by other people’s behavior that is brought on by other people’s negative reactions to the original act of primary negative reactions to the original act of primary deviance.deviance.

Chambliss and the Saints Chambliss and the Saints and Roughnecksand Roughnecks

In the 1970s, sociologist William In the 1970s, sociologist William Chambliss studied two groups of high Chambliss studied two groups of high school boys to find out how strongly school boys to find out how strongly labels affected them. labels affected them.

Structural Functional Structural Functional TheoryTheory

Another framework sociologists use to Another framework sociologists use to understand the world is the structural understand the world is the structural functional theory. functional theory.

Its central idea is that society is a Its central idea is that society is a complex unit, made up of interrelated complex unit, made up of interrelated parts.parts.

Sociologists who apply this theory study Sociologists who apply this theory study social structure and social function. social structure and social function.

French sociologist Emile Durkheim French sociologist Emile Durkheim based his work on this theory.based his work on this theory.

Functions of DevianceFunctions of Deviance Emile DurkheimEmile Durkheim Affirmation of cultural norms and values:Affirmation of cultural norms and values:

Seeing a person punished for a deviant act Seeing a person punished for a deviant act reinforces what a society sees as acceptable or reinforces what a society sees as acceptable or unacceptable behaviounacceptable behavio

2. Clarification of right and wrong:2. Clarification of right and wrong: Responses Responses to deviant behavior help individuals distinguish to deviant behavior help individuals distinguish between right and wrong. between right and wrong.

3. Unification of others in society:3. Unification of others in society: Responses Responses to deviance can bring people closer together.to deviance can bring people closer together.

4. Promoting social change:4. Promoting social change: Deviance can also Deviance can also encourage the dominant society to consider encourage the dominant society to consider alternative norms and values. alternative norms and values.

Strain Theory of Strain Theory of DevianceDeviance

Sometimes people find that when they attempt to Sometimes people find that when they attempt to attain culturally approved goals, their paths are attain culturally approved goals, their paths are blocked. blocked.

Not everyone has access to institutionalized Not everyone has access to institutionalized means, or legitimate ways of achieving success. means, or legitimate ways of achieving success.

Strain theory, posits that when people are Strain theory, posits that when people are prevented from achieving culturally approved prevented from achieving culturally approved goals through institutional means, they experience goals through institutional means, they experience strain or frustration that can lead to deviance. strain or frustration that can lead to deviance.

People also experience anomie, or feelings of People also experience anomie, or feelings of being disconnected from society, which can occur being disconnected from society, which can occur when people do not have access to the when people do not have access to the institutionalized means to achieve their goals.institutionalized means to achieve their goals.

Institutionalized Means to Institutionalized Means to SuccessSuccess

In the 1960s, sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin In the 1960s, sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin theorized that the most difficult task facing industrialized theorized that the most difficult task facing industrialized societies is finding and training people to take over the most societies is finding and training people to take over the most intellectually demanding jobs from the previous generation. intellectually demanding jobs from the previous generation.

To progress, society needs a literate, highly trained work To progress, society needs a literate, highly trained work force. Society’s job is to motivate its citizens to excel in the force. Society’s job is to motivate its citizens to excel in the

workplace, and the best way to do that is to foment workplace, and the best way to do that is to foment discontent with the status quo. discontent with the status quo.

Cloward and Ohlin argued that if people were dissatisfied Cloward and Ohlin argued that if people were dissatisfied with what they had, what they earned, or where they lived, with what they had, what they earned, or where they lived, they would be motivated to work harder to improve their they would be motivated to work harder to improve their circumstances.circumstances.

In order to compete in the world marketplace, a society In order to compete in the world marketplace, a society must offer institutionalized means of succeeding. must offer institutionalized means of succeeding.

For example, societies that value higher education as a way For example, societies that value higher education as a way to advance in the work place must make educational to advance in the work place must make educational opportunity available to everyone.opportunity available to everyone.

Illegitimate Opportunity Illegitimate Opportunity StructuresStructures

Cloward and Ohlin further elaborated on Merton’s strain Cloward and Ohlin further elaborated on Merton’s strain theory. theory.

Deviant behavior—crime in particular—was not just a Deviant behavior—crime in particular—was not just a response to limited institutionalized means of success. response to limited institutionalized means of success. Crime also resulted from increased access to illegitimate Crime also resulted from increased access to illegitimate opportunity structures, or various illegal means to achieve opportunity structures, or various illegal means to achieve success. success.

These structures, such as crime, are often more available to These structures, such as crime, are often more available to poor people living in urban slums. poor people living in urban slums.

A poor person can become involved in prostitution, robbery, A poor person can become involved in prostitution, robbery, drug dealing, or loan sharking to make money. drug dealing, or loan sharking to make money.

While these activities are clearly illegal, they often provide While these activities are clearly illegal, they often provide opportunities to make large amounts of money, opportunities to make large amounts of money,

as well as as well as gain status among one’s peers. gain status among one’s peers.

Reactions to Cultural Goals Reactions to Cultural Goals & Institutionalized Means& Institutionalized MeansMethod of adaptation Cultural goals Institutionalized means

Conformists Accept Accept

Innovators Accept Reject

Ritualists Reject Accept

Retreatists Reject Reject

Rebels Reject / Replace Reject / Replace

Conflict PerspectiveConflict Perspective

A third important sociological A third important sociological framework is the conflict theory. framework is the conflict theory.

Unlike the structural functional Unlike the structural functional theory, which views society as a theory, which views society as a peaceful unit, conflict theory peaceful unit, conflict theory interprets society as a struggle for interprets society as a struggle for power between groups engaging in power between groups engaging in conflict for limited resources. conflict for limited resources.

Conflict PerspectiveConflict Perspective Karl Marx is the founder of Karl Marx is the founder of

conflict theory. conflict theory. Conflict theorists like Marx Conflict theorists like Marx

posit that there are two posit that there are two general categories of general categories of people in industrialized people in industrialized societies: the capitalist societies: the capitalist class the working class.class the working class.

The capitalist class, or elite The capitalist class, or elite consists of those in consists of those in positions of wealth and positions of wealth and power who own the means power who own the means of production or control of production or control access to the means of access to the means of production. production.

Conflict PerspectiveConflict Perspective The working class The working class

consists of relatively consists of relatively powerless individuals powerless individuals who sell their labor to who sell their labor to the capitalist class. the capitalist class.

It is advantageous to It is advantageous to the elite to keep the the elite to keep the working class in a working class in a relatively relatively disadvantaged position disadvantaged position so that they can so that they can maintain the status quo maintain the status quo and their own privileged and their own privileged positions.positions.

Conflict Theory and Conflict Theory and CrimeCrime

Conflict theorists believe that the Conflict theorists believe that the broad division of people into these broad division of people into these two categories is inherently unequal. two categories is inherently unequal.

Conflict theorists cite the criminal Conflict theorists cite the criminal justice system to support their claim. justice system to support their claim.

Conflict Theory and Conflict Theory and CrimeCrime

The capitalist class passes laws designed The capitalist class passes laws designed to benefit themselves. to benefit themselves.

These same laws are detrimental to the These same laws are detrimental to the working class. working class.

Both groups commit acts of deviance, Both groups commit acts of deviance, but the system but the system the capitalists the capitalists created defines deviance differently for created defines deviance differently for each group. each group.

The criminal justice system judges and The criminal justice system judges and punishes each group differently.punishes each group differently.

Conflict Theory and Conflict Theory and CrimeCrime

In addition, the elite can often afford In addition, the elite can often afford expensive lawyers and expensive lawyers and are are sometimes on a first-name basis with sometimes on a first-name basis with the individuals in charge of making the individuals in charge of making and enforcing laws.and enforcing laws.

Members of the working class Members of the working class generally do not have these generally do not have these

advantages. advantages.

White - Collar CrimesWhite - Collar Crimes Conflict theorists also look at the types of crimes committed Conflict theorists also look at the types of crimes committed

by members of the two classes. by members of the two classes. The working class is more likely to commit so-called street The working class is more likely to commit so-called street

crime, such as robbery, assault, or murder. crime, such as robbery, assault, or murder. Members of the elite are less likely to commit acts of Members of the elite are less likely to commit acts of

violence but more likely to engage in white-collar crime, or violence but more likely to engage in white-collar crime, or nonviolent crime committed by the capitalist class during nonviolent crime committed by the capitalist class during the course of their occupations.the course of their occupations.

White-collar criminals are difficult to catch and prosecute White-collar criminals are difficult to catch and prosecute for two main reasons:for two main reasons:

a. White-collar crime is difficult to identify. It leaves a. White-collar crime is difficult to identify. It leaves little little physical evidence and no easily identifiable physical evidence and no easily identifiable victim. victim.

b. White-collar criminals are sometimes able to use b. White-collar criminals are sometimes able to use their power their power and influence to avoid prosecution. and influence to avoid prosecution. Because of their social Because of their social and economic clout, white- and economic clout, white-collar criminals rarely face collar criminals rarely face criminal prosecution. criminal prosecution.

Deviance and PowerDeviance and Power

Conflict theorist Alexander Liazos Conflict theorist Alexander Liazos points out that the people we points out that the people we commonly label as deviant are also commonly label as deviant are also relatively powerless. relatively powerless.

The people in positions of power The people in positions of power make the laws of any given society make the laws of any given society they create laws to benefit they create laws to benefit themselves. themselves.

Deviance and PowerDeviance and Power

According to the According to the conflict view of conflict view of deviance, when rich deviance, when rich and powerful people and powerful people are accused of are accused of wrongdoing, they wrongdoing, they have the means to have the means to hire lawyers, hire lawyers, accountants, and accountants, and other people who can other people who can help them avoid being help them avoid being labeled as deviant. labeled as deviant.

Deviance and PowerDeviance and Power Lastly, members of Lastly, members of

a society generally a society generally believe that laws believe that laws are inherently fair, are inherently fair, which can draw which can draw attention away attention away from the possibility from the possibility that these laws that these laws might be unfairly might be unfairly applied or that a applied or that a law itself might not law itself might not be good or just.be good or just.

CrimeCrime

White-collar crime is White-collar crime is just one type of crime. just one type of crime. Crime, or the violation Crime, or the violation of a written law, is a of a written law, is a specific kind of specific kind of deviance. What deviance. What constitutes a crime constitutes a crime varies from society to varies from society to society. In our society, society. In our society, sociologists have sociologists have identified three general identified three general categories of crimecategories of crime

CrimeCrime

Crimes against Crimes against the person:the person: These These are crimes in which are crimes in which an act of violence is an act of violence is either threatened or either threatened or perpetrated against perpetrated against a person. A a person. A mugging is an mugging is an example of a crime example of a crime against the person. against the person.

CrimeCrime

Crimes against Crimes against property:property: These These are crimes that are crimes that involve the theft of involve the theft of property or certain property or certain forms of damage forms of damage against the against the property of another. property of another. Arson is an example Arson is an example of a property crime.of a property crime.

CrimeCrime

Victimless Victimless crimes:crimes: These are These are crimes in which crimes in which laws are violated, laws are violated, but there is no but there is no identifiable victim. identifiable victim. Prostitution is often Prostitution is often classified as a classified as a victimless crime.victimless crime.

Profile of a CriminalProfile of a Criminal

Sociologists studying crime and Sociologists studying crime and deviance study statistics on who deviance study statistics on who commits crime. Identifying a criminal commits crime. Identifying a criminal profile can help sociologists profile can help sociologists understand the causes of crime and understand the causes of crime and other deviance. other deviance.

Sociologists use the categories of Sociologists use the categories of age, gender, social class, and race age, gender, social class, and race and ethnicity to create this profile.and ethnicity to create this profile.

Profile of a CriminalProfile of a Criminal Age: Age: Young people, roughly between the mid-teens and Young people, roughly between the mid-teens and

early twenties, commit almost 40 percent of all crimes. The early twenties, commit almost 40 percent of all crimes. The likeliness to commit crime, particularly violent crime, likeliness to commit crime, particularly violent crime, decreases with age.decreases with age.

Gender: Gender: Men are arrested for crimes far more often than Men are arrested for crimes far more often than women. Men are arrested for approximately 70 percent of women. Men are arrested for approximately 70 percent of all property crimes and 80 percent of all violent crimes. all property crimes and 80 percent of all violent crimes. Several theories, including the following, attempt to explain Several theories, including the following, attempt to explain this situation:this situation:

a. In all known societies, men are allowed more a. In all known societies, men are allowed more behavioral behavioral freedom than women are. More freedom freedom than women are. More freedom means more means more opportunity to engage in deviant acts. opportunity to engage in deviant acts.

b. Traditionally, police have been less willing to b. Traditionally, police have been less willing to define a define a woman as a criminal, and the court woman as a criminal, and the court system has been less system has been less likely to convict a woman likely to convict a woman and sentence her to jail or prison.and sentence her to jail or prison.

Profile of a CriminalProfile of a Criminal

Social Class: Social Class: Street crime, particularly Street crime, particularly violent crime, is more prevalent in violent crime, is more prevalent in poor, inner-city neighborhoods than in poor, inner-city neighborhoods than in affluent communities. Violent crime in affluent communities. Violent crime in inner-city neighborhoods tends to be inner-city neighborhoods tends to be committed by the same group of committed by the same group of seasoned criminals. Their victims are seasoned criminals. Their victims are most often the law-abiding inhabitants most often the law-abiding inhabitants of those neighborhoods. White- collar of those neighborhoods. White- collar crime tends to occur in more affluent crime tends to occur in more affluent communities.communities.

Profile of a CriminalProfile of a Criminal

Race and Ethnicity: Race and Ethnicity: African African Americans represent approximately 12 Americans represent approximately 12 percent of the population in the United percent of the population in the United States and comprise 30 percent of States and comprise 30 percent of property-crime arrests and 38 percent property-crime arrests and 38 percent of violent-crime arrests. White people of violent-crime arrests. White people represent 66 percent of the arrests for represent 66 percent of the arrests for property crimes and 60 percent of the property crimes and 60 percent of the arrests for violent crimes.arrests for violent crimes.