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CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping James S. Griffiths a , Mike J. Smith b and Paolo Paron c a SoGEES, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK b School of Geography, Geologyand the Environment, Kingston University, Surrey, UK c UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Delft, NL & School of Geography and the Environment, Oxford University, UK Contents 1. Geomorphological Mapping 6 2. Techniques of Applied Geomorphological Mapping 7 3. Case Studies in Applied Geomorphological Mapping 8 References 9 The survival of humans is heavily dependent on a very narrow zone within the Earth’s crust, from the water on the surface, to the few metres depth of agricultural soil, to the couple of hundred metres from which we extract potable groundwater. Although we do extract mineral resources and some groundwater from greater depths, the vast majority of human activities take place on the land, in rivers and lakes, or in the coastal and nearshore zone and predominantly within 100 m of the ground surface. The main exceptions to this depth limit are as follows: hard rock tunnels; deep sea drilling and production rigs; hydrocarbon exploration and exploi- tation; cross-ocean cables and deep mining. However, it is realistic to con- clude that the overwhelming majority of human activities interact with the landforms that make up the surface and near surface of terrestrial, nearshore and offshore ‘landscapes’. The scientific investigation of these landscapes, the processes that have formed them over time, the materials which they are composed of, the individual elements that combine to cre- ate them and the way they will evolve through time is the discipline of geomorphology. Understanding geomorphology, therefore, can be seen as fundamental to the safe, economic and sustainable development of the planet Earth. Geomorphology is part of the broad range of disciplines that fall under the general heading of earth sciences, which includes both geology and 3 Developments in Earth Surface Processes, Volume 15 ISSN: 0928-2025, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53446-0.00001-X © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to AppliedGeomorphological MappingJames S. Griffithsa, Mike J. Smithb and Paolo ParoncaSoGEES, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UKbSchool of Geography, Geology and the Environment, Kingston University, Surrey, UKcUNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Delft, NL & School of Geography and the Environment,Oxford University, UK

Contents

1. Geomorphological Mapping 62. Techniques of Applied Geomorphological Mapping 73. Case Studies in Applied Geomorphological Mapping 8References 9

The survival of humans is heavily dependent on a very narrow zone

within the Earth’s crust, from the water on the surface, to the few metres

depth of agricultural soil, to the couple of hundred metres from which we

extract potable groundwater. Although we do extract mineral resources

and some groundwater from greater depths, the vast majority of human

activities take place on the land, in rivers and lakes, or in the coastal and

nearshore zone and predominantly within 100 m of the ground surface.

The main exceptions to this depth limit are as follows: hard rock tunnels;

deep sea drilling and production rigs; hydrocarbon exploration and exploi-

tation; cross-ocean cables and deep mining. However, it is realistic to con-

clude that the overwhelming majority of human activities interact with

the landforms that make up the surface and near surface of terrestrial,

nearshore and offshore ‘landscapes’. The scientific investigation of these

landscapes, the processes that have formed them over time, the materials

which they are composed of, the individual elements that combine to cre-

ate them and the way they will evolve through time is the discipline of

geomorphology. Understanding geomorphology, therefore, can be seen as

fundamental to the safe, economic and sustainable development of the

planet Earth.

Geomorphology is part of the broad range of disciplines that fall under

the general heading of earth sciences, which includes both geology and

3Developments in Earth Surface Processes, Volume 15ISSN: 0928-2025, DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53446-0.00001-X

© 2011 Elsevier B.V.All rights reserved.

geography. In Europe geomorphology has traditionally been associated

with ‘physical geography’, whereas in North America it has usually been

regarded as part of ‘physical geology’. Until the 1960s, a significant part of

geomorphological research was engaged in the history of landscape devel-

opment, but during the 1960s and 1970s there was a shift in Anglo-

American geomorphology into smaller scale process studies (Smith et al.,

2002). However, landscape development continued as a core component

of physical geology studies in the United States (Costa and Graf, 1984).

The original geomorphological emphasis on the study of landscapes meant

that, in common with the rest of the earth sciences, there has always been

the need to compile spatial data and then to present these data in plan

form as maps. Although the methodology and representation of much

spatial data has a long history (e.g. accurate geological maps date back to

William Smith’s first map of the United Kingdom in 1815; Winchester,

2001), the presentation of geomorphology in map form has not reached

the same level of standardisation, despite some attempts in Europe to pro-

duce comprehensive legends (Demek and Embleton, 1978).

The combination of a lack of a standard methodology or commonly

accepted legend, plus the move of academic geomorphologists away from

spatially extensive studies of landscape development, led to geomorpho-

logical mapping being regarded as a somewhat sterile area of study

(Gustavsson et al., 2006). The indications are that it was seen as being of

limited value in mainstream geomorphological research. However, at the

time that the process�response geomorphologists were beginning to con-

centrate on small-scale studies, the compilation of geomorphological

information was found to be fundamental to many applied studies of the

Earth’s surface, including coastal zone management; route alignment

work for roads, railways and pipelines; soil erosion studies; military work

using terrain classification for trafficability and tactical analysis; river

catchment management; geohazard assessments, notably for civil engi-

neering projects and, increasingly, in offshore studies particularly when

seeking resources and identifying the potential hazards to their exploita-

tion (e.g. gas hydrates and submarine landslides). Thus, since the 1980s

we have seen the creation and use of applied geomorphological maps from

many terrestrial and marine environments, and these have been produced

by practitioners of applied geomorphology rather than academic geomor-

phology. In order to understand this development, it is necessary to define

what the technique of geomorphological mapping entails. Lee (2001)

described geomorphological mapping as one of the group of techniques

4 James S. Griffiths et al.

under the general category of ‘terrain evaluation’ employed to systemati-

cally record the shape or morphology of the ground, landforms,

landscape-forming processes and materials that constitute the surface of

the Earth. Lee (2001) identified three forms of geomorphological map:

1. Regional surveys of terrain conditions, for general geomorphological

investigations, land use planning or in baseline studies for environ-

mental impact assessment (e.g. the 1:25,000 scale maps of Torbay;

Doornkamp et al., 1988),

2. General assessments of resources or geohazards at scales between

1:50,000 and 1:10,000 (e.g. Bahrain Surface Materials Resources

Survey; Doornkamp et al., 1980; ground problems in the Suez City

area, Egypt; Jones, 2001),

3. Specific-purpose large-scale surveys to delineate and characterise par-

ticular landforms (e.g. the 1:500 scale investigations around the

Channel Tunnel portal, Folkestone; Griffiths et al., 1995).

Given this background, and the widening interest in the role and

importance of geomorphological mapping, the International Association

of Geomorphologists commissioned this volume to provide a state-of-

the-art review of the development of the technique and see the way it is

now being employed both in the academic and in the professional world.

The intention of this book is not to produce a standardised mapping

methodology or to provide a detailed geomorphological legend, but it is

an attempt to bring together leading exponents in the preparation and use

of geomorphological maps and illustrate how they are being used to

investigate a wide range of environmental issues. The book is divided into

three sections:

1. Geomorphological mapping: It details the history of geomorphological

mapping, focusing upon the development of methods and their evolu-

tion within different national ‘schools’; outlines the aims and objec-

tives of mapping and looks at quantitative risk assessment,

2. Techniques of applied geomorphological mapping: It reviews the techniques

of mapping, including traditional field mapping and recognises the

increasing use of digital data gathering techniques for mapping,

3. Case studies in applied geomorphological mapping: It presents examples of

different industrial applications of geomorphological maps from a vari-

ety of environmental settings to demonstrate the wide range and

application of mapping in both academic and professional arenas.

The actual content of each of these sections is described in more

detail below. A final conclusion looks at the future development of

5Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping

geomorphological mapping. What became apparent to the editors dur-

ing the compilation of this volume is that the techniques employed to

create geomorphological maps are becoming increasingly sophisticated

and the range of applications of the maps is becoming ever wider. This

volume demonstrates that geomorphological mapping is a technique

that all geomorphologists should be familiar with and be able to utilise

in the collection and presentation of geomorphological data. The tech-

nique is also one that can provide a firm basis for the investigation of

many environmental issues, notably in the field of geohazards and risk

assessment.

1. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING

Geomorphological mapping flourished in different countries and

schools all with different aims, especially during the 1960s�1980s. The

first contribution in this section is by Verstappen (2011) who illustrates

the early development of geomorphological and landform mapping in

Europe (western and eastern) and Australia with several examples of leg-

end types and cartographic development. Dramis et al. (2011) focuses

on the types, purposes and content of geomorphological maps, spanning

from the ‘traditional’ symbol-based maps to the most modern digital

techniques. This chapter presents some of the state-of-the-art techni-

ques in object-oriented geomorphological mapping, with examples

from Italy. It highlights the importance of moving towards an objective

and multi-scalar method for the representation of the landscape that can

be of great benefit to a wider community of users, including environ-

mental analysts and planners. Paron and Claessens (2011) focuses on the

need to integrate geomorphological mapping in national mapping pro-

grammes, natural hazard zonations and emergency programmes and

landscape planning. The chapter shows how the new digital mapping

and web-mapping reality can aid in disseminating the importance of

geomorphological investigation and mapping. The last chapter of this

section by Hearn and Hart (2011) looks at the practical issues involved in

quantitative risk assessment/analysis of landslides, showing how some of

the conceptual models are quite theoretical. This contribution attempts

to bridge the gap between the diffuse hazard susceptibility maps and the

6 James S. Griffiths et al.

more useful hazard and risk maps required for quantitative risk assess-

ment of landslides. The examples in this chapter from less economically

developed countries illustrate well the need for practical but sound haz-

ard mapping in data poor environments where vulnerability may be

increasing as new developments take place.

2. TECHNIQUES OF APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGICALMAPPING

The systematic recording of landform morphology requires some

kind of geodetic framework and a methodology through which this is

performed. Early geomorphological mapping required physical site visits

in order to record plan-form position and, in some instances, composi-

tion on to a topographic base map. Knight et al. (2011) detail the techni-

ques used for field-based geomorphological mapping and whereas, by

volume, it has largely been replaced as a technique, it remains a common,

and important, aspect of large-scale surveys.

One of the drivers of the resurgence in geomorphological mapping

is technology: the availability of new data sources has allowed new

insights and rapid mapping to be performed, organised within the

framework of a geographic information system (GIS). The addition of

new sources of digital spatial data has opened up vast regions of the

Earth’s surface (and indeed other planets) for study that would have oth-

erwise been uneconomic or impossible to achieve. Oguchi et al. (2011)

detail the vast range of data sets that are currently available and outline

their potential application areas.

More mundanely, but of no less significance, is the organisation of spa-

tial data into a digital data framework. The ability to use a ‘layers’ paradigm

to organise input data and produce layers of thematic, mapped, output is of

great significance. Smith (2011) outlines this ‘layered’ approach and intro-

duces methods for the visualisation and digital recording of landforms.

This remains an entirely manual process, limited by the skill and experi-

ence of the operator. Accurate automated and semi-automated landform

extraction techniques remain a current research focus, and Seijmonsbergen

et al. (2011) introduce the main techniques and their applications. Finally,

no technical section would be complete without discussion of the

7Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping

presentation of mapped landforms. Otto et al. (2011) provide a brief synopsis

of cartographic techniques and their applications to geomorphological

mapping. There is specific focus upon the review and selection of an

appropriate legend system. The chapter concludes with the digital dissemi-

nation of geomorphological information and, in particular, web servers,

virtual globes and static maps.

3. CASE STUDIES IN APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGICALMAPPING

Thirteen case studies have been compiled, including three from the

marine environment. The three marine examples illustrate how the use

of modern marine geophysical techniques has revolutionised our ability

to interpret marine geomorphology. Dunlop et al. (2011) used publically

available multi-beam swath bathymetry data to construct a glacial geo-

morphology map of the continental margins north and northwest of

Ireland. Hillier (2011) has created digital elevation models of the

Hawaiian volcanoes to establish their height and volume, data that are

critical to understanding the volcanic hazard. Micallef (2011) demon-

strates how the range of marine geophysical techniques can be used to

produce geomorphological maps in order to assess submarine landslides,

presenting a case study of the Storegga slide in the North Sea between

Norway and Scotland.

The value of geomorphological mapping in mass movement investiga-

tions is a theme that emerges from a number of the terrestrial case studies.

Griffiths et al. (2011) use traditional field mapping and remote sensing inter-

pretation to produce an engineering geomorphological map of a landslide

that potentially could have affected the Channel Tunnel Terminal in Kent,

United Kingdom. Parry (2011) looks at mapping as a technique for assessing

landslide risk in Hong Kong. In a more academic investigation, Theler and

Reynard (2011) use mapping as a tool for assessing sediment transfer pro-

cesses in small catchments in Switzerland prone to debris flows. Whitworth

et al. (2011) make use of terrestrial laser scanning to produce geomorpho-

logical assessments of complex landslide systems in the Cotswolds area of

the United Kingdom. As a useful adjunct to this, the value of airborne laser

scanning for compiling a range of geomorphological data is illustrated by

Rutzinger et al. (2011) for three different test sites in the Austrian Alps.

8 James S. Griffiths et al.

Pain et al. (2011), also use airborne laser scanning alongside airborne elec-

tromagnetic surveys and satellite imagery to evaluate the hydro-geomor-

phology of the River Murray area in southeast Australia. Williams et al.

(2011) have embraced the new geomatics technology as well, using terres-

trial laser scanning coupled with high-resolution digital elevation models in

the investigation of sediment transport rates in a braided river system in

New Zealand. By way of contrast, Knight (2011) provides an example of

more traditional field mapping approach, linked to remote sensing interpre-

tation, to compile maps of a lowland glaciated landscape in north-central

Ireland.

The final two case studies illustrate the role geomorphological mapping

can have in anthropological investigations. Walstra et al. (2011) map the

late Holocene evolution and human impact in the Mesopotamian region

(southwest Iran) using remote sensing and a GIS. As a contrast, Guth

(2011) provides a case study from the D-Day landings in Normandy (June

1944) of the way geomorphological maps allow military commanders to

see the way the landscape will influence military operations.

The range of case studies presented is only illustrative of the potential

applications of geomorphological mapping. They do illustrate the move away

from traditional field mapping through increasing use of digital data capture

systems. However, what does emerge from the studies is that interpretation of

the data requires extensive and detailed understanding of geomorphological

processes and landforms; this is a knowledge and skills base that still requires

widespread fieldwork experience. It is also apparent that geomorphological

maps are complex tools and to be of value beyond the academic community

may often require careful explanation and presentation. The critical impor-

tance of communicating geomorphological data effectively remains a

challenge that new multimedia tools are helping us to address.

REFERENCESCosta, J.E., Graf, W.I., 1984. The geography of geomorphologists in the United States.

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Mapping. International Geographical Union, Stuttgart.Doornkamp, J.C., Brunsden, D., Jones, D.K.C., Cooke, R.U., 1980. Geology,

Geomorphology and Pedology of Bahrain. GeoBooks, Norwich.Doornkamp, J.C., Griffiths, J.S., Lee, E.M., Tragheim, D., Charman, J.H., 1988.

Applied Earth Science Mapping of the Torbay Region. 2 vols.+11 maps. Open FileResearch Report for the Department of the Environment and Torbay BoroughCouncil.

9Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping

Dramis, F., Guida, D., Cestari, A., in press. Nature and aims of geomorphological map-ping. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: AHandbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Dunlop, P., Sacchetti, F., Benetti, S., O Cofaigh, C., in press. Mapping Ireland’s glaciatedcontinental margin using marine geophysical data. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P.,Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook of Techniques andApplications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

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Gustavsson, M., Kolstrup, E., Seijmonsbergen, A.C., 2006. A new symbol-and-GIS baseddetailed geomorphological mapping system: renewal of a scientific discipline forunderstanding landscape development. Geomorphology 77, 90�111.

Guth, P.L., in press. Military applied geomorphological mapping: Normandy case study.In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: AHandbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Hearn, G., Hart, A., in press. Goemorphological contributions to landslide risk assess-ment: theory and practice. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.),Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier,Amsterdam.

Hillier, J.K., in press. Submarine geomorphology: quantitative methods illustrated withthe Hawaiian volcanoes. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.),Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier,Amsterdam.

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Knight, J., Mitchell, W., Rose, J., in press. Geomorphological field mapping. In: Smith,M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook ofTechniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

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Parry, S., in press. The application of geomorphological mapping in the assessment oflandslide hazard in Hong Kong. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.),Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier,Amsterdam.

Rutzinger, M., Hofle, B., Vetter, M., Pfeifer, N., in press. Digital terrain models from air-borne laser scanning for the automatic extraction of natural and anthropogenic linearstructures. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping:A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Seijmonsbergen, A.C., Hengl, T., Anders, N.S., in press. Semi-automated identificationand extraction of geomorphological features using digital elevation data. In: Smith,M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook ofTechniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

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Theler, D., Reynard, E., in press. A geomorphological map as a tool for assessing sedi-ment transfer processes in small catchments prone to debris-flows occurrence: a casestudy in the Bruchi torrent (Swiss Alps). In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.),Geomorphological Mapping: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier,Amsterdam.

Verstappen, H.T., in press. Old and new trends in geomorphological and landform map-ping. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: AHandbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Walstra, J., Heyvaert, V.M.A., Verkinderen, P., in press. Mapping late Holocene landscapeevolution and human impact � a case-study from Lower Khuzestan (SW Iran).In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: AHandbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Whitworth, M., Anderson, I., Hunter, G., in press. Geomorphological assessment ofcomplex landslide systems using field reconnaissance and terrestrial laser scanning.In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), Geomorphological Mapping: AHandbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Williams, R., Brasington, J., Vericat, D., Hicks, M., Labrosse, F., Neal, M., in press.Monitoring braided river change using terrestrial laser scanning and optical bathymet-ric mapping. In: Smith, M.J., Paron, P., Griffiths, J. (Eds.), GeomorphologicalMapping: A Handbook of Techniques and Applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

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11Introduction to Applied Geomorphological Mapping