[developments in earth surface processes] geomorphological mapping - methods and applications volume...
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to AppliedGeomorphological MappingJames S. Griffithsa, Mike J. Smithb and Paolo ParoncaSoGEES, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UKbSchool of Geography, Geology and the Environment, Kingston University, Surrey, UKcUNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Delft, NL & School of Geography and the Environment,Oxford University, UK
Contents
1. Geomorphological Mapping 62. Techniques of Applied Geomorphological Mapping 73. Case Studies in Applied Geomorphological Mapping 8References 9
The survival of humans is heavily dependent on a very narrow zone
within the Earth’s crust, from the water on the surface, to the few metres
depth of agricultural soil, to the couple of hundred metres from which we
extract potable groundwater. Although we do extract mineral resources
and some groundwater from greater depths, the vast majority of human
activities take place on the land, in rivers and lakes, or in the coastal and
nearshore zone and predominantly within 100 m of the ground surface.
The main exceptions to this depth limit are as follows: hard rock tunnels;
deep sea drilling and production rigs; hydrocarbon exploration and exploi-
tation; cross-ocean cables and deep mining. However, it is realistic to con-
clude that the overwhelming majority of human activities interact with
the landforms that make up the surface and near surface of terrestrial,
nearshore and offshore ‘landscapes’. The scientific investigation of these
landscapes, the processes that have formed them over time, the materials
which they are composed of, the individual elements that combine to cre-
ate them and the way they will evolve through time is the discipline of
geomorphology. Understanding geomorphology, therefore, can be seen as
fundamental to the safe, economic and sustainable development of the
planet Earth.
Geomorphology is part of the broad range of disciplines that fall under
the general heading of earth sciences, which includes both geology and
3Developments in Earth Surface Processes, Volume 15ISSN: 0928-2025, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53446-0.00001-X
© 2011 Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.
geography. In Europe geomorphology has traditionally been associated
with ‘physical geography’, whereas in North America it has usually been
regarded as part of ‘physical geology’. Until the 1960s, a significant part of
geomorphological research was engaged in the history of landscape devel-
opment, but during the 1960s and 1970s there was a shift in Anglo-
American geomorphology into smaller scale process studies (Smith et al.,
2002). However, landscape development continued as a core component
of physical geology studies in the United States (Costa and Graf, 1984).
The original geomorphological emphasis on the study of landscapes meant
that, in common with the rest of the earth sciences, there has always been
the need to compile spatial data and then to present these data in plan
form as maps. Although the methodology and representation of much
spatial data has a long history (e.g. accurate geological maps date back to
William Smith’s first map of the United Kingdom in 1815; Winchester,
2001), the presentation of geomorphology in map form has not reached
the same level of standardisation, despite some attempts in Europe to pro-
duce comprehensive legends (Demek and Embleton, 1978).
The combination of a lack of a standard methodology or commonly
accepted legend, plus the move of academic geomorphologists away from
spatially extensive studies of landscape development, led to geomorpho-
logical mapping being regarded as a somewhat sterile area of study
(Gustavsson et al., 2006). The indications are that it was seen as being of
limited value in mainstream geomorphological research. However, at the
time that the process�response geomorphologists were beginning to con-
centrate on small-scale studies, the compilation of geomorphological
information was found to be fundamental to many applied studies of the
Earth’s surface, including coastal zone management; route alignment
work for roads, railways and pipelines; soil erosion studies; military work
using terrain classification for trafficability and tactical analysis; river
catchment management; geohazard assessments, notably for civil engi-
neering projects and, increasingly, in offshore studies particularly when
seeking resources and identifying the potential hazards to their exploita-
tion (e.g. gas hydrates and submarine landslides). Thus, since the 1980s
we have seen the creation and use of applied geomorphological maps from
many terrestrial and marine environments, and these have been produced
by practitioners of applied geomorphology rather than academic geomor-
phology. In order to understand this development, it is necessary to define
what the technique of geomorphological mapping entails. Lee (2001)
described geomorphological mapping as one of the group of techniques
4 James S. Griffiths et al.
under the general category of ‘terrain evaluation’ employed to systemati-
cally record the shape or morphology of the ground, landforms,
landscape-forming processes and materials that constitute the surface of
the Earth. Lee (2001) identified three forms of geomorphological map:
1. Regional surveys of terrain conditions, for general geomorphological
investigations, land use planning or in baseline studies for environ-
mental impact assessment (e.g. the 1:25,000 scale maps of Torbay;
Doornkamp et al., 1988),
2. General assessments of resources or geohazards at scales between
1:50,000 and 1:10,000 (e.g. Bahrain Surface Materials Resources
Survey; Doornkamp et al., 1980; ground problems in the Suez City
area, Egypt; Jones, 2001),
3. Specific-purpose large-scale surveys to delineate and characterise par-
ticular landforms (e.g. the 1:500 scale investigations around the
Channel Tunnel portal, Folkestone; Griffiths et al., 1995).
Given this background, and the widening interest in the role and
importance of geomorphological mapping, the International Association
of Geomorphologists commissioned this volume to provide a state-of-
the-art review of the development of the technique and see the way it is
now being employed both in the academic and in the professional world.
The intention of this book is not to produce a standardised mapping
methodology or to provide a detailed geomorphological legend, but it is
an attempt to bring together leading exponents in the preparation and use
of geomorphological maps and illustrate how they are being used to
investigate a wide range of environmental issues. The book is divided into
three sections:
1. Geomorphological mapping: It details the history of geomorphological
mapping, focusing upon the development of methods and their evolu-
tion within different national ‘schools’; outlines the aims and objec-
tives of mapping and looks at quantitative risk assessment,
2. Techniques of applied geomorphological mapping: It reviews the techniques
of mapping, including traditional field mapping and recognises the
increasing use of digital data gathering techniques for mapping,
3. Case studies in applied geomorphological mapping: It presents examples of
different industrial applications of geomorphological maps from a vari-
ety of environmental settings to demonstrate the wide range and
application of mapping in both academic and professional arenas.
The actual content of each of these sections is described in more
detail below. A final conclusion looks at the future development of
5Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping
geomorphological mapping. What became apparent to the editors dur-
ing the compilation of this volume is that the techniques employed to
create geomorphological maps are becoming increasingly sophisticated
and the range of applications of the maps is becoming ever wider. This
volume demonstrates that geomorphological mapping is a technique
that all geomorphologists should be familiar with and be able to utilise
in the collection and presentation of geomorphological data. The tech-
nique is also one that can provide a firm basis for the investigation of
many environmental issues, notably in the field of geohazards and risk
assessment.
1. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING
Geomorphological mapping flourished in different countries and
schools all with different aims, especially during the 1960s�1980s. The
first contribution in this section is by Verstappen (2011) who illustrates
the early development of geomorphological and landform mapping in
Europe (western and eastern) and Australia with several examples of leg-
end types and cartographic development. Dramis et al. (2011) focuses
on the types, purposes and content of geomorphological maps, spanning
from the ‘traditional’ symbol-based maps to the most modern digital
techniques. This chapter presents some of the state-of-the-art techni-
ques in object-oriented geomorphological mapping, with examples
from Italy. It highlights the importance of moving towards an objective
and multi-scalar method for the representation of the landscape that can
be of great benefit to a wider community of users, including environ-
mental analysts and planners. Paron and Claessens (2011) focuses on the
need to integrate geomorphological mapping in national mapping pro-
grammes, natural hazard zonations and emergency programmes and
landscape planning. The chapter shows how the new digital mapping
and web-mapping reality can aid in disseminating the importance of
geomorphological investigation and mapping. The last chapter of this
section by Hearn and Hart (2011) looks at the practical issues involved in
quantitative risk assessment/analysis of landslides, showing how some of
the conceptual models are quite theoretical. This contribution attempts
to bridge the gap between the diffuse hazard susceptibility maps and the
6 James S. Griffiths et al.
more useful hazard and risk maps required for quantitative risk assess-
ment of landslides. The examples in this chapter from less economically
developed countries illustrate well the need for practical but sound haz-
ard mapping in data poor environments where vulnerability may be
increasing as new developments take place.
2. TECHNIQUES OF APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGICALMAPPING
The systematic recording of landform morphology requires some
kind of geodetic framework and a methodology through which this is
performed. Early geomorphological mapping required physical site visits
in order to record plan-form position and, in some instances, composi-
tion on to a topographic base map. Knight et al. (2011) detail the techni-
ques used for field-based geomorphological mapping and whereas, by
volume, it has largely been replaced as a technique, it remains a common,
and important, aspect of large-scale surveys.
One of the drivers of the resurgence in geomorphological mapping
is technology: the availability of new data sources has allowed new
insights and rapid mapping to be performed, organised within the
framework of a geographic information system (GIS). The addition of
new sources of digital spatial data has opened up vast regions of the
Earth’s surface (and indeed other planets) for study that would have oth-
erwise been uneconomic or impossible to achieve. Oguchi et al. (2011)
detail the vast range of data sets that are currently available and outline
their potential application areas.
More mundanely, but of no less significance, is the organisation of spa-
tial data into a digital data framework. The ability to use a ‘layers’ paradigm
to organise input data and produce layers of thematic, mapped, output is of
great significance. Smith (2011) outlines this ‘layered’ approach and intro-
duces methods for the visualisation and digital recording of landforms.
This remains an entirely manual process, limited by the skill and experi-
ence of the operator. Accurate automated and semi-automated landform
extraction techniques remain a current research focus, and Seijmonsbergen
et al. (2011) introduce the main techniques and their applications. Finally,
no technical section would be complete without discussion of the
7Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping
presentation of mapped landforms. Otto et al. (2011) provide a brief synopsis
of cartographic techniques and their applications to geomorphological
mapping. There is specific focus upon the review and selection of an
appropriate legend system. The chapter concludes with the digital dissemi-
nation of geomorphological information and, in particular, web servers,
virtual globes and static maps.
3. CASE STUDIES IN APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGICALMAPPING
Thirteen case studies have been compiled, including three from the
marine environment. The three marine examples illustrate how the use
of modern marine geophysical techniques has revolutionised our ability
to interpret marine geomorphology. Dunlop et al. (2011) used publically
available multi-beam swath bathymetry data to construct a glacial geo-
morphology map of the continental margins north and northwest of
Ireland. Hillier (2011) has created digital elevation models of the
Hawaiian volcanoes to establish their height and volume, data that are
critical to understanding the volcanic hazard. Micallef (2011) demon-
strates how the range of marine geophysical techniques can be used to
produce geomorphological maps in order to assess submarine landslides,
presenting a case study of the Storegga slide in the North Sea between
Norway and Scotland.
The value of geomorphological mapping in mass movement investiga-
tions is a theme that emerges from a number of the terrestrial case studies.
Griffiths et al. (2011) use traditional field mapping and remote sensing inter-
pretation to produce an engineering geomorphological map of a landslide
that potentially could have affected the Channel Tunnel Terminal in Kent,
United Kingdom. Parry (2011) looks at mapping as a technique for assessing
landslide risk in Hong Kong. In a more academic investigation, Theler and
Reynard (2011) use mapping as a tool for assessing sediment transfer pro-
cesses in small catchments in Switzerland prone to debris flows. Whitworth
et al. (2011) make use of terrestrial laser scanning to produce geomorpho-
logical assessments of complex landslide systems in the Cotswolds area of
the United Kingdom. As a useful adjunct to this, the value of airborne laser
scanning for compiling a range of geomorphological data is illustrated by
Rutzinger et al. (2011) for three different test sites in the Austrian Alps.
8 James S. Griffiths et al.
Pain et al. (2011), also use airborne laser scanning alongside airborne elec-
tromagnetic surveys and satellite imagery to evaluate the hydro-geomor-
phology of the River Murray area in southeast Australia. Williams et al.
(2011) have embraced the new geomatics technology as well, using terres-
trial laser scanning coupled with high-resolution digital elevation models in
the investigation of sediment transport rates in a braided river system in
New Zealand. By way of contrast, Knight (2011) provides an example of
more traditional field mapping approach, linked to remote sensing interpre-
tation, to compile maps of a lowland glaciated landscape in north-central
Ireland.
The final two case studies illustrate the role geomorphological mapping
can have in anthropological investigations. Walstra et al. (2011) map the
late Holocene evolution and human impact in the Mesopotamian region
(southwest Iran) using remote sensing and a GIS. As a contrast, Guth
(2011) provides a case study from the D-Day landings in Normandy (June
1944) of the way geomorphological maps allow military commanders to
see the way the landscape will influence military operations.
The range of case studies presented is only illustrative of the potential
applications of geomorphological mapping. They do illustrate the move away
from traditional field mapping through increasing use of digital data capture
systems. However, what does emerge from the studies is that interpretation of
the data requires extensive and detailed understanding of geomorphological
processes and landforms; this is a knowledge and skills base that still requires
widespread fieldwork experience. It is also apparent that geomorphological
maps are complex tools and to be of value beyond the academic community
may often require careful explanation and presentation. The critical impor-
tance of communicating geomorphological data effectively remains a
challenge that new multimedia tools are helping us to address.
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